ARITHMETiv
BY M.
E,
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
LECTURES ON THE
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
BY M.
'
Heaven
lies
E.
BOOLE
HENRY FROWDE,
M.A.
LONDON, EDINBURGH
NEW YORK
fif
TO LADY
MY
LOW
DEAR FRIEND,
But for your
cesses
of these processes.
I have, as you know, taken no part in recent
attempts to improve methods of teaching, because, as James Hinton said, I can see no use
in trying to invent good methods for teaching
DEDICATION
know
what
to
homage when
on
an
it
original
mathematician.
Your Ladyship has intervened in the situation, refusing to see objections and difficulties,
or to take
'
no
'
for
an answer.
You
insist
that
know what
accept your share of the responsibility of offering to parents and teachers what I fear is after
all only a very feeble presentation of Arithmetic
treated as a branch of the Art of Thinking,
founded on the general Science of the Laws of
Thought.
Yours
affectionately,
M. E. BOOLE.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS
TEACHERS
I.
How MEN
LEARNED
TO
PAGE
7
YOUNG
29
IN OLD TIMES
...
31
III.
ON COUNTING BY TENS
WHY WE DO NOT ALWAYS DO SUMS
THE WAY THAT COMES NATURAL
45
IV.
ARITHMETICAL SHORTHAND
52
II.
V.
VI.
KEEPING ACCOUNTS
...
....
37
56
58
...
...
.....
...
...
87
94
EXERCISE ON ZERO
97
Vll.
65
VIII.
MULTIPLYING BY MINUS
69
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
ADDING MINUS
WHAT
CONSISTS
ECONOMY
ECONOMY OF MIND-FORCE
....
.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
= oo
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
75
78
81
98
.
101
106
117
CONTENTS
PAGE
XIX.
XX.
WHAT
CAN BE SETTLED BY
HUMAN LAW
PAPER MONEY
127
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
EXERCISE
TO
PREPARE
FORMULAE
APPENDIX: ON
122
PROPORTION.
.132
.136
FOR GENERAL
139
142
PREFACE
THE motto
little
as
an Intro-
many
put them in possession of that Recovered Past/ the bearing of which on the
Present forms the great clue to that knowledge
of subtle forces which gives its possessor the
'
failed to
may
illus-
trations.
Teachers of such subjects as Electricity complain of the difficulty of getting pupils to apply
(at
whatever
PREFACE
level) to
forces.
enough
know
as the case
he lacks something of
during his school-life
w hat should constitute a living mathematical
In truth he usually lacks several
intelligence.
;
things.
first place,
is
movement in
x of movement in the
division of multiplication,
observing in
making
PKEFACE
and irrelevant
may be
new
PREFACE
10
The
of that science.
However
logical
may
be the
trembling fingers.
It may be objected that
if this
temporary
PEEFACE
class,
11
first
presenta-
a strong probability that each subsequent contact with that object or idea will produce, by
association, a recurrence of similar disturbed
action.
Thus
is
set
up a habit of scattered
mam
One
object of the present
to present the premises involved- in
various arithmetical operations in a manner
which concentrates instead of scattering the
to Mathematics.
volume
is
My own
who
a mathematical argument, in any hygienic manner, seldom needs much assistance in making
out for himself the logical consequences.
The Preface to a recently issued text-book of
Arithmetic l asserts that the young are always
'
PREFACE
12
left in possession
of their
'
must be
of the abstractions
him.
A little
of the
The great
political
economy
difficulty
is
in
home
to
problems.
Dis-
here.
courage all formulae. Anybody who knows anything about boys knows that if, by any means
new
ideas
in
'
'
Workman, Oxford
Review.
PREFACE
13
two
why
it
of stocks and
shares.
is
intended to play
cognate
to it.
PKEFACE
14
induced by the sight of a loaf or joint appearing as a matter of course a loaf from which
every one is helped, the rest being taken away
;
when no
by
its
and
much
is
But
whole provision
which is the essential fibre of
all mental growth, seems left to chance, and
too much crowded out.
In Arithmetic, where it is specially important,
fractions.
in schools the
PEEFACE
round
15
This tends
organic supporting fibre.
to induce a condition of what I have called
its
mental
It
is
rickets.
minds on the
with sums in
in, as statements of
Use might
also be
made
of such exercises as
if,
is
fractions,
logical
much
and
exercises
exercises in Logic.
It is of primary importance
that children
PREFACE
16
and
must
They
do certain things because they are told, and
commit to memory facts which they will need
do or recite because they are told to do
know
so,
or see.
that this
Some
is so.'
method, but Euclid apparently wrote for grownup men, perfectly well able to take care of their
own minds he wrote probably for the best
His method is unsuited
intellects of his time.
to children.
If a teacher has anything to say
to children as a statement, he should say it,
not exactly as dogma which they are bound to
believe, but as working hypothesis which they
are to assume as a basis for the present.
Anywhich
he
intends
to
should
never
thing
prove
be stated children should be led up to find it
out for themselves by successive questions. No
pains should be spared to keep the two sets of
statements apart.
;
To return
the abuse of
Workman's complaint of
formulae, surely the remedy lies
to Mr.
PREFACE
17
into
needful
to
two parts
remember,
children, should
if
anything specially
found out by the
if
told
'
'
proved to children
is
works
what
is
dence,
freely,
for
reference,
constructed by themselves.
This should be
work
ing this
out unaided.
