GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SILTY SOIL STABILIZED WITH POFA

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

PALM OIL FUEL ASH (POFA) is a by-product of palm oil industry. It is generated from the
combustion of palm oil plant residues.
After the extraction of the oil from the fresh palm fruit, both husk and shell are burnt as
boiler fuel in palm oil mill at a temperature of 8001000C to produce steam, which is used in
turbine for supplying electrical energy to the whole mill for milling operation and domestic or
estate use (Abdullah et al. 2006; Tangchirapat et al. 2009).The burning process results in an
ash, which is referred to as POFA. After combustion in the steam boiler, about 5% POFA by
weight of solid wastes is produced (Sata et al. 2004).
This ash is simply disposed of without any commercial return. This POFA causes a
nuisance to the environment. Since the tropical countries (Philippines) are continuously
increasing the production of palm oil, the quantity of POFA is also increasing and thus
creating a large environmental load (Abdullah et al. 2006).
In order to resolve these problems, several studies were conducted to examine the
feasibility of using POFA as building materials. The utilization of the materials from the
industrial waste will reduce the environmental impact from the waste and an option to reduce the
production cost of building materials.
Based on previous studies, it has been found that the properly processed POFA can be
used successfully as a supplementary cementing material for the production of concrete. (check
on the RRL about this)
Based on studies, POFA can be used as constituents in concrete due to the pozzolanic
properties. Many researchers have studied the use of POFA in normal concrete, high strength
concrete and lightweight concrete, including foamed concrete. The studies have revealed that
agricultural waste ashes contained high amount of silica and could be used as a pozzolanic
material. POFA is one of the agro waste ashes whose chemical composition contains a large
amount of silica and potentially used as a cement replacement. Due to high silica oxide content in
POFA which met the pozzolanic properties criteria, it is potentially utilized as cement
replacement or as filler to produce strong and durable concrete.
CEMENT, a traditional agent for soil stabilization.
Soil stabilization is a general term for any physical, chemical, biological, or combined
method of changing a natural soil to meet an engineering purpose. Improvements include
increasing the weight bearing capabilities and performance of in-situ sub soils, sands, and other
waste materials in order to strengthen road surfaces.
Adding cement to soil increases soil strength, decreases compressibility, reduces swell
potential, and increases durability.
It is similar to lime, but has pozzolanic materials that cause rapid hardening, resulting in
a solid, bound, impermeable layer.

Since, POFA is pozzolanic material and previous studies utilized it as cement replacement
in concrete, theres a possibility that POFA can be used as soil stabilizer and it will partially
replace cement. Since cement is commonly used for soil stabilization but it becomes very
expenxive.
(According to RRL POFA as soil stabilizer)

Soil stabilization can be achieved by pulverizing the natural soil or borrow material, mixing in a
chemical additive, and thoroughly compacting the mixture. The additive can be either portland cement,
lime or salt (sodium chloride). For stabilizing soils with cement, nearly all soil types can be used, from
gravelly and sandy to fine-grained silts and clays. Generally, the more granular materials are used
because they pulverize and mix readily and require the least amount of cement. Waste and substandard materials found at aggregate plants, old gravel road and street materials, as well as cinders
and slag, make excellent soil cement, if they contain 55 percent or more gravel passing the No. 4 sieve.
Moreover, this study is attempting to discuss the behavior of the clayey soil properties
when mixed with the quarry dust as its stabilizer. It aims to evaluate the effects to the soil
strength of the percentage content of the quarry dust when used as the stabilizing agent of the
clayey soil type.
Furthermore, the main objective of the study is the stabilization of the clayey soil using
quarry dust as stabilizer. Specifically, it aims to determine the significant effects on Compaction
Characteristics, Unconfined Compressive Strength and the California Bearing Ratio Capacity of
the soil when mixed with the different volume percentage of quarry dust.

Objectives of the study

The main objectives of the study is the stabilization of the silty soil using POFA as a replacement
of cement.
Specifically, this study aims to determine the:
significant effects to the compaction characteristics of silty soil when mix with the
different percentages POFA;
significant effects to the California Bearing Ratio of the silty soil when mix with different
percentages of POFA: and
significant effects to the unconfined compressive strength of the silty soil when mix with
the different percentages POFA.

Operational Definition of Terms

California Bearing Ratio penetration test conducted to evaluate strength of the
mixture.
Silty Soil - Silt is a solid, dust-like sediment that water, ice, and windtransport and deposit.
Silt is made up of rock and mineral particles that are larger than clay but smaller than sand.
Individual silt particles are so small that they are difficult to see. To be classified as silt, a
particle must be less than .005 centimeters (.002 inches) across. Silt is found in soil, along
with other types of sediment such as clay, sand, and gravel.

