u03d2 Ethics, Recruitment, and Random Assignment

For this discussion, examine the articles you are collecting for your literature search on your
topic. Identify and summarize common ways that researchers of this topic sample (recruit) their
participants for quantitative research. Why do you think researchers of this topic sample
participants in these ways? What ethical concerns should be considered regarding these sampling
methods? Be sure to address relevant principles from the Belmont Report.
Select an article from your literature review in which the researcher used an experimental
approach.

How were the participants assigned to groups?

Why do you think the participants were assigned to groups in this way?

What ethical concerns should be considered, regarding the group assignment method? Be
sure to address relevant principles from the Belmont Report.

If you cannot find an example of experimental research used by researchers of your topic,
analyze and discuss possible reasons for the scarcity. Include ethical concerns as part of your
answer. Then, choose an experimental article on any topic in psychology and answer the above
questions.
Ensure that your post includes proper APA citations. Provide an APA References list at the end of
your post. Provide a persistent link to your article, or submit a PDF file as an attachment to your
discussion post. The Persistent Links and Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) library guide provides
useful information for finding DOIs and persistent links inside different library databases.
Response Guidelines
Read your peers' discussion posts and respond to at least two of them. Ask questions of
clarification or interest and explain any ethical concerns you have about their research topic. In
addition, share any relevant resources with your peers that might be helpful. Your responses are
expected to be substantive in nature and should reference the assigned readings, as well as other
theoretical, empirical, or professional literature to support your views.
1) How were the participants assigned to groups?
The 25 participants (16 women, 9 men) volunteered to participate in the research study and were
part of a community-based wellness center of older adults living in southern Maine (Richeson et
al., 2010). Simple random assignment was provided through random drawing of names out of a
hat and subsequent allocation to an experimental group (n = 13) and a control group (n = 12)
based upon the drawing.

2) Why do you think the participants were assigned to groups in this way?
A randomized experiment is the preferred method to ensuring statistical reliability and validity,
free of biased estimates of the outcome effects of treatment and control groups in an
experimental design. In this particular research study, a pretest and post test design method was
also implemented. Post test attrition can occur in experimental designs when there is a loss of
response data which lowers statistical power. According to Shadish, Cook & Campbell (2002),
random assignment increases an ability to handle attrition and maintain the validity of the
research study, when the time and obstacles between random assignment and treatment are
minimized.
In this study, 4 participants dropped out citing time constraints as the reason. Additionally, one
other individual dropped out because of an unknown illness. Study participants who remained
were n = 20 (12 women, 8 men) (Richeson et al., 2010). Because the sample size was considered
small, a nonparametric test analysis was chosen to maintain statistical power in the study.
3) What ethical concerns should be considered, regarding the group assignment method? Be sure
to address relevant principles from the Belmont Report.
The U.S Public Health Services Belmont Report proposed three ethical principles: 1) Respect
for persons (self determination), persons have an autonomous right to decide to enter the
research study, 2) beneficence, researchers maximize benefits and minimize harm to participants,
and 3) justice, the benefits and harms are distributed evenly and fairly, and participants should
not be deprived of efficacious treatments and must be informed of alternative treatments
(Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). The participants self reported diagnoses included a range of
musculoskeletal, psychological, neurological, and/or inflammatory conditions, most of which
were associated with pain, depression and/or anxiety.
An immediate ethical concern would be the probability of recidivism or increase in their
diagnostic condition among those assigned to the experimental group. In the Belmont Report #2
above it is the responsibility of researchers to ensure that harm is minimized. Fortunately, the
treatment scores indicated a reduction in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and pain and the
participants were not in the high risk category for blood pressure (Richeson et al., 2010). In one
case, a participant did indicate an increase in depression after the treatment upon which the
researcher provided subsequent treatments. The participant indicated that the after the follow up
treatment the depression had ceased.
Anthony Rhodes
General Psychology PhD.
References
Richeson, N. E., Spross, J. A., Lutz, K., & Peng, C. (2010). Effects of reiki on anxiety,
depression, pain, and physiological factors in community-dwelling older adults. Research in
Gerontological Nursing, 3(3), 187-99. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/19404921-20100601-01
Retrieved on January 27, 2013 from

