Air-fuel Ratios
The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed by the
carburettor as required for combustion by the engine. This ratio is extremely
important for an engine because there are limits to how rich (with more fuel) or how
lean (with less fuel) it can be, and still remain fully combustible for efficient firing.
The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from 8:1 to 18.5:1 i.e. from 8
kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit
causes the engine to misfire, or simply refuse to run at all.
depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions. The best fuel economy is
obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum power output is achieved with a
12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of 11:1 is required for idle heavy
load, and high-speed conditions. A lean mixture is required for normal cruising and
light load conditions. Figure 9.36 represents the characteristic curves showing the
effect of mixture ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.
Practically for complete combustion, through mixing of the fuel in excess air (to a
limited extent above that of the ideal condition) is needed. Lean mixtures are used to
obtain best economy through minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures
used to suppress combustion knock and to obtain maximum power from the engine.
However, improper distribution of mixture to each cylinder and
imperfect/incomplete vaporization of fuel in air necessitates the use of rich mixture
to obtain maximum power output. A rich mixture is also required to overcome the
effect of dilution of incoming mixture due to entrapped exhaust gases in the cylinder
and of air leakage because of the high vacuum in the manifold, under idling or noload condition. Maximum power is desired at full load while best economy is
expected at part throttle conditions. Thus required air fuel ratios result from
maximum economy to maximum power. The carburettor must be able to vary the
air-fuel ratio quickly to provide the best possible mixture for the engines
requirements
at
a
given
moment.
The best air-fuel ratio for one engine may not be the best ratio for another, even when
the two engines are of the same size and design. To accurately determine the best
mixture, the engine should be run on a dynamometer to measure speed, load and
power
requirements
for
all
types
of
driving
conditions.
With a slightly rich mixture, the combustion flame travels faster and conversely with
a slightly weak mixture, the flame travel becomes slower. If a very rich mixture is
used then some neat petrol enters cylinder, washes away lubricant from cylinder
walls and gets past piston to contaminate engine oil. A very sooty deposit occurs in
the combustion chamber. On the other hand, if an engine runs on an excessively
weak mixture, then overheating particularly of such parts as valves, pistons and
spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and pre-ignition together or separately.
The approximate proportions of air to petrol (by weight) suitable for the different
operating conditions are indicated below:
Starting
9:
Idling
12 :
Acceleration12 :
Economy 16:
Full power 12 :
1
1
1
1
1
Carburetion
Introduction
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air
mixture is done outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous
mixture is normally not completed in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets, which remain
in suspension, continue to evaporate and mix with air even during suction and
compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely important
for spark-ignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a combustible
mixture of fuel and air in the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of
the engine under all conditions.
Definition of Carburetion
The spark ignition engines fitted to automotive vehicles have to operate under
variable speed and load conditions. These engines present the most difficult and
stringent requirements to the carburetors. They are as follows:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Principle of Carburetion
Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine cylinders
by the suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This suction is due
to an increase in the volume of the cylinder and a consequent decrease in the gas
pressure in this chamber. It is the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and
cylinder that causes the air to flow into the chamber. In the carburetor, air passing
into the combustion chamber picks up discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine
orifice called carburetor jet that is exposed to the air path. The rate at which fuel is
discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure head between
the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the area of the outlet of the
tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized, the
suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order to
produce a strong suction, the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine is
made to have a restriction. At this restriction called throat due to increase in velocity
of flow, a suction effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a venturi to
minimize throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of
the carburetor. The geometry of venturi tube is as shown in Fig.16.6. It has a
narrower path at the center so that the flow area through which the air must pass is
considerably reduced. As the same amount of air must pass through every point in
the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point. The smaller the area, the
greater will be the velocity of the air, and thereby the suction is proportionately
increased
As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually loped where the
suction is maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the venturi
tube. The spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venturi
tube are mixed together in this region and a combustible mixture is formed which
passes through the intake manifold into the cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized
and simultaneously a small part will be vaporized. Increased air velocity at the
throat of the venturi helps he rate of evaporation of fuel. The difficulty of obtaining a
mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapour-air ratio for efficient starting of the engine
and for uniform fuel-air ratio indifferent cylinders (in case of multi cylinder engine)
cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity alone at the venturi throat .
discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between
the top of the nozzle and the float chamber level is marked h in Fig.3.