Clayey Soil a soil type that is prone to swelling and shrinkage when there is a massive
change in weather.
Compaction the act of squeezing out air and moisture as possible to push
solid soil
particles together.
Maximum Dry Density dry density obtained by the compaction of soil at its optimum
moisture content.
Optimum Moisture Content the percentage of moisture present in the soil at which
the soil can be compacted to its greatest density.
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test is a special type of unconsolidated
undrained test that is commonly used for clay specimens and is used to measure the
short term bearing capacity of soils.
Stone Dust Crusher dust is a fine material formed during the process of comminution of rock into
crushed stone or crushed sand. This dust is composed by particles which pass 75 m BS sieve.
PALM OIL FUEL ASH (POFA) is a by-product of palm oil industry. It is generated from the
combustion of palm oil plant residues.
FINE GRAINED SOILS
The primary piece of information in field classification of silts and clays is the level of
stickiness, or cohesion present in the soil. The best, and really only, way to accurately field
classify fine grained soils is through experience. However, I will try to present some basic rules of
thumb to aid you in the field classification process. Below are some simple field tests you can
perform.
Roll the soil into a thread - Take a small sample of your soil (approximately 1 cubic inch) and
work it into a thread (mix it with a small amount of water if needed).
If it is very difficult or impossible to roll a thread, you have a low plasticity soil, probably a silt
(ML).
If you can roll a thread, and you can do it easily and quickly, you have a moderately plastic soil,
most likely a low to moderate plastic clay (CL).
If you can roll a thread but it is difficult and the soil is very stiff, you have a highly plastic soil,
most likely a highly plastic clay (CH).
Dilatency test - Take a small sample of your soil (approximately 1 cubic inch) and mix it with
about 1 tablespoon of water. Form the sample into a cube or ball and place it in the palm of your
hand face up. With you other hand, hit the side of your hand that is holding the soil sample. This
will impart a vibration to the soil sample. If the vibrations causes the water to come to the
surface of the soil (soil surface starts to shine), the soil has a permeability indicative of a silty soil
and likely has a low plasticity. If the water appears quickly and the cube of soil starts to slump
down, the soil is likely a silt (ML). If water appears slowly and the cube generally retains its
shape, it is likely a low plastic clay (CL). The water does not appear and the ball holds its shape
very well, you likely have a highly plastic clay (CH).
Dry Strength - If you can find a dry sample of soil, try to break it. Soil with very high dry
strength is typically highly plastic (CH). A soil that is very easy to crumble is likely a low plastic

silt (ML). A soil that takes some effort but is still easy to break is likely a low to moderately plastic
clay (CL)

EMBANKMENT OR FILL

Application Description

INTRODUCTION
An embankment refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and compacted for the purpose of raising the
grade of a roadway (or railway) above the level of the existing surrounding ground surface. A fill refers to a volume of
earthen material that is placed and compacted for the purpose of filling in a hole or depression. Embankments or fills
are constructed of materials that usually consist of soil, but may also include aggregate, rock, or crushed paving
material.
Normally, the coarser fill materials are placed at or near the bottom or base of the embankment in order to provide a
firm foundation for the embankment and also to facilitate drainage and prevent saturation. The top portion of an
embankment usually is constructed of relatively high-quality, well-compacted subgrade material that is capable of
supporting the overlying pavement layers and imposed wheel loadings without deflection or undesirable movement.
The fill material used throughout the remainder of the embankment must be capable of meeting applicable
specification quality requirements and be capable of being placed and compacted at or close to its maximum
achievable density. The material is spread in relatively thin layers of 150 mm (6 in) to 200 mm (8 in) and each layer is
compacted by rolling over it with heavy compaction equipment.

MATERIALS
Soils
Many different types of soils may be suitable for use in the construction of an embankment or fill, ranging from granular
soils (sand and gravel), which are highly desirable, to the more finely sized soils (silt and clay), which are usually
somewhat less desirable. Certain types of soils (such as saturated clays and highly organic soils) are considered
unsuitable for use as materials in embankment or fill construction. Regardless of the type(s) of soil(s) used to construct
embankments or fills, the material should be well graded, capable of being well compacted, be within a proper range of
moisture to optimize compaction, and be free of unsuitable or deleterious materials, such as tree roots, branches,
stumps, sludge, metal, or trash.
Oversize Materials
Some oversize materials (over 100 mm (4 in) in size), such as rocks, large stones, reclaimed paving materials, or aircooled slags, can be used for the construction of embankment bases. Although the use of oversize materials can result
in a stable embankment base, the oversize materials should have strong particles that do not readily break down
under the action of construction machinery, but which have a range of sizes so that void spaces are at least partially
filled.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING METHODS

Some of the more important properties of materials that are used for the construction of embankments or fills include:

Gradation well-graded fill materials that consist of two or more soil types, usually a mixture of granular and
fine-grained soils, are most suitable for embankment construction. Because of the wide variety of soils that
may be encountered, there is no universally recommended range of gradation for fill materials, although the

maximum particle size should be less than 100 mm (4 in) so that it can be readily placed within a 200 mm (8
in) layer. Rock, or other oversize materials to be used as an embankment base, should consist of different size
particles, with a specified maximum particle size.

Unit Weight and Specific Gravity fill materials can vary in unit weight over a fairly wide range, depending
on the type of material and its moisture content. Fill materials that are relatively low in unit weight offer the
advantage of transmitting less dead load to the underlying soil that supports an embankment. There are
usually no specified requirements for a minimum or maximum unit weight, either before or after compaction.