PREFACE
18
by each child
own form-book
in his
and the
this
'
may
four
sum
have
You
you to look
book instead of adding.'
for the
answer in your
on a
Thought.
All
first,
Therefore
teachers
who,
at the present day, persist in thinking about
Algebra and Arithmetic as dealing with
Laws of Number, and about Geometry as
dealing with Laws of Surface and Solid Conis
so.
elementary
PREFACE
19
on
their
them
the
lies
track
to
for
put
pupils
wrong
reaching in future any true understanding of
the higher Algebras.
Algebra deals not with
number.
of investigations on
Plane Geometry deals with such
the
course
solid
Laws
of
additional
and n +
made
The sooner
1 dimensions.
to see all
Laws
pupils are
of Arithmetic as Laws of
sign
such
way
indicates
it
numbers
things ; but
always as indicating something about the point
of view from which the things or numbers are
diminution
of
considered.
or
of
PREFACE
20
contradictions and
Such for instance as that a rectangular surface becomes = o if we happen to
endless
in
metaphysical
absurdities.
rectangles
(
X) x Y.
x (- Y), (- X) x (- Y),
The amount of confusion and
x Y,
how
is
sickening
early
many
by such anomalies as
how
or
these,
profoundly they are affected by
them. If the same boys who are thus painfully impressed became teachers in their turn,
they would no doubt remember their own past
experience, and a better mode of presenting
the primary conceptions of Arithmetic and
children
are
affected
what seems
Much
needless
difficulty is
and IX.
caused by the
PKEFACE
21
which they often interpret as somehow connected with endless length or exhaustsymbol
oc
less quantity.
endless length
The
or
exhaustless quantity
is
'
'
'
'
'
PKEFACE
22
commonly
used, at
home
the hearing of
in
'
parlance,
in,'
which not
&c.
teachers
all
remember
to
leading associations.
Of course
children
'
out-
'
'
in
common
use,
though under
protest.
It
(multiplier).
'
PREFACE
In dealing with
his mind the idea
'
23
'
he should keep in
means doing to
the operand (dividend) what, if done to the
division
'
'
division
first,
among
And
Another to
Another
to each
Five.
leaves ?
None. So now we have finished.
How many times did we go the round and
give each boy an apple ? Then each boy has ?
Four apples.
Five more.
each
leaves
Ten.
boy leaves?
little
practice
in
such
successive
sub
mere
of similar additions,
but also
series of
PREFACE
24
He
apple.
which
is
moment
ment
is
occupied at the
(the equivalence of fractions), the statetrue
it is as true as that, from the
is
own
'
size of his
share.
PEEFACE
25
and the
economist
now
speaking
less fit
on
'
'
two
pictures
an apple, and
It is the way
when he was
why not now ? The teacher
learning addition
has therefore started him looking out for the
two more apples and as what is said next does
;
PKEFACE
26
is
said.
be satisfied
And, as
with the
reasoning and
The
on
equivalent fractions
(Lesson XVI) suggests ways of attacking the
problem not open to this objection.
tion.'
It
may
chapter
much
use
is
But we
of examples relating to food.
cannot make mathematicians by insisting upon
made
To
PREFACE
27
must perform, is far better training than to encourage them to express opinions about subjects
the data of which lie beyond their personal ken.
The pauses of sitting with slack muscles and
taking slow quiet breaths, to make mind-pictures,
is not intended to supersede the usual permitted
'intervals'
of normal mental
life,
essential to
sound
intel-
lectual
PEEFACE
28
who have
am
MARY EVEREST
BOOLE.
30
INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS
remark applies
and
at all social
levels.
IN OLD TIMES
You have
or
you may
have seen the picture of a savage with his wife
and baby, at the beginning of Clodd's book,
Primitive
Man.
How do
to lessons
hairy
woman
in Clodd's
'
first
woman is
represented
will be
32
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
We
little practice
at
out of the
great fear
HOW MEN
so did Ab,
Man
and Ab's
DID LEARN
wife,
33
And
all
make climbing
would he say
'
'
'
'
'
'
could count
six.'
Well, savages of very long
such
as
Primitive
Man, could not talk as
ago,
we do indeed, one name for them is Speech'
less
Man.'
Man
near
hawk.
could
We
tell his
when he
some
sort for
may
And
it
tell
his wife
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
34
He had
many.
no words, as yet, to
tell
her
with.
Now what
'
holds up fingers.
Man doing that ?
for wolf,
mean
'
finger, that
might
with baby, my
the wolf with a stone.' But
me
'
'
'
'
HOW MEN
feelings inside.
DID LEAKN
35
sets,
the
am
I often think of
rest of
them when
They
little
way
cowardice.
ment.
Now
then.
(The Teacher should read the following with a pause
between each sentence.)
C 2
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
36
book.
'
Woo-oo-oo-oo.'
'
Woo-oo-oo-oo
He calls out
with
'
The
ones
little
'
if they like.
may
out
Jumps up and
man
call
When
carries
Clasps the
Climbs the
The
only.
in silence,
at
Attention
class
breaks
before
the
sitting
ease,
up.
should be paid to relaxation of that muscular tension
which accompanies
Modern
II
ON COUNTING BY TENS
BLACK-BOARD.
WHAT
3
is this,
And
this,
Put 1 and 0.
But what has ten done
the rest
Why
like its
And
this
?
