Details of Course

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Contents

Contact
Hours
Introduction
1
Water Demand : Various types of demands, per capita demand, factors
4
affecting per capita demand, variations in demand, effect of variation in
demand on design capacities of different components, population
forecasting
Sources of Water : Surface and ground water sources, collection of water
1+4
Characteristics of Water : Physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of water, standards
Transmission of Water : Pipes and their design
Treatment of Water : Conventional treatment of water, coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection
Other Treatment Methods : Softening, removal of fluoride, iron, arsenic,
etc.
Distribution of Water : Distribution system, their requirement, design,
analysis of pipe net works
Total

5
3
12
6
6
42

Hardness
A term often used to characterize the ability
of a water to:
cause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)- Ca(Soap)2 (s)
increase the amount of soap needed
cause scaling on pipes
cause valves to stick due to the formation of
calcium carbonate crystals
leave stains on plumbing fixtures

Hardness
Total Hardness
Technically - the sum of all polyvalent cations
Practically - the amount of calcium and
magnesium ions (the predominant minerals in
natural waters)
It is divided into carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness.

Hardness
Description
Extremely soft
Very soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard

Hardness range
(mg/L as CaCO3)
0 - 50
50 100
100 150
150 - 300
> 300

Formation of Hardness
Precipitation
Topsoil
Subsoil
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Limestone

CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

Hardness
Carbonate Hardness
Often called "temporary hardness" because
heating the water will remove it. When the
water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will
precipitate and tend to form bottom deposits in
water heaters.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with HCO3-, CO32 CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less

Hardness
Non-Carbonate Hardness
Called permanent hardness because it is not
removed when the water is heated. It is much
more expensive to remove non-carbonate
hardness than carbonate hardness.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-,
SO42 NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity Total hardness, then NCH = 0

Hardness Units
milligrams per liter (mg/L) as calcium carbonate
parts per million (ppm) as calcium carbonate
grains per gallon of hardness (to convert from
grains per gallon to mg/L, multiply by 17.1)
equivalents/liter or mEq/L

Lime-soda ash softening

Lime (CaO)
addition

Softening reactions
Neutralization of carbonic acid
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3(s) + H2O

Precipitation of CH due to calcium

Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O

Precipitation of CH due to magnesium

Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 Mg2+ + CO32-+ CaCO3(s)
+ 2H2O
Mg2+ + CO32- + Ca(OH)2 MgOH2(s)+ CaCO3(s)

Softening reactions
Removal of NCH due to calcium
Ca2+ + NaCO3 CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

Removal of NCH due to magnesium

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 MgOH2(s)+ Ca2+
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

Process limitations
Because of the solubility of calcium and
magnesium, some hardness ions remain in
solution
Incomplete time for reactions
Non-ideal mixing, short-circuiting in reactor
Minimum Ca hardness ~ 30 mg/L as CaCO3
Minimum Mg hardness ~ 10 mg/L as CaCO3

Process options
Initial removal of CO2

Addition of lime
Air stripping when CO2 is > 10 mg/L

Lime softening
Excess lime softening
Lime-soda ash softening
Split treatment
Recarbonation

Concurrent removal of other species

Iron and manganese

Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
Turbidity
Other metals

Process Configurations
Single-stage lime treatment
Two-stage lime treatment
Split-flow lime treatment

Softening plant

Single stage lime treatment

Goal: Removal of hardness mineral

Softening plant

Two-stage lime treatment

Goal: Removal of hardness minerals

Softening plant

Split flow lime treatment

Goal: Removal of hardness minerals

Basin types - conventional

http://www.degremont-technologies.com/IMG/jpg/superp-global.jpg
http://water.me.vccs.edu/math/flocchamb.jpg

Basin types - upflow

Design criteria conventional basins

Mixing
G = 300 to 700 s-1
Minimum mixing time = 10 to 30 s
With cold water (typical for groundwater) time =
5 to 10 min

Flocculation
G = 130 to 300 s-1
Minimum mixing time = 30 to 45 min
Gt values = 200,000 to 400,000
Velocity through ports = 0.15 to 0.36 m/s

Design criteria upflow clarifiers

Flocculation and mixing period > 30 min

Surface water clarification
Detention time = 2 to 4 hrs
Overflow rate < 2.4 m3/m2hr
Weir loading < 0.120 m3/mhr

Groundwater softening
Detention time = 1 to 2 hrs
Overflow rate < 4.2 m3/m2hr
Weir loading < 0.240 m3/mhr

Stabilization of water
Neither scale forming nor corrosive
Will neither dissolve or precipitate calcium
Useful to determine
if CaCO3 will precipitate in the filters and pipe
network
Corrosivity of water

Langelier Saturation Index

LSI = pH pHs
pHs = pCa2+ + pAlk +C
pCa2+ = negative log [Ca2+] in M
pAlk = neg log Alk in Eq/L
C = empirical constant (function of ionic strength
and temperature), see Table 4-5

LSI < 0 under-saturated, CaCO3 will dissolve

LSI = 0 equilibrium
LSI > 0 oversaturated, CaCO3 will precipitate