Soil Science Issues

New Insights on using Fallout Radionuclides to

Estimate Soil Redistribution Rates
The fallout radionuclides such as 137Cs have been widely accepted and used
in the past 40 yr to provide quantitative soil redistribution estimates at a
point scale. Recently their usefulness has been questioned by a few researchers challenging the validity of the key assumption that the spatial distribution
of fallout radionuclides in soil is initially uniform. The objective of this work
is to reconcile the opposing views by examining the assumption and by
developing a new concept for correctly interpreting soil redistribution rates
estimated with the tracing technique. This review shows that the spatial uniformity assumption is invalid due to 137Cs redistribution caused by spatial
variations in rainfall interception, vegetation type and cover, surface residue
cover, water infiltration rates, and micro-topography. Thus, the commonly
used method of comparing a point 137Cs inventory with the reference mean
inventory for estimating soil redistribution rate for that point is flawed. Soil
redistribution rate estimated for a sampling point is not the true erosion rate
because random spatial variation of the radionuclide inventory at the point
is erroneously attributed to an effect of soil redistribution. Fortunately, such
spatial variations at points are typically random in nature, and therefore can
be resolved statistically by increasing independent sample number and by
interpreting soil redistribution rate in terms of mean value for a uniform area
or slope position, as the random spatial errors of the radionuclide inventories
tend to be averaged out.

X.C. John Zhang*

USDA-ARS
Grazinglands Research Lab.
7207 W. Cheyenne St.
El Reno, OK73036

Abbreviations: CV, coefficient of variation.

oil erosion and sedimentation are a worldwide problem, and cause serious
land degradation both on- and off-site. Quantitative erosion estimates are
needed for optimal conservation planning. A promising technique using the
fallout radionuclides 137Cs, 210Pb, and 7B as sediment tracers to retroactively estimate soil erosion and deposition rates on landscape surfaces has drawn much attention over the past 40 yr. Cesium-137 is an anthropogenic radioisotope released
from atmospheric atomic bomb tests primarily during 1950s and 1960s. Lead-210
is a naturally occurring geogenic radionuclide derived from the decay of gaseous
222Rn, a daughter in the 238U decay series. Boron-7 is a naturally occurring cosmogenic radioisotope produced by spallation of O and N atoms in the upper atmosphere. The three radionuclides are deposited to earth surfaces mainly in the form
of precipitation. To date the three tracers have been accepted and used by the erosion research community to estimate point soil redistribution rates (Zapata, 2010;
Mabit et al., 2009, 2013). The retrospective estimation of long-term mean soil redistribution for individual points on a landscape is deemed a core advantage of the
tracing technique (e.g., Brown et al., 1981; Martz and de Jong, 1991; Walling and
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 79:18
doi:10.2136/sssaj2014.06.0261
Received 24 June 2014.
*Corresponding author (John.Zhang@ars.usda.gov).
Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison WI 53711 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for
reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.

Soil Science Society of America Journal

Quine, 1992; Walling et al., 1995; Bernard et al., 1998; Walling

and He, 1999; Zapata, 2010).
Among the three radionuclides, 137Cs is the most widely accepted and used. For example, Matisoff and Whiting (2011) reviewed the 137Cs literature and reported that nearly 4500 papers
were published in 137Cs-related studies. A quick online search
showed that about 120 137Cs papers were published in 2012 and
2013. Such a large body of 137Cs-related publications is testament to the widespread acceptance and popularity of using the
137Cs technique for estimating soil redistribution by the erosion
research community.
However, different opinions exist regarding the usefulness of
the fallout radionuclides in providing quantitative soil redistribution rates. Parsons and Foster (2011, 2013) examined the key assumptions of the tracing technique and concluded that no current
rates of soil erosion that are based on the use of this technique are
reliable, and that 137Cs cannot be used to provide reliable information about rates of soil erosion. Porto and Walling (2012) pointed
out that some researchers have demonstrated a reluctance to both
employ the approach and make use of the data generated. To substantiate their claims, these authors mentioned that Boardman
and Poesen (2006) in their review of soil erosion in Europe made
no reference to the technique and appeared to have explicitly excluded any data obtained using the technique. The opposing views
toward the technique largely stem from potential assumption violations, large differences in soil redistribution estimates among various conversion models, and considerable uncertainty associated
with spatial variability of the fallout radionuclides.

Validity of Assumptions
The central assumption of the tracing technique is that the
fallout radionuclide distribution is initially uniform in space. The
reliability and merit of the technique directly rest on the validity of
this key assumption. The spatial uniform assumption leads to the
fundamental premise that soil redistribution at any sampling point
can be directly estimated by comparing the radionuclide inventory
at the point with the mean reference inventory representing the
local fallout input as estimated in a nearby reference site experiencing neither erosion nor deposition. Specifically, a sample inventory
that is less than the mean reference inventory is indicative of soil
erosion, whereas an inventory greater than the reference mean reflects sediment deposition. If the uniformity assumption is invalid,
then this direct comparison approach is flawed.
Walling and Quine (1992) outlined the three basic assumptions for the tracing technique: (i) the local fallout 137Cs is spatially uniform, (ii) fallout 137Cs is rapidly and near-irreversibly adsorbed to soil constituents, and (iii) the subsequent redistribution
of fallout 137Cs is due to the movement of soil particles. The first
assumption is generally valid at a local scale, and is confirmed later
based on the spatial uniformity of average precipitation at small
scales. The second assumption is approximately valid. The 137Cs,
as a monovalent cation, is readily adsorbed to soil organic matter
and clay particles. There are usually three types of bonding sites
in clay for Cs+ adsorption, namely, (i) planar surfaces, (ii) edge
2