http://search.proquest.com.library.capella.edu/docview/734711236/fulltext/13BE391B6233D7D
E692/5?accountid=27965
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for generalized causal inference (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN:
9780395615560.
Resubmission:
1) Identify and summarize common ways that researchers of this topic sample (recruit) their
participants for quantitative research.
For this section of the discussion question, this author will cite and review only a few of the
articles researched that are directly related to Reiki treatment modalities to gain a reasonable
overview and perspective of sampling strategies utilized in some extant Reiki research studies.
Other dissertation articles researched thus far are related to the substratum effects of
electromagnetic energy and are covariate correlates of bio-energy treatments to be used as
secondary source materials for cross referencing the physiological, psychological, cognitive and
spiritual effects of biologically safe levels of electromagnetic pulse energy on the human body
similar to the electromagnetic effects of bio-energy Reiki treatments. The following are directly
related to Reiki as classified complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatment
interventions:
A. In the quantitative experimental study, Pilot crossover trial of Reiki versus rest for treating
cancer-related fatigue (Tsang, Carlson & Olson, 2007), the researchers sought to examine the
interaction effects of Reiki treatments on fatigue, pain, anxiety, and overall quality of life among
individuals suffering from cancer-related fatigue by implementing two crossover experimental
and control conditions: 1) receiving Reiki treatment for 5 consecutive days followed by a one
week wash out monitoring period of no treatments, 2 additional Reiki sessions, and finally 2
weeks of no treatments, and 2) in the rest control group, participants rested for approximately 1
hour each day for 5 consecutive days, followed by a 1 week washout monitoring period of no
resting and an additional week of no treatments protocol at all. The research sampling design
strategy involved a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover experiment in which each
participant was involved in both the experimental and resting control conditions in random order.
B. In the quantitative experimental study, Breast biopsy and distress: Feasibility of testing a
Reiki intervention (Potter, 2007), the researcher conducted a randomized study to determine the
feasibility of Reiki treatments as a therapeutic intervention to decrease depression and anxiety
which typically occurs among women undergoing breast biopsy (BB) as a test for breast cancer.
Thirty-two participants were randomized in a blind assignment process by sealed envelope and
allocated to an experimental group involving Reiki interventions and a control group receiving

conventional care. Results were complied by administering a post intervention telephone

interview.
C. In the quantitative experimental study, Effect of Reiki Treatments on Functional Recovery in
Patients in Poststroke Rehabilitation: A Pilot Study (Shiflett et al., 2002), the objective was to
investigate the efficacy of Reiki treatment protocols as an adjunct rehabilitation treatment for
patients who had incurred a subacute ischemic stroke. This study implemented a randomized
double-blind, placebo based clinical trial. Outcome measures included the Functional
Independence Measure (FIM) as a standard measurement instrument used in most rehabilitation
hospitals and the Center for Epidemiologic StudiesDepression (CES-D) measure of depressed
mood.
D. In the quantitative quasi-experimental study, Using Reiki to Decrease Memory and Behavior
Problems in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Alzheimer's Disease (Crawford, Leaver &
Mahoney, 2006), the researchers examined the effectiveness of Reiki treatments in patients with
mild cognitive impairment or mild Alzheimers disease to improve memory and behavioral
deficiencies. The 24 study participants were multi-cultural from American Indian and Caucasian
backgrounds, were equally divided and assigned to an experimental group receiving 4 weeks of
Reiki treatment and a control group receiving no treatment over the same time period. The
research study incorporated a pretest-posttest design using the Annotated Mini Mental State
Examination (AMMSE) and the Revised Memory and Behavior Problem Checklist (RMBPC) as
measurement instruments with results compared after the study.
2) Why do you think researchers of this topic sample participants in these ways?
In the majority of the studies mentioned above, randomized assignment was used to increase
internal validity, thus increasing the plausibility of unbiased effects, facilitating causal inference
and reducing the possibilities of alternative explanations for the observed effects (Shadish, Cook
& Campbell, 2002).
The experimental crossover design under point A (Tsang, Carlson & Olson, 2007) was
administered specifically because researchers believed daily Reiki for 5 consecutive days
constituted sufficient dosage to decrease fatigue levels in moderately fatigued cancer patients.
This was to be followed by a no-treatment period to assess the longevity of any effects (washout
period, up to 1 week) and finally 2 more sessions to give another boost to energy levels. A major
limitation in this study may be the lack of valid statistical inference in isolating the effects due to
Reiki and rest periods in a crossover study, even despite the significant rest period of one or two
weeks before crossing over into the rest condition control group.
The quasi-experimental design under point D (Crawford, Leaver & Mahoney, 2006) does not
provide sufficient information to determine why the researchers chose a quasi-experimental
design. However, it is noteworthy that expected values were determined by posttest measures
and group assignments were based upon variables at pretest. This may present a confound
common to quasi-experimental designs indicating that pretest selection differences produced a
causal effect on posttest measures.

