Highway Engineering 1

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
DR. MANUEL MUHI
CIEN 3173 Highway Engineering

Course Description
The course is designed to follow the process of
locating, designing, constructing and
maintaining roads and highways. It covers the
highway planning process and the principles of
route location. It introduces also the different
design parameters of roads/highways like
design speed, speed limits and the different
geometric parameters (HA/VA). This course
also covers the design of pavement and road
drainage
Course Outline
A. Introduction of the Course
B. Highway Planning Process and
Methods
C. Highway Classification
D. Transport Demand/Forecasting
E. Road/Highway Design Criteria &
Standards
F. Geometric Design (HA & VA)
g. Types/Design of Pavement
h. Design of Road Drainage
i. Road/Highway Maintenance
Grading System:
Quiz/Exam --------70%
Project -------- 20%
Seatwork, Course Notes, Assignment, Recitation
Attendance ------- 10%
-------------------------------------------------------100%
Passing % = 70%
Passing Score (Exam/Quiz) = 70
Attendance/Late
3 Late = 1 absent
5 Absent = Dropped
Group Project: The group is required to design a road/highway
applying all the knowledge in surveying and highway engineering.
The road project will cover 20 to 30 km road ( 20 km for 4 members,
25-30 km for 5 members), passing through a flat, rolling and
mountainous terrain. The horizontal alignment and vertical
alignment shall be designed in accordance with the existing
AASHTO/DPWH Design Guide/Standards. The other components of
the project are as follows:
1. Transport analysis (traffic load analysis)
2. Drawings, details and specifications of the road/highway
3. Earthworks
4. Projected Estimate
5. 2 options and criteria of evaluation
6. Drainage Design
(Deadline of Submission: March ____, 2016)
References:
Highway Engineering, Oglesby
Highway Engineering, Wright
Intro. To Transpo Engg, Banks
Pavement Design, Wang
Traffic & Highway Engg, Garber
Highway Design Manual
Concepts of Transportation
Engineering
Transportation Engineering a branch of civil

engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods
Elements of Transpo
Engineering
Highway & Traffic Engineering

Pavement Engineering
Railway Engineering
Airport Engineering
Water (Harbor Engineering)
Transportation
Pipeline Transportation
Highway Engineering
Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the

planning, location, design construction and
maintenance of highways and with the regulations
and control devices employed in highway traffic
operations
Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,
travelway, shoulders, sidewalks, pavement surfacing,
subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage and ditch
Road transport is one of the most

common mode of transport. Roads in
the form of trackways, human pathways
etc. were used even from the prehistoric times. Since then many
experiments were going on to make the
riding safe and comfort. Thus road
construction became an inseparable part
of many civilizations and empires.
History of highway engineering

The history of highway enginnering
gives us an idea about the roads of
ancient times. Roads in Rome were
constructed in a large scale and it
radiated in many directions helping them
in military operations. Thus they
are considered to be pioneers in road
construction.
Introduction to Highway Engineering

2.1 Overview
Road transport is one of the most
common mode of transport. Roads in
the form of trackways, human pathways
etc. were used even from the prehistoric times. Since then many
experiments were going on to make the
riding
safe and comfort. Thus road
construction became an inseparable part
of many civilizations and empires. In
this chapter we will see the different
Ancient Roads
The first mode of transport was by foot.
These human pathways would have been
developed for specific purposes leading to
camp sites, food, streams for drinking water
etc. The next major mode of transport was
the use of animals for transporting both men
and materials. Since these loaded animals
required more horizontal and vertical
clearances than the walking man, track ways
emerged.
The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian

civilization led to the development of animal
drawn vehicles. Then it became necessary
that the road surface should be capable of
carrying greater loads. Thus roads with
harder surfaces emerged. To provide
adequate strength to carry the wheels, the
new ways tended to follow the sunny drier
side of a path
These have led to the development of footpaths. After the invention of wheel, animal
drawn vehicles were developed and the
need for hard surface road emerged. Traces
of such hard roads were obtained from
various ancient civilization
dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest
authentic record of road was found from
Assyrian empire constructed
about 1900 BC
Ancient Roads
The first mode of transport was by foot. These
human pathways would have been developed for
specific
purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc. The next major mode of transport
was the
use of animals for transporting both men and
materials. Since these loaded animals required more
horizontal
and vertical clearances than the walking man, track
ways emerged. The invention of wheel in
Mesopotamian
civilization led to the development of animal drawn
vehicles. Then it became necessary that the road
surface
Roman roads
The earliest large scale road
construction is attributed to Romans
who constructed an extensive system of
roads radiating in many directions from
Rome. They were a remarkable
achievement and provided travel times
across Europe, Asia minor, and north
Africa. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction
were to provide good drainage, good
material and good workmanship
British roads
The British government also gave importance to road
construction. The British engineer John Macadam
introduced what can be considered as the first
scientific road construction method. Stone size was
an important
element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation
of many roads,he came to realize that 250 mm layers
of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness and a better
running
surface than an expensive pavement founded on
large stone blocks. Thus he introduced an economical
method
of road construction.
British roads
The British government also gave importance to road
construction. The British engineer John Macadam
introduced what can be considered as the first
scientific road construction method. Stone size was
an important
element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation
of many roads,he came to realize that 250 mm layers
of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness and a better
running surface than an expensive pavement
founded on large stone blocks. Thus he introduced
an economical method of road construction..
The mechanical interlock between the

individual stone pieces provided
strength and stiffness to the course.
But the inter particle friction abraded
the sharp interlocking faces and partly
destroy the effectiveness of the
course. This effect was overcome by
introducing good quality interstitial finer
material to produce a well-graded
mix. Such mixes also proved less
permeable and easier to compact. A
Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow Macadams
construction method. Use of bituminous concrete and
cement
concrete are the most important developments.
Various advanced and cost-effective construction
technologies
are used. Development of new equipments help in
the faster construction of roads. Many easily and
locally available materials are tested in the
laboratories and then implemented on roads for
making economical and
durable pavements.
Scope of transportation system has

developed very largely. Population of
the country is increasing day by
day. The life style of people began to
change. The need for travel to various
places at faster speeds also increased.
This increasing demand led to the
emergence of other modes of
transportation like railways and travel
by air.
Highway Types/Classification of
Roads (Political Classification)
National Roads form part of the main road

trunkline system administered by the DPWH
thru its regional and engg district offices,
right of way of not less than 20m allocation
for improvements
Provincial Roads connect one municipality
to another, roads within provincial
boundaries, ROW <15m.
City Roads- it connects one
city/town/municipality-roads within the urban
area, ROW of at least 15m
Municipal roads - roads within

town/municipalities, ROW of at
least 10m
Barangay roads rural roads,
ROW of at least 10m; roads
outside the Poblacion or
municipality, feeder or farm to
market roads
Classification of Traffic Road
Expressway- traffic mobility function for high speed motor vehicles

from one activity center to another. Intersection is grade separated.
Roadside consists of a soil fill or cut section, traffic barriers and gutter
Major road/boulevard/arterial- traffic mobility function for all types of
conveyor or vehicles. All intersection zones are at grade and controlled
Collector/street/ordinary road- traffic mobility function for all types of
conveyors. Movement of all types of vehicles at the same speeds (3040 kph)
Local road/ residential street- facilitation of access to/from private
property and some social activities. Provide direct access of safe
movement of vehicles at low speed (20-30 kph)
Modern Highway Location

Practice
Reconnaissance eliminate costly locations and limit the

choice to one or two general routes between controls
Route Selection is to flag the best location within the general
route, which will more or less permit the predetermined grade
controls
Preliminary Survey to obtain topography of the strip or strip
flagged which data will be utilized as the basic framework for
the projection of the line.
Location survey to transfer the paper projection determined
in the off, from the topographic strip map to the actual site in
the field

Practice
Soil investigation
Drainage recommendation
Conduct subsurface investigations