:
how
shall I
do
it ?
to be different from
should
it
neighbours
it
take signs
to
No
'
ble
answer.
arithmetic
two signs
is
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
38
so
it
way
But there is
for people to write ten.
it
is
suitable
and
convenient, and
why
a reason
it.
We
it
further.
By-and-by they
began to keep flocks of sheep or goats, and they
made stone
one
or twenty-nine sheep
He
might put up
all his
that would
mean
fingers
sixteen.
He
might put up
that would
mean
twenty-nine.
ON COUNTING BY TENS
But
if
39
lose
about that
who had no
Would you
'
finished putting
up
all
his fingers, he
would
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
40
do.'
till
ing,
right
hand of the
the shepherd.
of the class
daughter.
class
you
shall
cannot
let
you
but,
ON COUNTING BY TENS
41
up a thumb or
you what to do.
Jane, wait
finger.
Now, Tom
sheep
five
eight sheep
I tell
six sheep
sheep
nine sheep
till
ten sheep.
Now
all
his
Hold
once.
fingers
high up for
it
any
high
shoulder
steadily
ache
Now Tom
but
the time
all
it
longer,
would
keep
till
that
I tell
make your
finger
you to leave
out
off.
finger to
four sheep
five
sheep
six
sheep
seven
sheep.
Now, both
.?
Three.
How many
And
each of
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
42
That
Tom
has counted
three times
Thirty.
That
is
right.
But
Tom
is
early morning and the
have
Look well
just gone out to feed.
sheep
and,
all
when
ON COUNTING BY TENS
do
it
way
way than
that
to think about
the inclination to do
43
it
so
any other
had got worked
tens,
count with.
Now we
one sign.
its
own ?
Its sign is a
'
It does not
1,' ivritten
it
in the
has
tens'
'
should
teach
44
the railings.
But it is best to have
things he can shift about, such as buttons and
let him push each, as he counts it, from the
toes, or
Never
make a
always
little
him
tell
ten-three
eleven, twelve,'
eleven,
say
'
to
ten-four
'
'
child
say
ten-one
'
like
'
ten-two
'
to go to school,
a little child should always say
two
twelve
'
twenty-one,
'
ten-one
twenty- two.'
ten-
And
themselves
what he
is
children do.
that will
And
tell
little
him tKe
shepherd and
Ill
is
comes
for altering
altered as
in towns.
on their
to
use
it.
we become
counters
or
blocks
instead,
because
convenient pat-
BLACK-BOARD.
their bodies
when the
many of them in one
round
but
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
46
hole,
so,
so
is
SIMPLE ADDITION
So
47
this
'
fire,
reason.
when
it
'
'
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
48
BLACK-BOARD.
s.
d.
2
3
'
The
pence or the shillings ?
don't
we
reckon
the
Well, why
shillings.
It is the wrong way.'
shillings first ?
Why
about,
the
'
is it
the wrong
come wrong
way
Would
it
it
would
make
One
shilling
shillings.
five pence.
Two
s.
3
That
is
the answer
we
Now
let
shillings end.
pence end, as
Two
we
5
get by beginning at the
us try beginning at the
are told
is
the right
way
at
SIMPLE ADDITION
49
'
we taught
us try another
to
sum
BLACK-BOARD.
Three
shillings.
s.
d.
2
3
6
8
shillings
How
do we write fourteen
pence? Two pence and one shilling. Where
must we put the one shilling ? Along with the
So now our sum looks like
five shillings.
fourteen pence.
this
s.
d.
6
8
(a)
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
50
d.
2
3
6
8
(6)
5
1
Now let
at lessons.
us do the
2
sum the way we
shown
Put
are fourteen.
are
s.
d.
_3
6
(c)
8_
2
Now
way ?
all
It
is
down way
to the
way you
SIMPLE ADDITION
51
is
for yourself.
At
the teacher may interpolate other examples of
beginning sums at the wrong end, taking an easy
example of subtraction, multiplication, and short
division.
(6)
in
round-
about ways).
IV
ARITHMETICAL SHORTHAND
BLACK-BOARD.
Let us
see.
I want
Suppose you go into a shop and say
a dozen of those buttons, please,' and a friend
And I will take twelve of the same
says
buttons, please/ do your two purchases look
f
'
alike
Would
Would
off,
changed by accident
were sewn on to your coat, would any one know
that they were riot the dozen ? If we wanted
to play a game with twelve counters and had no
?
proper counters, we might use the twelve buttons for counters would the dozen do instead ?
;
twelve
is
a dozen
AEITHMETICAL SHOETHAND
53
size,
weight
are a shilling.
If I
Do
of some spice.
How would
twelve pence instead ?
way
like
a shilling
for
what
it
be
if
we used
not in any
do
shilling.
Why you say they are
They are of the same value. Value
Not
shilling,
weighing
things.
when we want
to
buy things.
Yes,
shil-
now we
Then
if
that
is
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
54:
'
'
'
not
when any
other business
is
on hand.
'
true in itself;
it
'
ARITHMETICAL SHORTHAND
55
and everywhere
or whether he
fit
means
it
as
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
56
and puzzling
chiefly
this.
V
KEEPING ACCOUNTS
SUPPOSE you have a shilling and spend threepence, what have you left ? Ninepence. Is that
all
that
is left ?
pence in your purse. Anything else ? Anything not in the purse ? The roots. Well, is
that an end of the matter ? What is to happen
next
The
watered
have wasted your money.
;
KEEPING ACCOUNTS
You might have bought something
57
else,
not
wasted.
written
down
is
remaining cash is
next week.