Moisture-Density Characteristics the compaction characteristics (optimum moisture content and maximum
dry density) of a soil fill material are the most important single property that affects embankment performance.
Most specifications for embankment construction require the compacted fill material to have an in-place
density that is within a certain percentage (usually 95 percent or greater) of the maximum dry density at a
moisture content that is within a certain percentage (usually 3 percent or less) of optimum. The optimum
moisture and maximum dry density of fill material(s) are determined in advance in the laboratory by means of
either standard or modified moisture-density compaction tests. These tests methods are applicable for soils or
earthen fill materials. Moisture-density characteristics cannot usually be determined for oversize (over 100 mm
(4 in) materials) materials.

Shear Strength the shear strength characteristics (cohesion and/or internal friction) are indicative of the
ability of a fill material to support loads that are imposed upon it under given drainage conditions. Shear
strength characteristics are not always specified for earthen fill materials, but are determined by triaxial
compression or direct shear testing and are used to compute the slope stability of an embankment.

Compressibility compressibility refers to the consolidation or settlement characteristics of a material under

long-term loading conditions. The compressibility of a fill material is related to its shear strength, degree of
compaction, void ratio, permeability, and degree of saturation. The settlement characteristics of an earthen fill
material are determined by one-dimensional consolidation testing. Some settlement of an embankment or fill
will occur during its construction, while the remainder of the settlement (if any) will occur in the
postconstruction period.

Bearing Capacity bearing capacity refers to the ability of a fill material to support the loadings imposed upon
it over the life of the facility without undue settlement, volume change, or structural damage. Bearing capacity
can be determined by laboratory testing and by field load tests.

Permeability permeability or hydraulic conductivity refers to the ability of a soil (or an oversize material) to
transmit water through the pore structure of the fill material at a given rate. This property is indicative of the
ability of a compacted fill material to provide drainage for excessive moisture.

Corrosion Resistance corrosion is a basic chemical or electro-chemical property of a material that can
induce damage to concrete structures, steel piles, or metal appurtenances with which the embankment or fill
material may come in contact.

Table 24-9 provides a list of the standard test methods usually used to assess the suitability of conventional
earthen fill materials for use in embankment or fill construction.

Table 24-9. Embankment or fill material test procedures.

Property
Gradation
Unit Weight and
Specific Gravity

Test Method

Reference

Particle Size Analysis of Soils

ASTM D422

Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate

ASTM D136

Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate

ASTM D29

Specific Gravity of Soils

ASTM D854

Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils

ASTM

D2049

Moisture Densiity
Characteristics

Compacted Density
(In-Place Density)

Maximum Index Density of Soils Using a Vibratory Table

ASTM
D4253

Minimum Index Density of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density

ASTM
D4254

Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures

Using 5.5 lb (2.49 kg) Rammer and 12 in. (305 mm) Drop

ASTM D698
(Standard)

Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures

Using 10 lb (4.54 kg) Rammer and 18 in. (457 mm) Drop

ASTM
D1557
(Modified)

Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method

ASTM
D1556

Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the Rubber Balloon

Method

ASTM
D2167

Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods

(Shallow-Depth)

ASTM
D2922

Density of Soil in Place by the Sleeve Method

ASTM
D4564

Unconsolidated Undrained Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soils ASTM

in Triaxial Compression
D2850
Shear Strength

Compressibility

Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions

ASTM
D3080

Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on Cohesive

Soils

ASTM
D4767

One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils

ASTM
D2435

One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using

Controlled-Strain Loading

ASTM
D4186

One-Dimensional Swell or Settlement Potential of Cohesive Soils

ASTM
D4546

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils

ASTM
D1883

Bearing Ratio of Soils in Place

ASTM
D4429

Permeability of Granular Soils by Constant Head

ASTM
D2434

pH of Soil For Use in Corrosion Testing

ASTM G51

Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner FourElectrode Method

ASTM G57

Pore Water Extraction and Determination of the Soluble Salt

Content of Soils by Refractometer

ASTM
D4542

Bearing Capacity >

Permeability

Corrosion Resistance

REFERENCES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Nichols, Herbert L. Moving the Earth. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, New York, 1976.

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Earth Manual. Washington, DC, 1991.

Cement is commonly used for stabilizing sandy and other low plasticity
soils. Cement interacts with the silt and clay fractions and reduces their
affinity for water.
Table 4. CBR Ranges (DPWH Standards)
0% - 7%
8% - 25%
26% - 80%
Source: DPWH Region XII

Good for Embankment (Subgrade)

Good for Sub-Base
Good for Base-Coarse

Table 6. General Relationship of Consistency and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of

Clayey Soils
Consistency
Qu (MPa)
Very Soft
0 0.025
Soft
0.025 0.05
Medium
0.05 0.1
Stif
0.1 0.2
Very Stif
0.2 0.4
Hard
> 0.4
Source: Braja M. Das 2010 (Principle of Geotechnical Engineering, 7 th Edition)