surfaces, and (iii) interlayer sites. The planar and edge sites are
negatively charged and are electrostatically attracted to Cs+ cation. This adsorption process is through ion exchange and normally
takes place in an order of minutes. Dalgleish and Foster (1996)
reported that only 2.03% of the 137Cs applied in simulated rainfall was lost in runoff solution, and the rest was adsorbed by soil
or sediment, indicating the 137Cs adsorption was rapid. However,
this type of adsorption may be reversed or desorbed from exchange
sites by more powerful competing ions such as divalent cations and
become available for plant uptake. The interlayer fixation of 137Cs,
which, being selective, physically traps Cs+ in the inner spaces
(mainly released only by weathering), is a slow process, and may
occur in the order of years. Livens et al. (1996) characterized the
rates and forms of release of 137Cs in two peat soils and reported
that on average, 63% of 137Cs was fixed in the interlayer sites and
37% adsorbed on the exchange sites. Overall, the general consensus is that the mobility of 137Cs in soils is relatively low in most
cases, as evidenced by the highest concentration occurring at or
near the surfaces in undisturbed soils after nearly five decades of
leaching by rainwater. Nevertheless, Cs+ can be somewhat mobile
in certain conditions. Fortunately, the high mobility that leads to
plant uptake and downward movement can be corrected or taken
into account in the conversion models if additional information
is available. The third assumption is most likely invalid because
redistribution of free 137Cs ions during rainfall often occurs.
When raindrops hit vegetation or residue surfaces instead of soil
surfaces, they are intercepted and redistributed. The redistribution
is generally influenced by vegetation type and cover (e.g., leaf drip
and stem flow vary with vegetation types such as trees and crops),
residue and little cover, infiltration rates, and micro-topography.
Luckily, these factors can be treated as random processes and resolved statistically by using sound statistical sampling design and
increasing sample number.
Parsons and Foster (2011) examined the key spatially uniform assumption, and pointed out that for the assumption to
hold three requirements must be met: 1. Atmospheric deposition
with precipitation is spatially uniform, 2. Transfer to soil is spatially homogenous, and 3. No redistribution of free 137Cs occurs
during the transfer processes. The first requirement is largely met
at local scales, as the long-term cumulative rainfall tends to be
relatively uniform at small scales (see next paragraph for proof ).
Since the 137Cs fallout occurred over more than 20 yr and 210Pb
fallout is continuous, it is safe to assume that cumulative inputs
of the two radionuclides from atmosphere with precipitation are
spatially homogenous at local scales (Walling and Quine, 1992).
Conversely, the second and third requirements are often violated
due to spatial differences in rainfall interception by vegetation,
vegetation type and cover, residue and litter cover, soil properties,
water infiltration rates, surface random roughness, and micro-topography. Unlike precipitation, the effects of these factors cannot
be homogenized over a long period of time, especially in undisturbed lands. This conclusion is supported by the presence of substantial spatial variations in the 137Cs inventories on the reference
sites that experienced neither erosion nor deposition (Lance et al.,
Soil Science Society of America Journal

1986; Sutherland, 1991, 1994, 1996, 1998; Wallbrink et al., 1994;

Owens and Walling, 1996), demonstrating the violations of the
second and third requirements. Again, the effects of these factors
are largely random in nature, and thus can be resolved statistically.
Because 137Cs fallout is largely deposited with precipitation, spatial uniformity of precipitation is essential for the validity of the technique. The lack of precipitation uniformity would
render the technique useless, because the non-uniform precipitation cannot be remedied by any experimental design and statistical treatment. In general, long-term precipitation amounts often
vary spatially at a large or regional scale, but tend to be uniform
at a small or local scale. Table 1 presents the long-term precipitation statistics from the six USDA-ARS research watersheds that
have dense networks of rain gauges. The daily precipitation data
were downloaded from the STEWARDS database (Steiner et al.,
2008). The data showed that the non-uniformity tended to increase with the watershed drainage areas. The long-term precipitation amounts were fairly uniform in the four smaller watersheds
(El Reno, Riesel, N. Walnut, and Goodwater). The coefficients of
variation (CV) were <3.6%, mean absolute relative errors were
<2.9%, and maximum relative deviations (calculated by dividing
the difference between the maximum and minimum station observations by the overall annual mean precipitation) were <4.4%
except the North Walnut Creek watershed. Comparatively, the
spatial variations in the two larger watersheds of the Walnut
Gulch and Litter Washita River were slightly larger, but the mean
absolute relative errors were still <4.4%. The largest maximum
relative deviation in the Walnut Gulch watershed was partially
due to the elevation difference, precipitation gradient, and missing data (gauges in some stations were malfunctioned or turned
off in the winter season). The large maximum relative deviation
in the Litter Washita River was caused by a strong NorthwestSoutheast precipitation gradient (15-mm change per 10 km). It
should be noted that the spatial variability in Table 1 included
the uncertainty and errors of gauge measurement. Some research
has shown that the U.S. 20-cm standard rain gauge is subject to
as much as 10% error as caused largely by wind for measuring annual precipitation (Legates and DeLiberty, 1993). Considering
the sizable gauge measurement errors, the spatial uniformity
assumption of mean annual precipitation as indicated in Table
1 is acceptable at a small or local scale except for mountainous
regions or areas where strong precipitation gradients exist. This
conclusion contrasts with that of Parsons and Foster (2011) but

substantiates the assertion of Walling and Quine (1992) who

stated that the 25-yr accumulation of 137Cs input would smooth
the spatial variability in 137Cs fallout. However, a spatially uniform 137Cs input does not translate to a uniform distribution of
137Cs inventory in soils. As discussed earlier, 137Cs transfer to
soil is spatially inhomogeneous, and redistribution often occurs
during the transfer process.