Sampling and testing (in situ and laboratory test)
Surface drainage
Subsurface drainage
Design Controls
Traffic volume
Traffic character
Design speed
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Environmental Concerns
1. Potential impacts of road construction on the quality of physical and
human condition in the area.
2. Ensure less potential
negative impacts on
air quality, sound
quality, water quality
and land
characteristics.
3. Reduce undesirable changes in the physical and human
condition in area were the construction will take place
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Cultural Concerns
1. Degradation of natural history (palaeotological
significance)
2. Cultural Sites
* archaeological sites
* burial (cemetery)
* religious significance
* ethnical domain
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Flow
* influential to vehicle to vehicle interactions
* congestion may result in increase in journey time
and accident risk
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS

DT AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFFIC ON UNDER 200
200 - 400
OPENING
DEISGN SPEED ( km / h )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
60
70
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
40
50
MOUNTAINOUS TOPOGRAPHY
30
40
RADUIS ( meter )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
120
160
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
55
85
30
50
GRADE ( percent )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
6
6
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
8
7
10
9
PAVEMENT WIDTH ( m)
4
5.5; 6.0
SHOULDER WIDTH ( m)
0.5
1
RIGHT OF WAY WIDTH ( m)
20
30
SUPERELEVATION ( m/m )
0.10 (max.)
NON PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
70
90
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
40
60
40
40
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
420
490
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
270
350
190
270
TYPE OF SURFACING
400 - 1000
MINIMUM DESIRABLE
1000 - 2000
MINIMUM DESIRABLE
MORE THAN 2000

MINIMUM DESIRABLE
70
60
40
90
80
50
80
60
50
95
80
60
90
70
60
100
90
70
160
120
50
280
220
80
220
120
80
320
220
120
260
160
180
350
280
160
5
6
8
3
5
6
4
5
7
3
5
6
4
5
7
6.7
3
4
5
7.3
6.1
1.5
30
0.10 ( MAX. )
6.7
2.5
3
30
30
0.10 ( MAX.)
3
60
0.01 (MAX.)
90
70
40
135
115
60
115
70
60
150
115
70
135
90
70
160
135
90
490
420
270
615
560
350
560
420
360
645
560
420
615
490
420
675
615
490
Gravel, crushed gravel or

Bituminous Macadm
Bituminous Concrete Bituminous Concrete Surface
crushed stone bituminous
Pavemet, Dense or open
Surface course
Course, Portland Cement
preservative treatment
graded plant mix surface
Concrete Pavement
single or double bituminous course, bituminous concrete
surface treatment,
surface course
bituminous macadam
pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting
* traffic volume estimation
Traffic loading information may be obtained from

the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane

* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS


Cumulative Equivalent Traffic
(E80/lane)
Description
<0.20 x 106
Very light trafficked, very few

heavy vehicles
0.2 0.8 x 106
Lightly trafficked roads, light

delivery and agricultural vehicles,
very few heavy vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads)
0.8 - 3 x 106
Medium volume of traffic; few

heavy vehicles
4 (Highway)
3 - 12 x 106
High volume of traffic and/or

many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway)
12 - 50 x 106
Very high volume of traffic

and/or high proportion of fully
laden heavy vehicles
Traffic Class
1 (Feeder Roads)
2 (Collector Roads)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected

factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :
Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
where:
Pn =projected number of traffic

Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
using a growth
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design
Data
Geometric Design
Pavement Design
number of lanes
type of pavement
width of lanes
thickness of subgrade, subbase,

base courses
design speed
thickness of pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk
Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current circumstances
Highway Geometric
Design Process
Specify design standards

Local/national standards
Functional classification
Design speed, cross
sectional features,
superelevation
Survey Major Site Characteristics

Topography
Ground soil conditions

Hydrologic condition
Environmental conditions/impacts
Habitat
Existing zoned land use
Specify Major Design Controls

Design vehicle
design speed
volume/capacity/LOS/Access
Horizontal controls (radius, superelevation)
Vertical controls (grades, intersections, utilities)
cross section controls and elements
Selection of routes
Identify alternate routes
sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
Screen routes and select those for preliminary design
Modifications?
Earthwork control (excavation, embankments, etc)
Horizontal alignment
vertical alignment
cross sections
drainage features
earthworks
environmental impacts
Evaluate Design
Cost (project cost, user cost)
Detailed Design
Modifications?
Conduct (preliminary)
design
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,

PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric
element
Design features
a) Cross section
Traffic way,carriage
way, median,
shoulders, parking
lane, roadside
b) Horizontal
alignment
Horizontal curve and

horizontal tangent
Design
parameters
No of carriageways
no of lanes per
carriageway
Width and cross
slope
Characteristics of
median
Characteristics of
shoulders/parking
lanes
Number of curves
Characteristics of
curves
Length of curve
Available sight
distance
Design
standards
Minimum width or
lane
maximum and
minimum cross
slope
Minimum radius
and length of
circular curve
minimum
clearance
Minimum length of
transition curve
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,

PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric
element
c) Vertical
alignment
Design features
vertical curve
vertical tangent
d) Intersection
zone diagram
Intersection approach
zone
Intersection area
e) Superelevation
diagram
Superlevation rate,
Superelevation runoff
Tangent runoff
Design
parameters
types, location and
length of curve
Length and grade
of tangent
Available sight
distance
Design
standards
min and max
length of vertical
curve
max grade of
vertical alignment
number, length ad
width of lanes on
approach zone
type of
intersection area
Superelevation rate
superelevation
runoff length
tangent runoff
length
Maximum rate of
superelevation
Geometric Design
Geometric Design for transportation

facilities includes the design of
geometric cross section, horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment,
intersections, and various design
details.
goals of geometric design
maximize the comfort

safety,
economy of facilities
while maximizing their environmental
impacts
FUNDAMENTALS OF
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
geometric cross section

vertical alignment
horizontal alignment
super elevation
intersections
various design details.
GEOMETRIC CROSS
SECTION
The primary consideration in the design of cross sections is

drainage.
Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders (or
parking lanes), and drainage channels.
Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature.
Shoulders provide:
accommodation of stopped vehicles
emergency use,
and lateral support of the pavement.
Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.
Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed
swales) or of paved shoulders with berms of curbs and gutters.
Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.
Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.
Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.
Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.
Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.
Geometric cross section cont..
Standard lane widths are normally 3.6 m (12

ft), although narrower lanes are common on
older roadways, and may still be provided in
cases where the standard lane width is not
economical. Shoulders or parking lanes for
heavily traveled roads are normally 2.4 to 3.6
m (8 to 12 ft) in width; narrower shoulders
are sometimes used on lightly traveled road.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment of a transportation
facility consists of
tangent grades (straight line in the
vertical plane)
vertical curves. Vertical alignment is
documented by the profile.
TANGENT GRADES
Tangent grades are designated according to their

slopes or grades.
Maximum grades vary depending on the type of
facility, and usually do not constitute an absolute
standard.
The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the
heavier vehicles (which typically have the lowest
power/weight ratios) and increase operating costs.
Vertical Curves
Vertical tangents with different grades

are joined by vertical curves.
Symmetrical Vertical Curve
VERTICAL CURVES CONT

Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the
point of intersection (P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join.
Vertical curves are thus of the form
where
y = elevation of a point on the curve

yo = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve (BVC)
g1 = grade just prior to the curve
x = horizontal distance from the BVC to the point on the curve
r = rate of change of grade
The rate of change of grade, in turn, is given by
where g2 is the grade just beyond the end of the vertical

curve (EVC) and L is the length of the curve.
Vertical curves are classified as sags where g2 > g1 and
crests otherwise. Not that r (and hence the term rx2 /2)
will be positive for sags and negative for crests.
If grades are in percent, horizontal distance must be in
stations
If grades are dimensionless ratios, horizontal distances
must be in meters.

The grade of any point in the vertical curve is a linear
function of the distance from the BVC to the point. That is,
PROBLEM
A 2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by

means of a 180-m vertical curve. The P.I. station is
100 + 00 and the P.I elevation is 100.0 m above
sea level. What are the station and elevation of the
lowest point on the vertical curve?