The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power
output is to be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the
cylinder is varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the
butterfly type that is situated after the venturi tube. As the throttle is closed less air
flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered
to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more
air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture being
delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power output. A simple carburetor
of the type described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in that it provides
the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle positions
the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened
less or more. As the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates a
certain pressure differential between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The
same pressure differential regulates the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore,
the velocity of flow of air II and fuel vary in a similar manner. At the same time, the
density I of air decrease as the pressure at the venturi throat decrease with
increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a
simple carburetor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle
opening.
evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible limits. Sometimes, the
choke valves are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression and
excessive choking does not persist after the engine has started, and reached a desired
speed. This choke can be made to operate automatically by means of a thermostat so
that the choke is closed when engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine
warms up after starting. The speed and the output of an engine is controlled by the
use of the throttle valve, which is located on the downstream side of the venturi.
The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of the
mixture placed in the passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to .the
cylinders. The decreased quantity of mixture gives a less powerful impulse to the
pistons and the output of the engine is reduced accordingly. As the throttle is
opened, the output of the engine increases. Opening the throttle usually increases the
speed of the engine. But this is not always the case as the load on the engine is also a
factor. For example, opening the throttle when the motor vehicle is starting to climb a
hill may or may not increase the vehicle speed, depending upon the steepness of the
hill and the extent of throttle opening. In short, the throttle is simply a means to
regulate the output of the engine by varying the quantity of charge going into the
cylinder.
The former is a chemical process depending upon the nature of the fuel, upon
temperature and pressure, the proportion of the exhaust gas, and also upon the
temperature coefficient of the fuel, that is, the relationship between temperature and
rate of acceleration of oxidation or burning. The second stage is a mechanical one
pure and simple. The two stages are not entirely distinct, since the nature and
velocity of combustion change gradually. The starting point of the second stage is
where first measurable rise of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram, i.e., the
point where the line of combustion departs from the compression line. In Fig.
14.2(b), A shows the point of passage of spark - (say 28 before TDC), B the point at
which the first rise of pressure can be detected (say, 8before TDC) and C the
attainment of peak pressure. Thus AB represents the first stage (about 20 crank
angle rotation) and BC the second stage. Although the point C makes the completion
of the flame travel, it does not follow that at this point the whole of the heat of the
fuel has been liberated, for even after the passage of the flame, some further chemical
adjustments due to re-association, etc., and what is generally referred to as after
burning, will to a greater or less degree continue throughout the expansion stroke.
The first stage AB, by analogy with diesel engines is called ignition lag, which label
is wrong in principle. In spark ignition there is practically no ignition lag and a
nucleus of combustion arises instantaneously near the spark plug electrodes. But
during the initial period flame front spreads very slowly and the fraction of burnt
mixture is small so that an increase of pressure cannot be detected on the indicator
diagram. The increase of pressure maybe just one per cent of maximum combustion
pressure corresponding to burning of about 1.5per cent of the working mixture, and
the volume occupied by the combustion products may be about 5 per cent of the
combustion chamber space.
The stage II is the main stage of combustion. The end of second stage is taken as the
moment at which maximum pressure is reached in the indicator diagram (see Fig. 9).
However, combustion does not terminate at this point and after burning continues
for a rather long time near the walls and behind the turbulent flame front. The
combustion rate in the stage III reduces, due to surface of the flame front becoming
smaller and reduction in turbulence. About 10 per cent or more of heat is evolved in
the after-burning stage and hence the temperature of the gases continues to increase
to point D in Fig.9. However, the pressure reduces because the decrease in pressure
due to expansion of gases and transfer of heat to walls is more than the increase in
pressure due to combustion.
angle, is 8 of crank rotation, and for the second stage, the propagation of flame
through the combustion space, 12oofcrank rotation is required. Thus the total
ignition period is 20of crank rotation. Now if the engine speed is doubled from 1500
to 3000 rpm, the time required for the second stage will again be 12 of crank rotation
(due to doubling of turbulence intensity time in milliseconds is halved and in terms
of crank angle remains constant), but for the first stage time in milliseconds is
constant and hence in terms of crank angle it will be doubled, i.e., it would be
16.This would make the total ignition period of 16 + 12 = 28 crank rotation at
3000rpm compared to 8 + 12= 20 at .1500 rpm. From this it follows that with
increase in engine speed ignition must be advanced. This is done in practice by
automatic ignition advance mechanism.