Now shut your eyes for a minute or two, and
On one
See an account-book open.
think.
page
'
is
On
'
written
Mother gave me
Is.'
is
written
Plants, 3d.'
You
write 9d.
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
58
account of the
money
still
left in
your purse.
they are in another
room, waiting till you can go to them. But they
have not gone out of the world they are there,
waiting and you will have to see to them
The
presently.
Then why
the
is
new page
about that a
about
it
little,
and we
have a lesson
will
next time.
VI
was on the
cash
last
we make
last
DIS-MEMBERING, RE-COLLECTING
59
Why not?
I think you feel why not, though perhaps .you
cannot quite explain it. To-day we are going
to have a little talk about that question.
Human
beings, you
finite creatures ; that
and
is
everywhere at once or do
Our
bodies are
made
so
to say,
a short
are
that
way
made so
we
we cannot be
a.
small
straight
we
made
in order to
fit
you could
start
off straight
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
60
of out of doors.'
But
'
out of doors
'
has not
for the
we put
out of mind
is
me
straight
off,
the black-board.
and
I,
have such
minds that
DIS-MEMBERING, RE-COLLECTING
61
are thirty-five
Why, what are you
about ? I asked you to find the number of
five
them out
sum
right
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
62
Thirty-five
only the first rung of the ladder ;
we haven't reached our answer yet. The three
is
waiting.
And now we
hundreds by seven
here are
all
the other \
and
would you rather have a nice long solemn argument, each trying to prove that she has the true,
the only true, answer to the question I asked ?
1
See note
at
end of chapter.
DIS-MEMBERING, KE-COLLECTING
You won't do
either *
you do ? We hiust
what they all come
to tell people
63
fit
to,
before
we have a
right
there are in fortybecause our minds are so tiny, and
seven years
the number of the days of the years are so very,
have to make ourselves forget
very big.
some things while we attend to other things
but before we dare tell any one that we have
;
We
we made
that
we must
ourselves forget,
back all
and try to
call
re-collect.
and
are seven.
?
No ? Why not ? Some of the
mean
hundreds
and some tens and some
figures
only single days, and we must sort them properly before we fit them together, and arrange
them so that each sort of figure shall stand for
Is that right
its
true value.
about
'
we
up
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
64
for
money on
recollect the
is still
its -true
value and
meaning.
That
is
65
Now
Going out is all nonsense. Sit still all the afterno* n, and look at your nice clean boots.'
NOTE.
The answers had
first
in this form
better be written
on the board
at
=
=
=
=
=
=
7x5
7x6
7x3
4x5
4x6
4x3
35.
42.
21.
2O.
24.
12.
VII
On
two-
WHAT
is
this
weight.
What
weight
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
66
An
What
is it for ?
To weigh things
ounce weight is one of the
its
things that has no proper use of its own
ounce.
with.
Yes, this
use
is
to
useful
by
They
when they
are
boiled
salt
much
67
is
But
it is
made useful
to other people.
Suppose a woman
a very clever cook and finds out how to make
things just right, it is well for her to be able to
tell other women just what she found answered
is
best.
Now how
cake, to tell
it
to suit our-
is
how much
of anything to use.
w
a
oman read in a book a receipt, as it
Well,
One of
called, for making a nice small cake.
r
is
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
68
times as
Now
I should like
we do ? There
in
the
scales
is
ounces,
what
no three-ounce weight.
two-ounce and the
the
shall
Put
one-
ounce.
weight.
MULTIPLYING BY MINUS
69
For seven ounces ? The quarter and the twoounce and one-ounce.
For eight ounces ? The half-pound.
(The teacher goes on thus up to thirty-one ounces.)
So,
you
ounces
we
see,
please,
up
to thirty-one ounces,
of
by
VIII
MULTIPLYING BY MINUS
persons who have learned a certain amount of
are
confused between what are called negative
Algebra
quantities, (movements, or actions), and the mental act of
negation of quantity, (movement, or action) ; i. e. between
the sign
which indicates active fact in the direction
contrary to the one (arbitrarily) chosen as positive, and
the symbol 0, which states denial of existence of fact.
Practice should be given in exercises which involve these
signs and show the distinction between them.
It is also desirable, for many reasons, that children
Many
should
be
accustomed
to
unknown
70
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
7+4 9+ 2
be, the group of operations represented by
diminishes it by 10. The statement x 7 + 4 9 + 2
has a meaning which can be made inwhereas the mere statement
telligible at an early age
7+4 9+2
10 is confusing to a child's imagination.
Even for those who are never to learn formal
Algebra, the practice of using letters, for numbers which
are to be the subjects of operation, imparts to Arithmetic
something of Algebraic clearness of thought, which will
be of use in 'itself while those who are to learn Algebra
should not be exposed to the mental violence of being
introduced to Algebraic notation for the first time, just
when they will have to begin to learn the actual
manipulation of unknown quantities by processes
properly Algebraic. The following is a specimen of
the kind of form in which elementary exercises in
= #10
ordinary sums
given.
BLACK-BOARD.
THE
We
MULTIPLYING BY MINUS
does the shopman
call
71
in
till.
purse.
customer's purse P.
much T
want
is,
to
nor
know
how much P
just now.
is
and we do not
Provided that the
;
When we
penny.
What
which we read T
is
now
in the
But
T + Is.,
plus Is.
what has the shopman to give to the customer?