Design standards for vertical curves establish their minimum
lengths for specific circumstances
based on sight distance,
on comfort standards involving vertical acceleration,
or appearance criteria.
In most cases, sight distance or appearance standards will

govern for highways.
the equations used to calculate minimum lengths of vertical
curves based on sight distance depend on whether the sight
distance is greater than or less than the vertical curve length.
Stopping sight distance diagram for crest vertical curve.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
For crest vertical curves, the minimum

length depends on the sight distance,
the height of the drivers eye, and the
height of the object to be seen over the
crest of the curve.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES

When SL
When SL
where S = sight distance (from Table)

L = vertical curve length
A = absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades, in percent, |g1-g2|
h1 = height of eye
h2 = height of object
For stopping sight distance, the height

of object is normally taken to be
150mm. for passing sight distance, the
height of object used by AASHTO is
1300 mm. Height of eye is assumed to
be 1070 mm.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
For sag vertical curves, stopping sight

distance is based on the distance illuminated
by the headlights at night.
Design standards are based on an assumed
headlight height of 600 mm and an upward
divergence of the headlight beam of 1.
As in the case of crest vertical curves, the
formulas for minimum length of vertical curve
depend on whether the length of the curve is
greater or less than the sight distance.
Stopping sight distance diagram for sag vertical curve.
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
For sag vertical curves, the formula is
Design charts of tables are used to

determine minimum length of vertical
curve to provide stopping sight distance
for both crest and sag vertical curves,
and passing sight distance on crests.
These may be found in the AASHTO
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways

and Streets.
Vertical CURVE limited to

provide clearances
Finally, vertical curve lengths may be

limited by the need to provide
clearances over or under objects such
as overpasses or drainage structures.
VERTICAL CURVES PASSING OVER

OBJECTS(e.g. Overpass)
SAG CURVE Minimum Lengths

CREST CURVE Maximum Lengths
VERTICAL CURVES PASSING UNDER

OBJECTS(e.g. Drainage
SAG CURVE Maximum Lengths

CREST CURVE Minimum Lengths
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal alignment for linear

transportation facilities such as
highways and railways consists of
horizontal tangents, circular curves, and
possibly transition curves. In the case
of highways, transition curves are not
always used.
Horizontal alignments with and without

transition curves.
HORIZONTAL TANGENTS
Horizontal tangents are described in terms of

their lengths (as expressed in the stationing
of the job) and their directions. Directions
may be either expressed as bearings or as
azimuths and are always defined in the
direction of increasing station. Azimuths are
expressed as angles turned clockwise from
due north; bearings are expressed as angles
turned either clockwise or counterclockwise
from either north or south.
CIRCULAR CURVES
Horizontal curves are normally circular.

Figure in the next slide illustrates
several of their important features.
Horizontal curves are also described by
radius, central angle (which is EQUAL to
the deflection angle between the
tangents), length, semitangent
distance, middle ordinate, external

distance, and chord. The curve begins
ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL
CURVE
Design standards for horizontal curves establish their

minimum radii and, in some cases, their minimum
lengths. Minimum radius of horizontal curve is most
commonly established by the relationship between
design speed, maximum rate of superelevation, and
curve radius. In other cases, minimum radii or curve
lengths for highways may be established by the need
to provide stopping sight distance or by appearance
standards.
Transition Curves
Transition curves are used to connect

tangents to circular curves.
tangent to spiral point (TS),

spiral to curve point (SC),
curve to spiral point (CS),
spiral to tangent point (ST).
SUPERELEVATION
The purpose of superelevation or

banking of curves is to counteract the
centripetal acceleration produced as a
vehicle rounds a curve. The term itself
comes from railroad practice, where the
top of the rail is the profile grade.
A commonly used mixed-unit version of the

equation is:
where V is in km/h and R is in meters. Alternatively,
Example
Compute the minimum radius of a

circular curve for a highway designed
for 110 km/h. The maximum
superelevation rate is 12%. Value of
f(from AASHTO table) is 0.11.
INTERSECTIONS & INTERCHANGES
Geometric Design of transportation facilities must

provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts.
In general, these conflicts may be classified as:
Merging conflicts
Diverging
Occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream
Weaving conflicts
Occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream
Diverging conflicts
Merging
Occurs by merging then diverging
Crossing conflicts
Weaving
Occurs when they cross paths directly
Crossing
Three Basic Ways of Resolving Crossing