7. Engine size: Engines of similar design generally run at the same piston speed. This
is achieved by smaller engines having larger rpm and larger engines having smaller
rpm. Due to the same piston speed, the inlet velocity, the degree of turbulence, and
flame speed are nearly same in similar engines regardless of the size. However, in
small engines the flame travel is small and in large engines large. Therefore, if the
engine size is doubled the time required (in milliseconds) for propagation of flame
through combustion space will also be doubled. But with lower rpm of larger
engines the time for flame propagation in terms of crank angle would be nearly same
as in smaller engines. In other words the number of crank degrees required for flame
travel will be about the same irrespective of engine size, provided the engines are
similar.
Figure: 10. Relationship b/w pressure and crank angle for different rates of
combustion
It is clear from the figure that with lower rates of combustion longer time is required
for combustion that necessitates the initiation of burning at an earlier point on the
compression stroke. With higher rates of burning the time required for combustion is
smaller and the rate of pressure rise is higher. Also, the peak pressure produced is
close to TDC, which is desirable because it produces greater force acting through a
large portion of the power stroke. But peak pressure and hence peak temperature too
close to TDC gives a long time for rapid heat loss from the cylinder. The higher rate
of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine because of vibrations and jerks
produced in crankshaft. If the rate of pressure rise is very high it results in abnormal
combustion called detonation. In practice the engine is so designed that
approximately one-half of the pressure rise takes place as the piston reaches TDC.
This results in peak pressure and temperature 10 to 15 after TDC. In this way very
small portion of the expansion stroke is-lost and the gain is smooth engine operation
and saving an appreciable period of time during which loss of heat is rapid. In the
old engines with low compression ratios of 5 to 6 a rate of pressure rise of 2 bar per
crank degree used to be thought as optimum. Today with higher compression ratios
of the order of 8 to 9, a rate of pressure rise of 3 to 4 bar per crank degree may be
employed if the engine mountings are sufficiently stiff and efficient.
Gasoline Combustion
Vaporization of the hydrocarbons in gasoline and start of decomposition take place
at temperatures below 593 K, which exist in the combustion chamber before the
initiation of ignition. The products of combustion are mostly gases containing a large
quantity of heat. The heat energy increases the gas pressure in the combustion
chamber to produce the force on the engine piston, required to operate the
engine.The liquid gasoline must be converted to a vapour to burn in an engine. In
carburetted engines vaporization of the gasoline must be done in one-third of a
second at idle speeds and in one-thirtieth of a second at normal operating speeds. In
fuel injected engines this must occur much faster. The carburettor during the process
of mixing liquid fuel and air supports the vaporization process by breaking the
liquid gasoline into sudsy foam that rapidly mixes with the air. The molecules of fuel
and the molecules of oxygen in the air must combine in correct numbers. At sea level
the air being dense a relatively small quantity is required for a given amount of
gasoline. The air becomes less dense at high altitudes and at high atmospheric
temperatures due to which the same volume of air contains a smaller number of
oxygen molecules causing the air-fuel mixture to become richer in fuel. This causes
problem on some emission controlled engines requiring leaner carburetor settings on
automobiles used in the mountains than those used at sea level. Since automobiles
are frequently operated in both mountains and at sea level, carburetors are provided
with altitude compensation devices to prevent over-rich mixtures at high elevations.
When the charge is trapped in the combustion chamber, the molecules of oxygen in
the air come into close contact with the hydrocarbon molecules of the gasoline. This
causes rapid burning. A litre of gasoline if completely burned produces nearly a litre
of water as well as sulphur dioxide in an amount dependent on the sulphur content
in the gasoline. As the water is in a vapour form at normal operating temperatures it
leaves the cylinder as a part of exhaust gas. When the engine is first started in cold
weather condensed water vapour is visible in the exhaust. Condensed moisture with
sulphur dioxide produces the acidic water, which is corrosive. During low
temperature operating conditions such as suburban driving when the engine is cold,
much of the moisture is condensed inside the engine. The combination of corrosion
and wear under these conditions is the major reason for excessive wear of the top
ring area of the cylinder wall.
