I
=1,2
1I = I1 ( )
2I = I2 ( + )
BCs: 1I (, )1I (, ) 2I (, )2I (, ) = 0
Suppose: 1I (, 0) = 0 then 1I ( ) = 0 by 1I = I ( ). Bad! Instead relate
1 and 2 , assemble full spin or I (, )
I (, ) =
1I (, )
2I (, )
[0, ]
[, 0]
I continuous at = 0 because of BC 11 (, ) = 2I (, ).
NS BC: I (, ) = I (, ). I (, ) =
rZ+ 12
bIr e(ir( )) .
I
(n
)n,I
n=1
I=2
9
J=2
r= 12 , 32 , 52
(bIr )r,I
|N S p+ , p
Lecture 22
r,I {0, 1}
Recall for open bosonic string, normal ordered:
M2 =
1
I
p
pI
2
pZ
Now:
M2 =
1
2
1
1
I
p
pI +
rbIr bIr
2
2
1
rbIr bIr =
r= 12 , 32
pZ
rZ+ 2
1
rbI bI
2 1 3 r r
r= 2 , 2
1
2
rbIr bIr
1
= (D 2)
2
1 3 5
+ + + ...
2 2 2
1
12
1
1 1
= (D 2)
2 12
2
1
= (D 2)
48
1
For boson, aB = 24
.
1
(. . . + 1)
1
Here, aN S = 48
for antiperiodic fermion.
M2 =
1 I I
(
p p +
rbIr bIr + (D 2)(aB + aN S ))
p=1
1 3
r= 2 , 2
Lecture 22
M2 =
1
1
(N )
tot 2
In early 1970s, confusion over whether these are bosons or fermions. Itll turn
out that these are photons.
Count states of a given N
Given:
a+
1 : f (x) =
n=0
xn
a(n)
|0N = 0, a+
= 1, (a1+ )2 |0N = 2
1 |0N
f1 (x) = 1 + x + x2 + . . . =
1
1x
Given:
2
4
a+
2 : f2 (x) = 1 + x + x + . . . =
1
1 x2
|0N = 0, a+
= 2, (a+
=4
2 |0N
2 ) |0N
f1 (x) = 1 + x + x2 + . . . =
Given:
+
a+
1 , a2 : f1 (x)f2 (x) =
1
1x
1
1
1 x 1 x2
+ +
Now can do full open bosonic string with a+
1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
Generating Function:
fos =
1
(1
xn )
n=1
Lecture 22
fos =
1
=
(1 xn ) n=0
n=1
p(n)
xn
partitions of n
Partitions of 4: ({4}, {3, 1}, {2, 2}, {2, 1, 1}, {1, 1, 1, 1}) = number of ways to get
N = 4
ln p(N ) 2
N
6
1
exp(2
p(N )
4N 3
N
)M
6
fos =
1
(1
xn )24
n=1
Given
Given
Given
Given
b+
1 : f1 (x) = 1 + x
2
b+
2 : f2 (x) = 1 + x
+ +
b1 , b2 : f12 (x) =
f1 (x)f2 (x) = (1 + x)(1 + x2 )
+
b 1 : f 12 (x) = 1 + x
2
fN S (x) =
xr = 1 2 + 8 x0 + 36 x 2 + (#)x1
a(r)
# of states with M 2 =r
8
1 1 + xn1
=
x n=1 1 xn
Ramond: I (, ) =
I
dIn exp(in( )). dm
, dIn = m+n,0 IJ .
Lecture 22
Vacuum State: |0
|0: 1
I J |0: 6
1 2 3 4 |0: 1
This yields 8, |R1a .
I |0: 4
I J K |0: 4
M2 =
1 I I I I
(
+
nd d )
p=1 p p n=1 n n
|R1a
I
1
|R1a ,dI1 |R2a
1
24
|R2a
I
1
|R2a ,dI1 |R1a
Why is this supersymmetry? Left and right columns have opposite fermionic
states. Dont know if R1a is a boston or a fermion, but know R2a is the opposite.
No bosons that look like |R1a in real world
fR (x) = 16
1 + xn
n=1
1 xn
Lecture 22
To get supersymmtry, throw out half of the states from each sector and put
them together.
1 8
1 8
1 1 + xn 2
1 xn 2
truncated
fN
=
S
1 xn
2 x n=1 1 xn
n=1
Anything with an odd number of fermions will change the sign.
fN S = 8
1 + xn
n=1
1 xn