Conversion Models

The use of fallout radionuclide 137Cs from atomic bomb

tests for tracing soil redistribution began in 1970s. Numerous
137Cs conversion models have been proposed under various assumptions of the fate and behavior of 137Cs in soils and over
landscapes, as well as for different profile distributions of 137Cs
in soils as affected by land uses, tillage operations, and other management practices. Two groups of 137Cs conversion models have
been proposed based on the distinct characteristics of the 137Cs
vertical distributions in the soil profiles: one for cultivated soils
and another for undisturbed soils. The 137Cs conversion models
in each group can be generally divided into two categories: empirical and theoretical models.
Ritchie et al. (1974) developed a regression-type power
function between percentage loss of the fallout 137Cs and soil
loss rates measured from or estimated for erosion plots. This
empirical logarithmic relationship along with its derivatives has
serious limitations, and is only valid for the specific time and
conditions under which the data were collected (Walling and
Quine, 1990; Walling and He, 1999). To overcome those limitations, the first generation of theoretical models was developed in
1980s. The simplest theoretical model is the proportional method and its variants developed and used by de Jong et al. (1983),
Martz and de Jong (1987), Kachanoski (1987), Fredericks and
Perrens (1988), and others. This method is for cultivated soil
and assumes that soil loss is directly proportional to the percent
loss of 137Cs based on the premise that 137Cs is instantly and
homogenously mixed with soil within the tillage layer. The simplicity is achieved by simplifying the processes of 137Cs behavior
in soils, such as ignoring tillage dilution and erosion loss of fresh
137Cs fallout and failing to take account of 137Cs mass balance
at a yearly scale. Kachanoski and de Jong (1984) for the first time
developed a detailed mass balance model to track 137Cs inventory changes in soil, fallout deposition, and loss by erosion and
decay at a yearly time step. Fredericks and Perrens (1988) applied

Table 1. Spatial variability of mean annual precipitation at selected watersheds in USA.

Watershed location

Watershed
Area

No. of
gauge

Record

Mean annual
precipitation

Coefficient of Mean absolute Relative maximum

variation
relative error
deviation

km2
mm
%
%
%
El Reno, OK
0.2
4
19772012
822
0.80
0.56
1.92
Riesel, TX
3.4
11
19612001
922
1.16
0.97
3.25
N. Walnut Creek, IA
51.3
15
19942010
798
3.64
2.89
12.14
Goodwater Creek, MO
72
7
19762006
952
1.47
1.14
4.43
Walnut Gulch, AZ
150
38
19551999
286
5.79
4.35
26.50
Little Washita, OK
611
34
19611985
767
3.65
3.10
13.73
Calculated as the difference between the maximum and minimum station observations divided by the mean annual precipitation.
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj

this detailed mass balance model at a seasonal scale and further

assumed that the newly deposited fallout would be retained
near the soil surface until incorporated by tillage. Zhang et al.
(1990) proposed a simplified mass balance model that accounts
for tillage dilution and assumes that the total 137Cs fallout input
occurred in 1963. Based on the improved understanding of the
interaction between 137Cs and soil particles (He and Walling,
1996), the fate of freshly deposited fallout (Dalgleish and Foster,
1996), the behavior of fallout accumulated in soils under different land use (Owens et al., 1996; He and Walling, 1997), tillage
erosion (Quine et al., 1997), and particle-size selectivity of soil
detachment and sediment deposition (He and Walling, 1996),
Walling and He (1999) standardized, refined, and extended mass
balance models to incorporate these improved understandings
into several mass balance models. The improved models along
with an Excel add-in program have been widely used to estimate
soil redistribution since their release.

Spatial Variability

Like an elephant in the room, spatial variability of 137Cs inventory on the reference sites is often ignored in most soil redistribution studies. Sutherland (1996) surveyed the literature and
reported that only 11% of the reference sites sampled for 137Cs
expressly stated that a probability-based sampling design that allows proper estimation of spatial variability was used. Based on the
available data of 40 reference sites, he found that the median CV
on the reference sites was 19.3%, with the 95% confidence limits
between 13.0 and 23.4%. This result suggests that approximately
11 samples are needed to quantify the reference inventory with an
allowable error of 10% at the 90% confidence; however, two thirds
of the studies reviewed used insufficient number of samples to determine the reference inventory. In the absence of soil erosion on
a reference site, Owens and Walling (1996) decomposed the total
variability into four components: (i) Random spatial variability
due to small scale variations in soil, vegetation, and micro-topography; (ii) Systematic spatial variability due to large scale variations
in precipitation and more systematic changes in vegetation and soil
type; (iii) Sampling variability; and (iv) 137Cs measurement error.
They concluded that the random spatial variability predominated
over the other three sources. The systematic spatial variability can
often be ignored at a field or small watershed scale due to relative
uniformity in precipitation and vegetation, and the sampling error and measurement error are generally <10% each (Sutherland,
1991; Owens and Walling, 1996). The sampling and measuring
errors are random and are inherently included in the measured
137Cs inventories. Lettner et al. (1999) analyzed the sources of
variability and reported a total CV of 21.5%, of which 17.7% CV
was the intrinsic spatial variability, accounting for about 82% of
the total variation. Using 137Cs as an example with focus solely
on the random spatial variability as well as the sampling and measuring errors, the 137Cs inventory of Sample i on a reference site
( Airef ) can be expressed as:
ref
ref
A=
Amref + Aran
i

[1]

ref
where Amref is the mean reference inventory, and Aran
is the random error representing intrinsic spatial variation and sampling
and measuring errors with an expectation of zero.
On top of the total variability in Eq. [1] on the reference site,
there are additional sources of variability in the 137Cs inventory
on a cultivated site where soil disturbance and soil erosion occurs.
The sources of spatial variability on the cultivated or measuring site
are virtually ignored and have never been considered in estimating soil redistribution rates in the literature. Sutherland (1994)
reported that the average CV of 137Cs inventories of six transects
running along contour lines in a undisturbed slope plot was about
17.6%, whereas that of 11 transects across a slope in a gently sloped
cultivated plot was 27.2%, showing 55% increase in the cultivated
slope. He attributed the additional variability to a combination
of localized water erosion and soil depth (roughness) change created by tillage. Lance et al. (1986) reported that the average CV
of 137Cs inventories of nine transects running along contour lines
in a undisturbed slope plot was about 17.5%, whereas that of 17
transects across a slope in an adjacent cultivated plot was 32.9%,
showing tillage disturbance and localized soil erosion could considerably increase total variance. Mathematically 137Cs inventory
sam
at Sampling Point j ( A j ) can be estimated by superposing the
two additional variability sources to those of the reference site:
ref

sam

sam

sam

[2]