3) What ethical concerns should be considered regarding these sampling methods? Be sure to
address relevant principles from the Belmont Report.
The U.S Public Health Services Belmont Report proposed three ethical principles: 1) Respect
for persons (self determination), persons have an autonomous right to decide to enter the
research study, 2) Beneficence, researchers maximize benefits and minimize harm to
participants, and 3) Justice, the benefits and harms are distributed evenly and fairly, and
participants should not be deprived of efficacious treatments and must be informed of alternative
treatments (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002).
Two primary ethical concerns based upon the Belmont Report are: the probability of recidivism
or increase in their diagnostic condition among those assigned to the experimental group, as well
as treatment withheld from the control group. Application of the Belmont Report #2, the
principle of beneficence, states it is the responsibility of researchers to ensure that harm is
minimized and #3 the principle of justice, states the benefits and harms are distributed evenly
and fairly, and participants should not be deprived of efficacious treatments and must be
informed of alternative treatments seem to both apply in some measure to all studies cited above.
Anthony Rhodes
General Psychology PhD.
References
Crawford, S. E., Leaver, V., & Mahoney, S. D. (2006). Using Reiki to Decrease Memory and
Behavior Problems in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Alzheimer's Disease. Journal Of
Alternative & Complementary Medicine, 12(9), 911-913. doi:10.1089/acm.2006.12.911.
Retrieved January 30, 2013 from http://web.ebscohost.com.library.capella.edu/ehost/detail?
vid=3&sid=cdbeda69-4df8-4b9d-a8c7-ad9eaeee7c4d
%40sessionmgr111&hid=127&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph
&AN=23122019
Potter, P., (2007). Breast biopsy and distress: Feasibility of testing a Reiki intervention. Journal
of Holistic Nursing. 25, p. 238-248, discussion: p. 249-251. Retrieved January 30, 2013 from
http://jhn.sagepub.com.library.capella.edu/content/25/4/238.full.pdf+html
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for generalized causal inference (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN:
9780395615560.
Shiflett, S. C., Nayak, S., Bid, C., Miles, P., & Agostinelli, S. (2002). Effect of Reiki Treatments
on Functional Recovery in Patients in Poststroke Rehabilitation: A Pilot Study. Journal Of
Alternative & Complementary Medicine, 8(6), 755-763. doi:10.1089/10755530260511766.

Retrieved January 30, 2013 from

http://web.ebscohost.com.library.capella.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=7a159ce9-1e4b479e-b074-d892c9c74e76%40sessionmgr112&vid=4&hid=127
Tsang K.L., Carlson L.E., Olson K. (2007). Pilot crossover trial of Reiki versus rest for treating
cancer-related fatigue. Integrative Cancer Therapies. 6, 2535. Retrieved January 30, 2013 from
http://ict.sagepub.com.library.capella.edu/content/6/1/25.full.pdf+html