\d. Is that added to T + Is., or taken from it ?
Taken from it. We write that this way
IcZ.,
and we call it minus Id.
till is
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
72
So now
till:
this is
how we
write
what
is
in the
T + ls.-ld.
as the
He thinks
towards
is
is
in ordinary addition
The
MULTIPLYING BY MINUS
73
We are
paying
for things,
of view, to see
it.
When
came
in.
T was
3 9s. Qd.
Is.
Qd.-ls.
is
19s. each.
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
74
shilling
change
for each
'
Who
in
has
change?
On
the shopman's
side,
T + l2-12s.-L + ls.,
and on the customer's
P-
side,
12 + 12s. + l-ls.
it
should also be
1-1*.
x(ldoz.-l)
12-12*.
-1
Now
then,
what does
1 x
1 come to
In
x(l doz.-l)
-12 + 12*.
+ 1-1*.
ADDING MINUS
75
IX
BLACK-BOAHD.
M M _C
M
H
is
is
the
a house
M M
stand for
over
shop
S,
house
boy's
stone.
M,
home
H, boy's home
mile-stone.
Again
C,
customer's
C, customer's
shop
S,
house
M,
H,
mile-
see which
76
across a counter
money pushed
When
it
was
we
accounts,
minus.
same way
we
call
direction that
then shall
mile minus
he walks a mile
minus in going to work every evening he
walks a mile plus in going home. C is two
miles further on than H.
So all the distance
from S to C is how many miles ? In what
S to C is three miles plus.
direction ?
direction
'
Bill, there is
says
a parcel to be taken to Mr. Smith's house (C).
You live in that direction you must take it.'
:
What
We
him by
plus.
his
He
ADDING MINUS
77
'
his parcel a workman says to the master
I
am going to see a friend who lives close to
:
may
sir?'
And
miles
plus
miles plus.
He
plus miles
His walk
same point H. But
now I want to know are the two ways of
getting home the same in any other respect ?
For instance, will he get home to supper at the
same time ? No, he will be more than an hour
in either case ends at the
:
that
still all
If Bill
day
chap and has been on his feet all day, that five
mile walk instead of one mile might make him
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
78
two miles
to the
same
one
So you
see, if
those questions,
it
would not be
true.
MlND-PlCTURE.
Bill trudging home tired near the middle
with his back to C and his face towards H.
;
is
as
He
X
DIVIDING AND SHAKING
WHAT
is
Two and
half.
79
Is that so always ?
Are you
Well now, let us see.
Suppose two children are to share a cake
a half ounces.
sure?
weighing
Two
is ?
we
Do we
divide
it
Suppose
five marbles,
What
(as you
would the boys do with the one over ? I think
they would put it on the ground between them,
and each shoot at it in turns, with the marbles
that were his own share.
Suppose I have a doll weighing five ounces,
and give it to two little girls. What is the
share of each ? Will they cut it in two and
each have half a dolly ? Shall each have one
half the
leg and one arm and half a head
calico, half the plaster, and half the saw-dust ?
No. Well, what would be the share of each ?
If it was a naked doll, there would be its clothes
to make
they would do the work between
them. When they had time to nurse it for an
be one over
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
80
When
they had
each side of
it.
it for
to tea,
of a five-ounce dolly.
Now suppose a flower- bulb,
ounces,
is
weighing
five
two
given to
they share
half an hour.
it \
No
'
And
are saying ?
Just
Babies might cut a hyacinth
think a minute.
up
'
for
'
'
IN
WHAT
cake, each
is
CONSISTS
ECONOMY
81
to
fifth
marble.
share of each
it
they
it
pleasure of seeing
it,
all
all
'
none at
XI
IN
WHAT
CONSISTS
ECONOMY
BLACK-BOARD.
A.
B.
have.
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
82
when
None
is
my
So we
bulb
else
'
:
This
can share
under
it.'
B.
Two-pence.
Now
want you
A.
row
IN
WHAT
CONSISTS
ECONOMY
same
all
83
about the
on a common,
away from
want
to buy.
Now
plants.
do in commonplace
There is enough fruit on the
every one in the row; and every one
to
circumstances.
barrow for
We will
has enough money to buy some.
admit at starting that the first duty of a housekeeper, in ordinary civilized society, is to see
that there is proper food in the house for all
so the first thing you do, when
call, is to buy as much fruit as
the household
the hawkers
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
84
We
will
suppose that
all
proceedings.
it ?
can enjoy
who
it
now
quite as
much
as the people
it
got
house
is
perhaps tempted to eat a little more
than they otherwise would do, because it is
there and must not be wasted. Yet in spite
of that some of it is wasted goes really bad
;
WHAT
IN
ECONOMY
CONSISTS
85
Meantime
last.
much about
cares as
in the
(Point to
black-
It is right that
board.)
them
of each of
is
enough
own
fruit as
much even
for
your
good.
too
too.
down
in
Column
B.
have
living
what
known many
servants
who
liked
in
is
'
they called
ings of all sorts of food-things
a mistress stingy who bought only as much as
;
was of real
You might
such houses,
ends of joints going bad, bits of loaves on the
floor among dirty boots, milk going sour, fish
going stale, candles guttering away in waste
use.
see, in
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
86
know
gintry.'
You
all
Column
B.
Read what is on the black-board. Copy it
in your books.
Read it out. Shut your eyes
and try to say it.
Learn it by heart (in
preparation time).