A j =Ai + Aran + Asys

sam

where Aran is the random error that results from soil depth
change such as uneven tillage displacement and partially represents the effects of surface random and directional roughness
including tillage furrows and ridges on 137Cs inventories at parsam
ticular sampling points, and Asys is a systematic component
representing a mean inventory loss by localized soil erosion in
an eroding area or a mean inventory gain by sedimentation in
a depositional area over several decades. Equation [2] assumes
ref
the sampling and measuring errors, which are included in Ai
, are the same for both reference and redistribution sites, and
sam
thus are not included in the random component of Aran . The
sam
expectation of Aran is expected to vanish based on the law of
mass conservation, for example, the 137Cs surplus in a ridge must
equal the deficit in the corresponding furrow. The expectation of
the systematic component is the true quantity reflective of and
resulting from soil erosion or sedimentation. Combining Eq. [1]
and [2], we get:
sam

ref

ref

sam

sam

A j Am = Aran + Aran + Asys

[3]

Equation [3] clearly demonstrates that the true soil loss or sedimentation rates or even the relative magnitudes cannot be estimated by directly comparing the 137Cs inventory at a sampling
point with the mean reference inventory (left side of the equation) as is widely used in literature, simply because the two ranref
sam
dom components of Aran and Aran contribute to the difference
and are not a result of the actual erosion or sedimentation. This
inference is in accord with the comment made by Basher et al.
Soil Science Society of America Journal

(1995), who noted that the initial random variability in 137Cs

distribution limited the value of comparison of individual sampling points with the reference inventory. This point has seldom
been taken into consideration in the 137Cs-related erosion research community (Parsons and Foster, 2011). Wallbrink et al.
(1994) reported that the variability of 137Cs inventory on the
reference site could account for the observed differences of 137Cs
on the sampling site, and thus they could not conclude that the
137Cs redistribution reflected only soil redistribution. After calculating expectations of Eq. [3], we have:
sam

ref

sam

E( A j ) Am =
E( Asys )

[4]

where E stands for expectation. Equation [4] shows that the true
long-term mean changes in 137Cs inventory caused by erosion
or sedimentation can be quantitatively estimated by comparing
the mean inventory of a sampling area and the mean reference
inventory. The true inventory change can then be translated to
true mean soil redistribution rate using conversion models for a
representative area or a slope position. Clearly, the technique can
only be used to estimate soil redistribution rates for a representative area or landform unit but not for individual points.
To overcome the limitation of spatial variability, a repeated
sampling approach was used by a few researchers (de Jong and
Kachanoski, 1988; Lobb and Kachanoski, 1999; Tiessen et al.,
2009; Li et al., 2011). In the second sampling two subsamples
were taken 20 cm away from the original point on each side and
composited to represent the point. The first measurement at the
point serves as the reference level for the second measurement for
the same point to minimize spatial variation, and the changes in
137Cs inventory was used to estimate soil redistribution rates for
the point. As a result, the spatiotemporal variability in 137Cs inventory is fully represented, and thus, in theory, this approach should
be more reliable than the traditional approach that compares reference mean with a point inventory (i.e., Eq. [3]). However, Li et al.
(2011) reported much greater random errors for point estimates
of soil redistribution rates using the repeated measure approach
than the traditional approach because random spatial variations
of 137Cs inventories existed between the two samplings at each
sampling point. For meaningful interpretation, these authors suggested that It is beneficial, or sometimes, necessary to group the
sampling points into relatively uniform units to calculate mean
soil redistribution rates for each unit. Such suggestion strongly
supports the finding of this review that the 137Cs technique cannot be used to produce true estimates of soil redistribution rates at
particular points due to contributions of the random spatial variability as well as the sampling and measuring errors to the 137Cs
inventory, as demonstrated in Eq. [1]-[4].

Statistical Treatment of
Spatial Variability

Most 137Cs studies conveniently overlooked the spatial

variability and estimated soil redistribution by directly comparing the 137Cs inventories at measuring points with the reference
mean based on the spatial uniformity assumption. However, sevwww.soils.org/publications/sssaj