Normal Combustion
In a SI engine a homogeneous air-fuel mixture within the combustible range sustains
the progress of a definite flame front across the combustion chamber, and
combustion takes place in any location where fuel particle exists. In a CI engine, on
the other hand, the air-fuel ratios in the various part of the chamber very widely, so
no definite flame front is evident, and hence combustion occurs in many locations
within
the
chamber.
A spark plug ignites the charge in the combustion chamber near the end of the
compression stroke. The spark, produced across the spark plug electrodes at the
correct time, must have sufficient energy to raise the gas temperature between the
electrodes at a point so that the charge burning becomes self-sustaining. From this
point, a flame front moves smoothly across the combustion. The flame front
movement during normal combustion is illustrated in Fig. 8.6. Burning of charge
takes place during approximately fifty degrees of crankshaft rotation due to which
maximum force is exerted on the crankshaft. Actual combustion is much more
complex and the combustion gases pass through many phases during the
combustion process. For better understanding, the combustion is divided into two
phases
i.e.
pre-flame
reactions,
and
combustion.
As the gases are compressed and the temperature rises, pre-flame chemical reactions
take place in the compressed charge thereby changing the character of the
charge.These
pre-flame
reactions
prepare
the
charge
for
burning.
As ignition takes place, depending upon combustion chamber turbulence the flame
front moves out in a modified spherical fashion. The heat energy released behind the
flame front increases combustion chamber pressure and temperature. Due to higher
combustion chamber pressure and temperature the pre-flame reactions are increased
in a portion of the charge, called the end gases, which remain ahead of the flame
front. Pre-flame reactions increase more rapidly at higher engine compression ratios.
If pre-flame reactions become too rapid, abnormal combustion takes place.
Abnormal Combustion
Abnormal combustion may be divided into two main types i.e. knock or detonation
and surface ignition. Each of these types causes loss of power and excessive
temperature. Continued operation under either type of abnormal combustion gives
rise to physical damage of the engine.
Detonation.
Engine knock or detonation is the out come of rapid pre-flame reactions within the
highly stressed end gases. Due to the too rapid reactions spontaneous ignition of the
end gases takes place as shown in Fig. 8.7. This causes very rapid combustion within
the end gases, accompanied by high-frequency pressure waves. These waves hit the
combustion chamber walls; as a result vibration noise sets which is called knock or
detonation.
Detonation is affected by
(i) compression ratio,
(ii) the temperature and pressure at the end of compression, (Hi) the temperature of
combustion chamber wall,
(iv) engine speed,
(v) fuel mixture strength,
(vi) combustion chamber shape,
(vii) the type of fuel,
(viii) ignition timing,
(ix) position of spark plug, and
(x) position of exhaust valve.
slows the end gas pre-flame reactions, thereby decreasing the engine knock
tendency. This quenching of end gases is the main reason for a rotating combustion
chamber engine to run knock-free on low octane gasoline.
Combustion chamber turbulence, as illustrated in Fig. 8.8, also helps to reduce
knocking tendency by mixing cool and hot gases, thus preventing a concentration of
static hot end gases where rapid pre-flame reactions can take place.
Surface Ignition.
Surface ignition or secondary ignition, an abnormal combustion, starts at any source
of ignition other than the spark plug. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.9. As surface ignition
produces a secondary ignition source, its effect is to complete the combustion
process sooner than normal, thereby developing maximum pressure at a wrong time
in the engine cycle producing less power.
One potential source of secondary ignition is a hot spot, such as a spark plug
electrode, a protruding gasket, a sharp valve edge, etc. These items can become
extremely hot during engine operation forming a second source of ignition. These
sources rarely occur in modern engine designs provided the engines are properly
maintained. Another source of secondary ignition is combustion chamber deposits,
which result from the type of fuel and oil used in the engine as well as from the type
of operation of the engine. A deposit ignition source may be a hot loose deposit flake
capable
of
igniting
one
charge
before
it
is
exhausted
from the engine with the spent exhaust gases. This is called wild ping. Sometimes,
the flake remains attached to the combustion chamber wall. Under this situation, it
ignites successive charges until the deposit is consumed or the engine operating
conditions
are
changed.