Now
difficult.
am
You
but
things.
ECONOMY OF MIND-FOKCE
87
in Class
am
not
XII
ECONOMY OF MIND-FOKCE
TRUE education tends to make people satisfied
with just enough of the things in Column A,
and leads them to spend spare time, money, and
energy on things in Column B.
BLACK-BOARD.
A.
B.
have.
have.
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
88
when
let
you
all
I have written on
say
it
at once.
But
want to help you to understand someto see whether you understand, I allow
or
thing,
only one child to answer at a time. I will
write
to remember,
I will write:
in
me
B.
Column ?
far I understand,
I
in
A.
it
is
And
we
child a proper
amount of food.
while
Mary
we put
ing questions,
Therefore
is
as
said,
practice in answer-
in
Column ?
A,
ECONOMY OF MIND-FORCE
Another thing that
is
89
necessary to learn
is
to
without
interrupting
my
turn conies,
in
Column?
B.
is
going On,
in
listen
Yes.
Column ?
B.
is
necessary to collect a
steadily she
We will write
making mind-pictures,
in
It
is
Column
B.
up into a higher
till
he
is
fit
for
it.
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
90
tions creditably,
It
is
in
We
No.
examina-
Column ?
B.
know
who
become a doctor, or a lawyer, or
a school-teacher, or a Civil Service clerk, or
a postman, because they ought not to allow
unfit persons to undertake responsible posts.
If one man shows he knows his work properly,
is fit
to
We
for
for
some purposes
persons
a post.
It
it is
who can be
is
We
write
Now
let
us
in Column ?
A.
read over carefully our two
columns.
(Kead out the columns.)
Now
am
ECONOMY OF MIND-FORCE
91
all
that means.
Would
'
know
is
the dogwood
Two
if it is there.
pair of eyes
So
it is
at examinations.
not want to
to the questions
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
92
he has asked
are
fit
'
'
by helping
for.
You
BLACK-BOARD.
When
is
When the
is
like to tell
Little ones
must
please sit
elders.
ECONOMY OF MIND-FORCE
93
Now
really
You want
to
know why
this
is
so
you
have answered me a few questions. Which
makes a man strongest for exercise, walking
all day, or leaving off to take food sometimes ?
it
to him,
food in
that sort of
way \
all
why
so,
and
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
94
great
We
are
made
and we
so,
live
for
who
all
what
on the
is
black-board.
it
to
me next time.
I am not going
silence.
XIII
How many
is
shut up in a
field alone.
field
How
EXEKCISE IN RELEVANCE
many
legs
How many
Eyes
in.
Tails
Hands
pieces of mischief
be done in an hour
turned
Hoofs
95
Twenty ponies
all
Now let US
put
96
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
'
'
and
MlND-PlCTURE.
XIV
EXERCISE ON ZERO
SHUT
lifting
eyes, &c.
Make
a mmd-picture
be on the board
my
hand down.
how many
Me
make
I
do
strokes will
out.
What
out.
when
it
has
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
98
No
No
No
XV
The
readily introduced
by accus'
child is taken as
arithmetical unit, to think of that unit as divided into
halves, each side being a half; or the unit may be
idea of fraction
is
'
If each
shall I
&c.
boys
&c.
99
oo
If each
'
many boys
can
exhausted?
If I give
serve
before
If I give one
each half-boy
to each boy ?
my
stock
is
each half-boy?
If I give two to
to
series.
100
The
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
questions should be kept
exhausted
infinity,' free
is
none,
what
is
is
exhausted?
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
101
'fractions,'
and
fraction.
xvr
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
SIT
at
shut
ease,
eyes.
Make
mind-
picture.
Each one
of
you
to think of
is
some grown-
'
Now
else
you
like.
then.
pieces the
Halves.
into
We
two.
balves, or
call
Quarters.
pieces halves of
Mother eats one of the
those
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
102
is
Now, what
Open
left for
is
BLACK-BOARD.
what
get
Is that right
Now
write
it
is
?
in
three quarters.
Do you quite understand
your table-books.
Bead
it ?
it
out.
Now
sit
at ease again.
Shut eyes. Make a
with four of you children. Each
Me
picture.
be
left
for
We
you
there be
what
quarter.
Well, that
it ?
you
Nothing.
that.
I cut
How
Four.
What
on
?
Nothing. Then I take the second
and
So
apple
give each child a quarter of it.
now each child will have ? Two quarters of
apple and there will be left on the plate one
apple and no piece. Now 1 cut up the third
And now
apple and give each child a quarter.
there is left on the plate ? Nothing.
So we
have shared up the three apples among four
children.
And the children have all got just
the same quantity.
What is each child's
share?
Three quarters of apple.
Are you
the plate
again
Shall
we go
over
it all
Open
eyes.
if
necessary.)
Sit up.
BLACK-BOARD.
If three apples are shared between
four children, the share of each is
three quarters of an apple.
Copy
into
your
table-books
under
the
Everything
else is different.
When we
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
104
BLACK-BOARD.
|ofl = iof3.
Copy that
your books.
in
Twelve.
And
How
We now have
Three.
quarter of apple. So
Three quarters of apple.
is ?
this
BLACK-BOARD.
same
size.
how
how
many
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
If
105
apples?
six apples
no apple.
