Democracy, (from Greek: "d????at?

a") or "democratic government", is "a system of

government in which all the people of a state or polity ... are involved in maki
ng decisions about its affairs, typically by voting to elect representatives to
a parliament or similar assembly", as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary.[
1] Democracy is further defined as (a:) "government by the people; especially :
rule of the majority (b:) "a government in which the supreme power is vested in
the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of repr
esentation usually involving periodically held free elections."[2]
According to political scientist Larry Diamond, it consists of four key elements
: (a) A political system for choosing and replacing the government through free
and fair elections; (b) The active participation of the people, as citizens, in
politics and civic life; (c) Protection of the human rights of all citizens, and
(d) A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citize
ns.[3]
The term originates from the Greek d????at?a (demokrata) "rule of the people",[4]
which was found from d??? (dmos) "people" and ???t?? (krtos) "power" or "rule", in
the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-s
tates, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to ???st???at?a (aristokrata) "rule
of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in pract
ice the distinction has been blurred historically.[5] The political system of Cl
assical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to an elite class of
free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtual
ly all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic
citizenship consisted of an elite class until full enfranchisement was won for a
ll adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of t
he 19th and 20th centuries. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the
older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an in
dividual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number o
f individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited fr
om Greek philosophy,[6] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have
mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democr
acy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for t
he people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revol
ution.[7]
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 History
2.1 Ancient origins
2.2 Middle Ages
2.3 Modern era
2.3.1 Early modern period
2.3.2 18th and 19th centuries
2.3.3 20th and 21st centuries
3 Measurement of democracy
4 Types of democracies
4.1 Basic forms
4.1.1 Direct
4.1.2 Representative
4.1.2.1 Parliamentary
4.1.2.2 Presidential
4.1.3 Hybrid or semi-direct
4.2 Variants
4.2.1 Constitutional monarchy
4.2.2 Republic

4.2.3 Liberal democracy

4.2.4 Socialist
4.2.5 Anarchist
4.2.6 Sortition
4.2.7 Consociational
4.2.8 Consensus democracy
4.2.9 Supranational
4.2.10 Inclusive
4.2.11 Participatory politics
4.2.12 Cosmopolitan
4.2.13 Creative Democracy
4.3 Non-governmental
5 Theory
5.1 Aristotle
5.2 Rationale
5.2.1 Aggregative
5.2.2 Deliberative
5.2.3 Radical
5.3 Criticism
5.3.1 Inefficiencies
5.3.2 Popular rule as a faade
5.3.3 Mob rule
5.3.4 Political instability
5.3.5 Fraudulent elections
5.3.6 Opposition
6 Development
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Characteristics
No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political fr
eedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics.[8][9] T
hese principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the la
w and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representa
tive democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can ap
ply to anyone seeking to become a representative,[according to whom?] and the fr
eedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties wh
ich are typically protected by a constitution.[10][11] Other uses of "democracy"
include that of direct democracy.
One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: (1) upwar
d control, i.e. sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, (2) poli
tical equality, and (3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only
consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control
and political equality.[12]
The term "democracy" is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which
is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as poli
tical pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected official
s for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and ele
ments of civil society outside the government.[citation needed] Roger Scruton ar
gues that democracy alone cannot provide personal and political freedom unless t
he institutions of civil society are also present.[13]
In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminste
r system, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty, while mai
ntaining judicial independence.[14][15] In the United States, separation of powe

rs is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is

subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review.[16] Though
the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state, the
principles also are applicable to private organisations.
Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy
allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the "tyranny of the majority
" in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essentia
l part of an "ideal" representative democracy is competitive elections that are
substantively and procedurally "fair," i.e., just and equitable. In some countri
es, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press
are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed enabling them
to vote according to their own interests.[17][18]
It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of
all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society.[19] Wit
h its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of all the
voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political collectivism
because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens hav
e an equal say in lawmaking.[20]
While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the republican form of
government, the term "republic" classically has encompassed both democracies and
aristocracies.[21][22] Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as
the United Kingdom.
History
Main article: History of democracy
Ancient origins
See also: Athenian democracy
Cleisthenes, "father of Athenian democracy", modern bust
The term "democracy" first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical
thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity.[23][24] Led by
Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy
in 508 507 BC. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy."[
25]
Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distingui
shing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existi
ng government administrative and judicial offices,[26] and a legislative assembl
y consisting of all Athenian citizens.[27] All eligible citizens were allowed to
speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However,
Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (?t????? / mtoikoi), non-l
andowners, and males under 20 years old.[citation needed][contradictory]
Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30
,000 and 60,000 citizens.[citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the p
opulation from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding
of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the
obligation to fight war campaigns.[28]
Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by
the assembled people, but also the most direct in the sense that the people thro
ugh the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political proces
s and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public busi
ness.[29] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athen
ian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights
"[30]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the governmen
t but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being
subjects themselves to the rule of another person.[31]

Range voting appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC. The Apella was an assembly o
f the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of age 30 and above
could participate. In the Apella, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by ra
nge voting and shouting. Aristotle called this "childish", as compared with the
stone voting ballots used by the Athenians. Sparta adopted it because of its sim
plicity, and to prevent any bias voting, buying, or cheating that was predominan
t in the early democratic elections.[32][33]
Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of demo
cracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for repre
sentatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of
gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came f
rom a few wealthy and noble families.[34] In addition, the Roman Republic was th
e first government in the western world to have a Republic as a nation-state, al
though it didn't have much of a democracy. The Romans invented the concept of cl
assics and many works from Ancient Greece were preserved.[35] Additionally, the
Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries,[3
6] and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the
Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the peop
le and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated lead
er.[37] Other cultures, such as the Iroquoi Nation in the Americas between aroun
d 1450 and 1600 AD also developed a form of democratic society before they came
in contact with the Europeans. This indicates that forms of democracy may have b
een invented in other societies around the world.