When surface ignition occurs before firing of the spark plug, it is called pre-ignition.
It may be audible or inaudible. It may be a wild ping or it may be a continuous
runaway surface ignition. If it occurs after the ignition is turned off, it is called runon or dieseling. Another phenomenon resulting from pre-ignition is engine rumble.
Rumble is a low-frequency vibration of the lower part of the engine that occurs when
the maximum pressure is reached earlier than normal in the cycle. Rumble has been
almost
eliminated
from
modern
engines.
The knock-resistant fuels and antiknock additives generally tend to increase
combustion chamber deposits thereby increasing the tendency to cause surface
ignition. Fuel manufacturers therefore, use additional additives in the gasoline to
reduce the deposit ignition tendency resulting from the antiknock additives
deposits. Abnormal combustion seldom occurs in modern mass-produced
automotive engines provided the recommended grade of fuel and motor oil is used
and the engine is maintained and adjusted correctly. Some problems may exist in
engines that are used exclusively for low-speed, short-trip driving. Abnormal
combustion frequently occurs in engines modified for maximum performance and
also some in emission controlled engines.
Preignition
Ignition of air fuel mixture by some hot spot which exists within the
combustion chamber, before the occurrence of spark is called preignition.
In a spark ignition engine, the spark that jumps across the terminals of the
spark plug initiates combustion. Similarly if there is any other hot source in the
combustion chamber it will heat up the air fuel mixture surrounding it. Then
preflame reaction will certainly be accelerated by this hot spot. The hot spot may
activate. The charge in its immediate vicinity and produce a flame. The flame may
then propagate from this point before the occurrence of spark. Preignition
combustion can be seen in fig.
As indicated under surface ignition, carbon deposit from fuel or oil, an over
heated spark plug center electrode or the edge of the gasket that protrudes into the
combustion chamber can act as a hot spot and cause preignition. An overheated
exhaust valve head or edge can cause preigniton. Using unsuitable type spark plug
(one that runs too hot or has a long reach) or igniton timing too far retarded or
mixture too weak or rich which gives too slow a burning rate may also cause
preigniton. The minimum tendency to preignite exists at fuel air ratios usually richer
than the chemically correct. Tetra ethyl lead which is added to a fuel to increase its
antiknock characteristics also reduces the tendency to preignite.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Increase in variable
Major effect on
unburned reduce charge
Action to be taken
to Knocking
Compression ratio
Increases temperature
and pressure
reduce
Mass of charge
induced
Increase pressure
Reduce
Inlet temperature
Increases temperature
Reduce
Chamber wall
temperature
Increases temperature
Reduce
Spark advance
Retard
A / F ratio
Turbulence
Increases
Engine speed
Increases
Reduce
The T head design stipulates the use of the lowest compression ratios to
prevent knocking with a given fuel. F head design is an improvement over the T
head. In this the inlet valves are located in the cylinder head and the exhaust valves
are located in the cylinder or vice versa. This improves the volumetric efficiency and
also reduces the width of the combustion chambers. T head design stipulates two
camshafts one operating the inlet valves and the other operating the exhaust valves.
F head and other designs can have a single camshaft operating all the valves.
However, F head design presents difficulties in the design of the valve operating
mechanism.
Overhead valve designs result in higher volumetric efficiency. These may have
a single camshaft located by the side of the cylinder operating the valves through
tappets, push rods and rocker arms, or a single camshaft located in the cylinder head
and operating the valves through rocker arms or a single camshaft located in the
cylinder head and operating the valves directly.
In the turbulent combustion chamber, very small clearance is provided
between the piston crown and the cylinder head over a portion of the piston crown
surface. This causes squish turbulence in the mixture, better mixing of fuel and air
and improves combustion. Further, this narrow space when made to contain the end
mixture, knocking is avoided because of better cooling. Even if knock occurs its
severity will be lesser. This feature was incorporated in the General Motors Research
combustion chamber and this permitted the use of a 12.5:1 compression ratio with
100 ON fuel. This principle was also incorporated in the Ricardo turbulent
combustion chamber.