Before children are introduced to the practice of
'
cancelling out, in proportion or fraction sums, it
would be desirable to introduce them to the idea underlying such processes in some such way as this
1
as.
plate,
I shall
have at
Therefore
make a
clear mind-
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
106
'
one
man
XVII
extra corner-ornaments.
to find out for
Suppose he asks us
fit
in exactly.
How
107
shall
we
it ?
A-i
,-B
I-
L-
H-
E-
C-
-D
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
108
number of
into
repeats
AB
exactly.
E.
into
exactly
is
to go
will
go
Some number
begins.
exactly into
E.
We
of
fit
leave
'
fit
exactly into
will
into
So
now we
A is
into
into I H will
also
H G, and G F and F E, and E C because
fit
fit
109
The length of
therefore
it
F,
and
exactly into
Will
into
A C, and
black-board.
see
AC
repeats in
B ? Yes,
1 1
times,
it fits
exactly
the same length as
E.
will work this off as a sum on another
and
Now we
we can
exactly into
it fit
A E,
AB
is
We will
doing.
We
wards
A B
from
to-
If
A B
is
18
110
units
EC?
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
and
A C
is
22 units,
how many
Four.
18 from 22
4.
We
will
that
units
is
Because
a subtraction sum.
22 =
18 =
~4 =
Then we ticked
AC
AE
AB
EC
off 4
AE
4 =EP
14 = AF
4 = FG
18 =
AG
4 = GH
6 = AH
10 =
4=
HI
~2 =
AI
Then we ticked
2 =
AI
off
= I
L from
G F, F E, E C, because
Now we
will
go over that
in
a different way.
111
4.
18)
Remainder, used as
new divisor
22
18
(1
4) 18(4
16
Ditto
2)
4
4
(2
Remainder
is
AI
Now,
will
AB
equal to
fits
into
CD?
A E,
fit
?
exactly into
Well,
A E.
will it
Yes, because
fit
CD
into
AB
AB
What
the pattern
if
And
into
is
AB.
And
BD
will it
fit
into
BD
Yes.
Because
You remember
:
We
We
we
We
AC
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
112
AI?
InLH?
In
2
2
2
2
In
In
H G?
InGF?
InFE?
In EC?
11
AB?
InBD AC?
How many
times in
11
InCD=AB?
Answer
40
who have
In their case
foggy.
a further explanation.
'
Why
before
Thus
113
you were
made
We were
many
BOOLE
things in
life.
am
going to
tell
you
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
114
something that
them
may
Shut
eyes.
make
in future.
Sit at ease.
Here
is
a mind-
picture.
There
is
a reservoir.
village.
It has water-works
and
of the village
in those houses
which
is
common
illness
He
tells
and stoppers
sits
down
115
'
your time amusing yourself with your microscope and all these little glasses that are more
fit for a doll's house than for a grown man,
is
and dying
Why don't you
are suffering
wrong
'
do something to help us ?
I heard you
The other neighbour says
were employed by the corporation to help the
town to get the water pure. Why aren't you
Do you think it is
at the reservoir doing it ?
'
want a hundredweight of
tiny parcel of
it.'
When we know
The scientific man answers
what is the matter with the water, the corpora'
cleansing.
If they
116
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
attempt to do with
But
at present
less,
is
the
first
XVIII
I told
you that
in teaching
the fence
into tens,
many
one
the lot
of twelve pennies
We
do
not
is
need
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
118
You
will
pound weight.
if you will
remember that much of what you hear about
in the Arithmetic-class
things in
your mind
is
a sort of packing of
or
memory.
Things have to be packed in parcels or
bundles of different shapes and sizes, according
to the nature and use of the things themselves.
Let us think of a few different kinds of mindpacking that
we know
of.
because
Some
Why
men
I cannot say.
as
it is called,
or,
this
is
2.
a convenient arrange-
it is
119
about.
way
in pints
mouths. We in
our
have
taken
to
have
tumblers, only
England
half that size we call a tumbler, half a pint
lifting great pint pots to their
and we
a pint
call
as
much
as
two tumblers
hold,
;
and
so on.
Can you
tell
me how
twelves.
;
'
'
by holdthen
and
noses
or cloth
a yard.
In old books
we read
of a cubit (that
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
120
stamped by people appointed by the Government so that customers can know for certain
;
full pint, or
pound,
or yard.
Now when
a Government
is
going to stan-
value of twelve pence in one shilling. Napoleon, more than a hundred years ago, made the
all weights and measures
The
tens.
way they measure cloth and
and
roads
is this
Ten centimetres make
tapes
a decimetre
ten decimetres make a metre
ten metres make a dekametre, and so on.
Ten centigrammes make a deciWeights go
gramme ten decigrammes a gramme, and so
on. That is what is called the decimal arrange-
ment.
121
ounces make a
make
a stone
twelve
pound fourteen pounds
inches make a foot three feet make a yard and
so on. I do not think that either you or I know
are
not so regular
sixteen
or pound.
If we keep shops by-and-by, we ought to
know what we are to give each customer.
This
is
children go to school
to
understand other people. People
partly
make them
why
'
LOGIC OF AEITHMETIC
122
and measures.
you may be ready to learn
easily and use them cheerfully,
you ought to understand a good deal more than
most of you do about the different ways in
which such things pack up, as we called it. So
one day soon we wiU have a lesson on packing
And,
in order that
new measures
XIX
off in centimetres.
WHEN
HUMAN LAW
But when you
123
twelve pennies ?
at all, only the cash value of them
is
in the
shilling.
Here
is
a pound weight.
Sixteen ounces.