eral researchers have characterized the spatial variability on reference sites (Sutherland, 1991; Wallbrink et al., 1994; Sutherland,
1996; Owens and Walling, 1996), and suggested taking the spatial variability of the reference inventory into account when estimating soil redistribution rates for each sampling point. Usually
the 95% confidence interval (CI) for the mean constructed with
the standard error of the mean reference inventory was used to
statistically classify the sampling point as an erosion or deposition point (Wallbrink et al., 1994; Owens and Walling, 1996;
Bernard et al., 1998; Sutherland, 1998; Loughran et al., 2002;
Porto et al., 2009; Martinez et al., 2009). A location is characterized as an erosion (or deposition) point only if the 137Cs inventory at the point is less than (or great than) the confidence
limits. The location is considered neither erosion nor deposition
if 137Cs at the point is within the limits. This statistical treatment
of 137Cs variability of the reference site is a major improvement
over the direct comparison of 137Cs inventories between a sampling point and the reference mean. Unfortunately, such statistical good practice has seldom, if ever, been adhered to as stated
by Parsons and Foster (2011). Nevertheless, this good practice
has serious limitations or is even conceptually flawed. First, it automatically assumes that spatial variability on both reference and
measuring sites are equal and simply apply variance on the reference site to the measuring site. This is not true in most cases as
variability on a measuring site tends to be greater due to localized
erosion or tillage disturbance as demonstrated by Sutherland
(1994) and Lance et al. (1986). Second, the 95% CI for the mean
as constructed with standard error can only be directly applied to
the sample mean rather than an individual sample observation.
For individual observations, the 95% tolerance interval constructed with standard deviation (=standard error times square
root of sample size n) should be used instead (Kirchner, 2013).
The 95% tolerance interval for 137Cs inventories of individual
samples is much wider than the 95% confidence interval for the
mean inventory of replicated samples, and therefore have greater
threshold values for claiming as a site of erosion or deposition.
Third, even though the 95% tolerance interval is correctly used
in the statistical test, it can only classify the sampling point as an
erosion or deposition site with a 95% probability in a qualitative sense. That is, it can provide a correct yes or no answer to
the question whether erosion or deposition has occurred at the
point. The test result must be viewed as qualitative, simply because the seemingly statistically sound soil redistribution rate estimated with 137Cs inventories in Eq. [2] includes the contribution of one random error that is not a result of soil redistribution.
As indicated in Eq. [4], the true soil redistribution rate can only
be quantitatively estimated using the mean inventory for a representative area or landform unit, provided that approximation
errors from other assumptions and 137Cs conversion models are
acceptable. For quantitative estimation of soil redistribution, sufficient independent samples are necessitated for a uniform landform unit or slope position to obtain reliable estimates of mean
and variance of 137Cs inventories. The statistical test methods
proposed by Kirchner (2013) for replicated samples from both
5

reference and measuring sites can be used to test for significant

difference in 137Cs inventories. If significant, the 137Cs inventory can then be used to estimate mean erosion or deposition rates
with conversion models at the given confidence level. Otherwise
neither erosion nor deposition classification can be ascribed to
the landform unit or slope position.

Not Point but Areal Mean

Soil Redistribution

In the presence of large spatial variations on both reference

and measuring sites, the 137Cs technique is not suitable to estimate soil redistribution rates at individual sampling points as
is commonly used in the traditional tracing technique. Soil redistribution estimates using the 137Cs technique for individual
sampling points are not true erosion rates, and may be termed
pseudo or fictitious estimates because the 137Cs inventory
changes caused by the random spatial variability are erroneously
treated as caused by soil redistribution. However, the random
contributions to the 137Cs inventory or the resultant pseudo estimates of soil redistribution may theoretically be cancelled out,
if averaged over a large number of independent samples or replicates to obtain the mean inventory or mean soil redistribution
rate for a uniform landform unit or slope position. Therefore,
the 137Cs technique is only suited to estimate areal mean of soil
redistribution for a landform element, which presumably undergoes relatively uniform erosion or deposition and reflects spatial
patterns of soil redistribution at a low resolution. Landform elements based on slope steepness and curvature are useful divisions
for describing soil erosion and sediment deposition processes.
Based on the profile (downslope) curvature, landform elements
can be divided into convex shoulders, concave footslopes, linear
back slopes, and gently sloping summits and toeslopes (Pennock
et al., 1987). The shoulders, back slopes, and footslopes can be
subdivided on the basis of plan (cross slope) curvature into convergent, planar, and divergent elements. For 137Cs study, the
level of landform classification depends on extent of the study
area and objectives of the study (i.e., the degree of accuracy and
resolution required of soil erosion estimation). For more accurate estimation, for example, the back slopes can be further divided into upper, middle, and lower segments, or even into slope
positions. For each slope position samples can be taken along the
contour line to represent that slope position, to quantify the detailed effect of slope length and steepness on soil erosion. With
replicated samples, the differences of mean inventories between
landform units or slope positions can be statistically tested using
the methods suggested by Kirchner (2013). Similarly, the differences of mean 137Cs inventories between the reference site and
measuring site can be tested statistically, and the significant ones
can be used to calculate mean soil redistribution rates with conversion models. Li et al. (2011) found out that it was difficult
to interpret the 137Cs-estimated soil erosion rates at individual
points due to random errors and spatial variations, and indicated
that it was useful to group the sampling points using landform

units for more meaningful interpretation of soil erosion based

on averaged rates.
To obtain a reliable mean estimate of soil redistribution
for a landform unit, a robust statistical sampling design and sufficient number of independent samples are crucial due to large
spatial variation. The non-probability-based haphazard sampling
should be avoided, and the grid- and transect-based systematic
samplings are preferred. The latter allow more meaningful geostatistical analysis, better spatial interpolation, and therefore
more accurate estimates of areal mean soil redistribution rates by
making the best use of the information at the observation points
without exhaustive sampling. Grid size may vary with landform
units. Typically grid spacings of 10 to 25 m are used in literature. However, closer grid spacings need to be studied to improve
sampling design and to determine minimum distance for taking
independent samples. Sample number depends on the degree
of spatial variability as well as the sampling area (sampler size).
Steel cylinder corers with inner diameters of 5 to10 cm are commonly used for sampling. In general, the larger the cross-section
area of a sampler (corer), the smaller the variance of the measured
137Cs inventories. In other words, a larger number of independent samples is often required if a smaller sampling area is used
to estimate mean 137Cs inventory at a given level of confidence.
However, there are no systematic studies available in literature,
which quantify the sampling area-variance relationship as well
as the minimum separation distance for obtaining independent
samples or replicates (Pennock and Appleby, 2002). It is advisable to conduct a pilot study if feasible to obtain the needed information before a large scale sampling campaign, so that number of replicates or independent samples as well as grid size can
be determined with designed degree of certainty.
As a general guideline, a 20% CV was reported as typical on
undisturbed reference sites (e.g., Sutherland, 1996; Bernard et al.,
1998; Basher, 2000; Fornes et al., 2005), indicating that about 15
random, independent samples would be needed to estimate 137Cs
reference inventory with an allowable error of 10% at 95% confidence (note some 35 samples would be needed for a 30% CV).
Generally, spatial variation of 137Cs inventory in measuring areas is
greater than that on a reference site (Sutherland, 1994; Lance et al.,
1986), and therefore more samples are normally needed for measuring areas. To obtain spatially independent (replicated) samples,
the spacing between samples must be greater than the semivariogram range or the auto-correlation length, which is suggested to
be at least 10 m by Pennock and Appleby (2002). More studies are
needed for characterizing semivariograms at small scales (<10 m)
for better sampling design. It should be mentioned that compositing several subsamples or cores taken in close vicinity (normally
< 1 m) of a point was used in literature to better represent the
137Cs inventory at that point (e.g., Sutherland, 1994; Owens and
Walling, 1996; Ritchie et al., 2009; Porto et al., 2009). Those subsamples were not spatially independent generally, and are parts of
a sample of the same point and thus should be combined (Pennock
and Appleby, 2002). Compositing subsamples would help reduce
the total number of independent samples needed for estimating
Soil Science Society of America Journal