Can you
is?
pound
an ironworker's,
is there anything he could do to make it show
its sixteen ounce weights ? Yes, he could melt it
down, divide it into ounces, and stamp each one
ounce'; then each would be a proper ounce
weight, just like this one. If I had sixteen like
rate
No.
If I took this to
'
pound weight
Is there
No.
$ame metal.
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
124
little bit
of
centi-metres.
What
most
inches as they
lie
Governments can
Government could
How many
ment
alter that
a day
The sun
What makes
rising
and
the length of
setting, as
we
call
HUMAN LAW
125
Was
Napoleon or the
French Government ? Do you think that if all
these great people agree together and decided
it
it
do
it
"?
thought about
sum-books.
way
your
we
The number of
have;
fingers
to divide lengths the
;
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
126
in
fit
Now
amongst
it all
we
as best
and
can.
sit
pictures.
A king
He
He
'
says
hat,
with a
A metre
shall
Now
Another
picture.
'
it
is
said
1
.
lesson.
XX
PAPEK MONEY
On
I
Table
5 note and a
10 note.
memories
sometimes
We
is
of a different
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
128
We
one after
together and do
subtractions
lot
all in
We
work.
much
as
why this
two sixpences
is
shilling is
worth
because there
is
twice as
because
it is
Can you
PAPER MONEY
129
me any
twenty
A sovereign
is
worth
cause gold
is
much more
clearly understand
why ?
What
No.
You know
that
it is
Why
so valuable
much
as the
bits of
valuable.
is
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIO
130
out
all
that there
will begin
And
it is
is
and found
to learn about it.
So we
to be seen in
is
by reading
all
if
that
is
it,
on these papers.
we can make
out what
Sept. 1902
Bank of England.
G. Nairne, Chief Cashier.
to
pay to
whoever brings
.5.
And
feel so
PAPER MONEY
131
England.
We have been hearing a good deal of late
years about the honour of England and the
glory of England, and there have been processions and shows and military displays, which
are supposed to be for the honour of the country.
I should like
National
Bank promises
to
5 or
500,
the people of the country take that promise for
its full value.
They believe that their Govern-
ment
will
keep
its
promises.
J 2
pay
XXI
TRY
field at
Z and wandered
about till
where he found
we can make
First we
out what happened.
must try to think what the animals would each
133
LOGIC OF AKITHMETIC
134
like to
'
'
him up.
But we will suppose he
ate
who
is
a sensible rabbit
do you think he
will think of
next
He will
He would
like to
(Draw the
However,
would like
line 1 Z.)
the rabbit.
135
think he wished
What would
We will
could; but he would like to do so.
draw a line to show what the dog thinks he
would like to do. (Draw the line A 1.) As the
A
his
to 1 he
jumps as far
first jump takes him to B.
But
again
is
him
jumps to C, but
rabbit is at 3.
to go in one
jump
he
Now
sent
tell
The
till
Then
me, what do
line
to
all
lines,
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
136
We
drew
all
the
ruler.
straight line.
XXII
that
of a
in a field,
dog
what he
was dragged several ways, first one way and
then another. The dog was dragged only by
his own wishes and thoughts.
But a thing which has no wishes or thoughts
of its own,
call
137
ball,
pushing
it
in different directions.
You
you
movement.
It
;
may
but
it
is
only simpler
138
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
haps seen
tailors' fashion
You
for
seams in the
coat,
of his coat.
parts of
Then open
eyes,
and look
at your
book
and say
make us
came to run
children understand
in a
not mean to go
path
'
in
which at
first
he did
xxin
EXERCISE TO PREPARE FOR
GENERAL FORMULAE
and 3 are?
And
4.
And 5?
9.
And 7?
16.
25.
And
The
1x1 = 1
2x2=4,
&c.,
thus
1x1 = 1
2x2 = 4
3x3 = 9
LOGIC OF ARITHMETIC
140
worked
fact,
times.
Great
but no explanation
accuracy should be insisted on
should be attempted. The good mathematician will see
that none is necessary.
An ordinary teacher who
attempted one would be almost sure to confuse and
mislead.
The important thing to secure is that the
children's eyes, fingers, and attention should be occupied
about the diagrams, thus lodging clear images of them
on the memory, ready to crop up on some future
occasion as explained in my Address On the Preparation of the Unconscious Mind for Science
In case the pupil afterwards takes up Algebra or the
Calculus, the theory of General (or Sliding) Formulae
;
FORMULAE
141
1)
n z +2 n +
APPENDIX
HAVE
children
instrument.
Tell
them
to
draw
(or to
through the
lines as seen
the
magnifier
say that the little
the
triangle
big triangle in the same
as
little
the
proportion
quadrilateral to the big
through the
is
one.
to
Then show
(a)
APPENDIX
and
143
arithmetical difficulties.
On
p.
Ill a sum
is
kindly shown me by an
elementary-school teacher, as the one familiar
to the pupils to which she is accustomed.
put
in
the
form
On
p.
is
given as suited to
who
When
am
make a pattern
APPENDIX
144
end.
chil-
the
first
time,
would
the arithmetical
fact.
imaginative idea, of
helping a real toiler, has
the
being engaged
a great effect in checking
the tendency to
on the
in fixing attention
exact nature of the question under consideraIt strengthens the feeling that the
tion.
object of study is real knowledge and not the
mere power to answer examination questions.
Oxford
University of California
RUG 081
A 000937163
I
4