the mean 137Cs inventory, because partial spatial variability is included in the subsamples. But the true 137Cs inventory for a representative area can only be estimated with a sufficient number of independent samples. With the true 137Cs inventory, the true mean
soil redistribution rate for the area can then be calculated using
conversion models at any given level of confidence. Given the nonlinear nature of the conversion models, the use of the true 137Cs
inventory in the models are highly recommended. However, there
is no information about the effects of sampling area on sample
number in literature, including the cases of composited samples.
This information is badly needed for better sampling design and
more accurate erosion estimation with the traditional measuring
techniques. In addition, the use of a new technology of in situ g
detectors would substantially advance the 137Cs methods for erosion estimation if acceptable measurement accuracy is achieved.
The relatively large view field (scan area) should reduce the sample
variability. Moreover, the ability of the detector to map 137Cs at a
high spatial resolution would improve the reliability and accuracy
of areal mean soil redistribution rates.
Nevertheless, in light of the inability of the 137Cs technique
in measuring point soil redistribution rates, it is also desirable to
combine independent samples for each landform unit or slope position to rapidly estimate the overall mean of the soil redistribution
rates for each unit with minimal 137Cs measurement cost. Schuller
et al. (2003) reported that the mean soil redistribution rates estimated by bulking the independent samples taken along contour
lines agreed well with those from grid sampling in different slope
positions. The shortcoming of bulking independent samples is the
loss of opportunities for testing statistical differences of 137Cs inventories and for using geostatistical tools such as Kriging to improve areal mean estimation of soil erosion for each unit.

CONCLUSIONS

The key assumption for using the 137Cs conversion models

is examined. The basic assumption for the technique is that the
spatial distribution of fallout 137Cs in soil is initially uniform.
This assumption requires that (i) atmospheric deposition with
precipitation is spatially uniform, (ii) transfer to soil is rapid and
spatially homogenous, and (iii) no redistribution of free 137Cs
occurs during the transfer processes. Long-term precipitation
data measured with dense networks of rain gauges in several
ARS research watersheds show that mean annual precipitation is
fairly uniform at a small or local scale. However, (ii) and (iii) are
often violated due to spatial variations in rainfall interception,
vegetation type and cover, surface residue cover, soil properties,
water infiltration rates, surface random roughness, and microtopography. Fortunately, these variations are typically random in
nature and thus can be resolved statistically by increasing number
of independent samples and by interpreting soil redistribution
rates in terms of mean value for a uniform area or landform unit.
It should be pointed out that although 137Cs is used largely as
an example here, the conclusions are applicable to all fallout radionuclide tracers for use in estimating soil redistribution rates.

www.soils.org/publications/sssaj

References

Basher, L.R. 2000. Surface erosion assessment using 137Cs: Examples from New
Zealand. Acta Geologica Hispanica 35:219228.
Basher, L.R., K.M. Matthews, and L. Zhi. 1995. Surface erosion assessment in the
South Canterbury downlands, New Zealand using Cs-137 distribution.
Aust. J. Soil Res. 33:787803. doi:10.1071/SR9950787
Bernard, C., L. Mabit, S. Wicherek, and M.R. Laverdiere. 1998. Long-term
soil redistribution in a small French watershed as estimated from
Cesium-137 data. J. Environ. Qual. 27:11781183. doi:10.2134/
jeq1998.00472425002700050024x
Boardman, J., and J. Poesen. 2006. Soil erosion in Europe. Wiley, Chichester.
Brown, R.B., G.F. Kling, and N.H. Cutshall. 1981. Agricultural erosion indicated
by 137Cs redistribution: II. Estimates of erosion rates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
45:11911197. doi:10.2136/sssaj1981.03615995004500060036x
Dalgleish, H.Y., and I.D.L. Foster. 1996. 137Cs losses from a loamy surface water
gleyed soil (Inceptisol): A laboratory simulation experiment. Catena
26:227245. doi:10.1016/0341-8162(96)00002-1
de Jong, E., C.B.M. Begg, and R.G. Kachanoski. 1983. Estimates of soil erosion
and deposition from some Saskatchewan soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 63:607
617. doi:10.4141/cjss83-061
de Jong, E., and R.G. Kachanoski. 1988. The importance of erosion in the carbon
balance of prairie soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 68:111119. doi:10.4141/cjss88-010
Fredericks, D.J., and S.J. Perrens. 1988. Estimating erosion using caesium-137: II.
Estimating rates of soil loss. Int. Assoc. of Hydrological Sci. Publ. No. 174.
Sediment budgets. Proc. of the Porto Alegre Symposium. Int. Assoc. of
Hydrological Sci., United Kingdom. p. 233-240. Available online: http://
iahs.info/uploads/dms/iahs_174_0233.pdf. (Verified 20 Oct. 2014).
Fornes, W.L., P.J. Whiting, C.G. Wilson, and G. Matisoff. 2005. Caesium-137
derived erosion rates in an agricultural setting: The effects of model
assumptions and management practices. Earth Surf. Process. Landf.
30:11811189. doi:10.1002/esp.1269
He, Q., and D.E. Walling. 1996. Interpreting particle size effects in the absorption
of 137Cs and unsupported 210Pb by mineral soils and sediments. J. Environ.
Radioact. 30:117137. doi:10.1016/0265-931X(96)89275-7
He, Q., and D.E. Walling. 1997. The distribution of fallout 137Cs and 210Pb
in undisturbed and cultivated soils. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 48:677690.
doi:10.1016/S0969-8043(96)00302-8
Kachanoski, R.G. 1987. Comparison of measured soil 137-cesium losses and
erosion rates. Can. J. Soil Sci. 67:199203. doi:10.4141/cjss87-017
Kachanoski, R.G., and E. de Jong. 1984. Predicting the temporal relationship
between cesium-137 and erosion rate. J. Environ. Qual. 13:301304.
doi:10.2134/jeq1984.00472425001300020025x
Kirchner, G. 2013. Establishing reference inventories of 137Cs for soil erosion
studies: Methodological aspects. Geoderma 211-212:107115.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.07.011
Lance, J.C., S.C. McIntyre, J.W. Naney, and S.S. Rousseva. 1986. Measuring
sediment movement at low erosion rates using cesium-137. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 50:13031309. doi:10.2136/sssaj1986.03615995005000050044x
Legates, D.R., and T.L. DeLiberty. 1993. Precipitation measurement
biases in the United State. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 29:855861.
doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1993.tb03245.x
Lettner, H., P. Bossew, and A.K. Hubmer. 1999. Spatial variability of fallout
Caesium-137 in Austrian alpine regions. J. Environ. Radioact. 47:7182.
doi:10.1016/S0265-931X(99)00023-5
Li, S., D.A. Lobb, R.G. Kachanoski, and B.G. McConkey. 2011. Comparing
the use of the traditional and repeated-sampling-approach of the
137Cs technique in soil erosion estimation. Geoderma 160:324335.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.09.029
Livens, F.R., M.T. Howe, J.D. Hemingway, K.W.T. Goulding, and B.J. Howard.
1996. Forms and rates of release of 137Cs in two peat soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci.
47:105112. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1996.tb01377.x
Lobb, D.A., and R.G. Kachanoski. 1999. Modelling tillage erosion in the
topographically complex landscapes of southwestern Ontario, Canada.
Soil Tillage Res. 51:261277. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(99)00042-2
Loughran, R.J., P.J. Wallbrink D.E. Walling, and P.J. Appleby. 2002. Sampling
methods. p. 4157. In: F. Zapata, editor. Handbook for

the assessment of soil erosion and sedimentation using

environmental radionuclides. Kluwer, Amsterdam.

Mabit, L., A. Klik, M. Benmansour, A. Toloza, A. Geisler, and U.C.

Gerstmann. 2009. Assessment of erosion and deposition rates within

an Austrian agricultural watershed by combining 137Cs, 210Pbex and

conventional measurements. Geoderma 150:231239. doi:10.1016/j.
geoderma.2009.01.024
Mabit, L., K. Meusburger, E. Fulajtar, and C. Alewell. 2013. The usefulness of
137Cs as a tracer for soil erosion assessment: A critical reply to Parsons
and Foster (2011). Earth Sci. Rev. 127:300307. doi:10.1016/j.
earscirev.2013.05.008
Martinez, C., G.R. Hancock, and J.D. Kalma. 2009. Comparison of fallout
radionuclide (caesium-137) and modeling approaches for the assessment
of soil erosion rates for an uncultivated site in south-eastern Australia.
Geoderma 151:128140. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.03.023
Martz, L.W., and E. de Jong. 1987. Using cesium-137 to assess the variability of
net soil erosion and its association with topography in a Canadian prairie
landscape. Catena 14:439451. doi:10.1016/0341-8162(87)90014-2
Martz, L.W., and E. de Jong. 1991. Using cesium-137 and landform classification
to develop a net soil erosion budget for a small Canadian prairie watershed.
Catena 18:289308. doi:10.1016/0341-8162(91)90027-U
Matisoff, G., and P.J. Whiting. 2011. Measuring soil erosion rates using natural
(7Be, 210Pb) and anthropogenic (137Cs, 239Pu, 240Pu). In: M. Baskaran,
editor, Handbook of environmental isotope geochemistry. Adv. in Isotope
Geochem. 1. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. p. 487-519
Owens, P.N., and D.E. Walling. 1996. Spatial variability of caesium-137
inventories at reference sites: An example from two contrasting
sites in England and Zimbabwe. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 47:699707.
doi:10.1016/0969-8043(96)00015-2
Owens, P.N., D.E. Walling, and Q. He. 1996. The behaviour of bomb-derived
caesium-137 fallout in catchment soils. J. Environ. Radioact. 32:169191.
doi:10.1016/0265-931X(96)84941-1
Parsons, A.J., and I.D.L. Foster. 2011. What can we learn about soil erosion
from the use of 137Cs? Earth Sci. Rev. 108:101113. doi:10.1016/j.
earscirev.2011.06.004
Parsons, A.J., and I.D.L. Foster. 2013. The assumptions of science: A reply
to Mabit et al. (2013). Earth Sci. Rev. 127:308310. doi:10.1016/j.
earscirev.2013.05.011
Pennock, D.J., and P.G. Appleby. 2002. Site selection and sampling design. p. 15
40, In: F., Zapata, editor, Handbook for the assessment of soil erosion and
sedimentation using environmental radionuclides. Kluwer, Amsterdam.
Pennock, D.J., B.J. Zebarth, and E. De Jong. 1987. Landform classification and
soil distribution in Hummocky terrain, Saskatchewan, Canada. Geoderma
40:297315. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(87)90040-1
Porto, P., and D.E. Walling. 2012. Using plot experiments to test the validity
of mass balance models employed to estimate soil redistribution rates
137Cs and 210Pb measurements. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 70:24512459.
ex
doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2012.06.012
Porto, P., D.E. Walling, G. Callegari, and A. Capra. 2009. Using Caesium-137 and
unsupported lead-210 measurements to explore the relationship between
sediment mobilization, sediment delivery and sediment yield for a Calabrian
Catchment. Mar. Freshw. Res. 60:680689. doi:10.1071/MF08050
Quine, T.A., G. Gover, D.E. Walling, X. Zhang, P.J.J. Desmet, Y. Zhang, and K.
Vandaele. 1997. Erosion processes and landform evolution on agricultural
land-a new perspective from caesium-137 data and topographic-based
erosion modelling. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 22:799816. doi:10.1002/
(SICI)1096-9837(199709)22:9<799::AID-ESP765>3.0.CO;2-R
Ritchie, J.C., M.A. Nearing, and F.E. Rhoton. 2009. Sediment budgets
and source determinations using fallout Cesium-137 in a semiarid
rangeland watershed, Arizona, USA. J. Environ. Radioact. 100:637643.

doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2009.05.008
Ritchie, J.C., J.A. Spraberry, and J.R. McHenry. 1974. Estimating soil erosion
from the redistribution of fallout Cs-137. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 38:137
139. doi:10.2136/sssaj1974.03615995003800010042x
Schuller, P., A. Ellies, A. Castillo, and I. Salazar. 2003. Use of 137Cs estimate
tillage- and water-induced soil redistribution rates on agricultural land
under different use and management in central-south Chile. Soil Tillage
Res. 69:6983. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00129-0
Steiner, J.L., E.J. Sadler, J.-S. Chen, G. Wilson, D. James, B. Vandenberg, J. Ross,
and T.L. Oster. 2008. STEWARDS Watershed data system: Overview. J.
Soil Water Conserv. 63:569576. doi:10.2489/jswc.63.6.569
Sutherland, R.A. 1991. Examination of caesium-137 areal activities in control
(uneroded) locations. Soil Technol. 4:3350. doi:10.1016/09333630(91)90038-O
Sutherland, R.A. 1994. Spatial variability of 137Cs and the influence of
sampling on estimates of sediment redistribution. Catena 21:5771.
doi:10.1016/0341-8162(94)90031-0
Sutherland, R.A. 1996. Caesium-137 soil sampling and inventory variability in
reference samples; literature survey. Hydrol. Processes 10:3454.
Sutherland, R.A. 1998. Potential for reference site resampling in estimating
sediment redistribution and assessing landscape stability by the
caesium-137 method. Hydrol. Processes 12:9951007. doi:10.1002/
(SICI)1099-1085(19980615)12:7<995::AID-HYP634>3.0.CO;2-F
Tiessen, K.H.D., S. Li, D.A. Lobb, G.R. Mehuys, H.W. Rees, and T.I. Chow. 2009.
Using repeated measurements of 137Cs and modeling to identify spatial
patterns of tillage and water erosion within potato production in Atlantic
Canada. Geoderma 153:104118. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.07.013
Wallbrink, P.J., J.M. Olley, and A.S. Murray. 1994. Measuring soil movement
using 137Cs: Implications of reference site variability. Variability in Stream
Erosion and Sediment Transport. Proc. Of the Canberra Symposium.
Int. Assoc. of Hydrolog. Sci. Publ. No. 224. Int. Assoc. of Hydrolog.
Sci.,United Kingdom. Available online at http://iahs.info/uploads/dms/
iahs_224_0095.pdf (Verified 20 Oct. 2014). p. 95-105.
Walling, D.E., and Q. He. 1999. Improved models for estimating soil erosion
rates from cesium-137 measurements. J. Environ. Qual. 28:611622.
doi:10.2134/jeq1999.00472425002800020027x
Walling, D.E., and T.A. Quine. 1990. Calibration of caesium-137 measurements
to provide quantitative erosion rate data. Land Degrad. Rehabil. 2:161
175. doi:10.1002/ldr.3400020302
Walling, D.E., Q. He, and T.A. Quine. 1995. Use of caesium-137 and lead-210 as
tracers in soil erosion investigations.Tracer technology for hydraulic systems.
Proc of a Boulder symposium. Int. Assoc. of Hydrolog. Sci. Publ. 229. Int.
Assoc. of Hydrolog. Sci., United Kingdom. Available online at http://iahs.
info/uploads/dms/iahs_229_0163.pdf (verified 5 Nov. 2014). p.163172.
Walling, D.E., and T.A. Quine. 1992. The use of caesium-137 measurement in
soil erosion surveys. Int. Assoc. of Hydrolog. Sci. Publ. No. 210. Int. Assoc.
of Hydrolog. Sci., United Kingdom. Avialable online at http://iahs.info/
uploads/dms/iahs_210_0143.pdf (verified 20 Oct. 2014).p. 143-152.
Zapata, F. 2010. Handbook for the assessment of soil erosion and sedimentation
using environmental radionuclides. Kluwer Academic Publisher,
Dordrecht, the Netherlands.p. 219.
Zhang, X.B., D.L. Higgitt, and D.E. Walling. 1990. A preliminary assessment
of the potential for using caesium-137 to estimate rates of soil
erosion in the Loess Plateau of China. Hydrol. Sci. J. 35:243251.
doi:10.1080/02626669009492427

Soil Science Society of America Journal