Conflicts
Time-sharing Solutions
Space-sharing Solutions
Grade separation Solutions
At-grade intersections
Except for freeways, all highways have

intersections at grade, so that the
intersection area is a part of every
connecting road or street.
In this area, crossing and turning
movements occur.
Some intersection are channelized to
minimize traffic accidents, speed
control, prevention of prohibited turns,
General types of at-grade

Intersections
Unchannelized T
Unchannelized Y
Flared T
3-leg
intersections
Y with turning roadways
Unchannelized
Channelized
INTERCHANGES
Are classified according to the way they

handle left-turning traffic.
INTERCHANGE CONFIGURATION
- are selected on the basis of structural
cost, right-of-way costs, and ability to
serve traffic.
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE
Partial cloverleaf
TRumpet
FULL DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL-Y
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)
OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)
OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)
General Classes of Freeway

Interchanges
Diamond Interchange
Employ diamond ramps
which connect to the

cross road by means of
an at grade intersection.
Left turns are
accomplished by having
vehicles turn left across
traffic on the cross road.
Cloverleaf Interchange
Employ loop ramps, in
which vehicles turn left

by turning 270 degrees
to the right.
Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (Parclo)
Involves various combinations of diamond and loop ramps.
Trumpet Interchange
ASSESSMENT OF ADEQUACY
OF DESIGN
Assessment of reasonableness of the assumption of data

Appropriateness of assumed data and calculations made
Reliability of data
Assessment of adequacy of the design elements
Cross section assessment

Availability of sight distances
Assessment of reasonableness of the assumption of data
Appropriateness of assumed data and calculations made

Reliability of data
ASSESSMENT OF ADEQUACY
OF DESIGN
Assessment of adequacy of design consistency
Drivers operational safety
Plans
Show the centerline of the project road, the width and shoulders
and the right of way
the azimuth, distance, elements of curve, coordinates,
superelevation and wideing of every curve and design speed
Contours shall be plotted at 1.0m intervals, if contour lines are
too close together, an interval of 5 m may be used
Elevation of bench marks with accurate descriptions, reference
points and controlling points with azimuth and distance shall be
shown
Profile
Elements of every vertical parabolic curve

Finished grade and existing elevations for every full station
Longitudinal profile of existing ground and finished grade lines shall be
plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontal and for vertical, 1:100m
Cross Section
Width of grading and surfacing of the proposed road

General manner of treating slopes in cut and fill
Manner of superelevating and widening in curves
Geotechnical Drawings
Geotechnical data in these drawings shall include the complete

soil survey data for the project, the approved sources of borrow,
aggregate, subbase, aggregate concrete aggregates and asphalt
aggregate
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Concepts of Transportation
Engineering
Transportation Engineering a branch of civil

engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods
Elements of Transportation
Engineering
Highway & Traffic Engineering

Pavement Engineering
Railway Engineering
Airport Engineering
Water (Harbor Engineering)
Transportation
Pipeline Transportation
Highway Engineering
Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the

planning, location, design construction and
maintenance of highways and with the regulations
and control devices employed in highway traffic
operations
Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,
travelway, shoulders, sidewalks, pavement surfacing,
subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage and ditch
Highway Types/Classification of
Roads (Political Classification)
National Roads form part of the main road

trunkline system administered by the DPWH
thru its regional and engg district offices,
right of way of not less than 20m allocation
for improvements
Provincial Roads connect one municipality
to another, roads within provincial
boundaries, ROW <15m.
City Roads- it connects one
city/town/municipality-roads within the urban
area, ROW of at least 15m

Practice
Reconnaissance eliminate costly locations and limit the

choice to one or two general routes between controls
Route Selection is to flag the best location within the general
route, which will more or less permit the predetermined grade
controls
Preliminary Survey to obtain topography of the strip or strip

flagged which data will be utilized as the basic framework for
the projection of the line
Location survey to transfer the paper projection determined
in the off, from the topographic strip map to the actual site in
the field
Municipal roads - roads within

town/municipalities, ROW of at least
10m
Barangay roads rural roads, ROW of at
least 10m; roads outside the Poblacion
or municipality, feeder or farm to
market roads
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS

DT AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFFIC ON UNDER 200
200 - 400
OPENING
DEISGN SPEED ( km / h )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
60
70
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
40
50
30
40
RADUIS ( meter )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
120
160
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
55
85
30
50
GRADE ( percent )
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
6
6
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
8
7
10
9
PAVEMENT WIDTH ( m)
4
5.5; 6.0
SHOULDER WIDTH ( m)
0.5
1
RIGHT OF WAY WIDTH ( m)
20
30
SUPERELEVATION ( m/m )
0.10 (max.)
NON PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
70
90
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
40
60
40
40
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ( meter)
FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
420
490
ROLLING TOPOGRAPHY
270
350
190
270
TYPE OF SURFACING
400 - 1000
MINIMUM DESIRABLE
1000 - 2000
MINIMUM DESIRABLE
MORE THAN 2000

MINIMUM DESIRABLE
70
60
40
90
80
50
80
60
50
95
80
60
90
70
60
100
90
70
160
120
50
280
220
80
220
120
80
320
220
120
260
160
180
350
280
160
5
6
8
3
5
6
4
5
7
3
5
6
4
5
7
6.7
3
4
5
7.3
6.1
1.5
30
0.10 ( MAX. )
6.7
2.5
3
30
30
0.10 ( MAX.)
3
60
0.01 (MAX.)
90
70
40
135
115
60
115
70
60
150
115
70
135
90
70
160
135
90
490
420
270
615
560
350
560
420
360
645
560
420
615
490
420
675
615
490
Gravel, crushed gravel or

Bituminous Macadm
Bituminous Concrete Bituminous Concrete Surface
crushed stone bituminous
Pavemet, Dense or open
Surface course
Course, Portland Cement
preservative treatment
graded plant mix surface
Concrete Pavement
single or double bituminous course, bituminous concrete
surface treatment,
surface course
bituminous macadam
pavement
DESIGN OF
HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment

Route
Location
Determination of
Horizontal
Alignment
Combination of
Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
Determination of
Vertical Alignment
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment
The combination of horizontal

and vertical alignment is the final
check of design and belongs to
one of the most difficult
procedure in geometric design
Harmony of geometric
alignment
Design should satisfy safety

running, visual and
psychological comfortableness.
Economical and less negative
impact in environment
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN

Good design
Bad design
Plan
Plan
Profile
Profile
Comment: A very satisfactory appearance

results when vertical and horizontal curves
coincide. Keep vertical curve within
horizontal curve
Comment: This combination is

dangerous as the reverse curvature of
the alignment is obscured from the
drivers view by the crest.
Plan
Plan
Profile
Profile
Comment: Ideal coordination between HA &

VA, vertices of curves coinciding, creating a
rich combination
Comment: The summit vertical curve restricts

the drivers view of the level crossing (or road
intersection, start of a horizontal curve or
other hazard) and produces a dangerous
situation
Road Intersection
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT
DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Good design
Plan
Bad design
Plan
Obstruction
Bridge
Profile
Profile
Comment: This situation always look

bad. It is much better to begin the
Comment: This is the most effective
way to display a bridge. Bridge is visible detour before the driver is aware of the
reason for it.
to the driver.
General Idea of Design:
HA & VA should be
superimposed; keep vertical
curve within horizontal curve.
Keep the balance of VA & HA
RH(m)
RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1),%]
RHm
RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1)%]
500
10000
1000
10000
700
12000
1100
30000
800
16000
1200
40000
900
20000
Highway Curves
Highway and railroad routes are chosen

only after a complete and detailed study
of all possible location
Route selection usually involves the use of air

photos and ground surveys and the analysis of
existing plans and maps
Route selected is chosen because it satisfies all

design requirements with minimal social,
environmental and financial impact
Technique for Horizontal and

Vertical Alignment
Design of horizontal and vertical alignment of a

road consists of two major tasks
Obtaining the values of design controls for horizontal

curves and tangents (requires the use of the
parameters of the quality of design)
Involves the determination of the location type and
characteristics of horizontal curves
Estimation of Control Values of

Horizontal Alignment
Parameters
Estimation of control values of horizontal alignment

parameters involves the estimation of the
threshold values of circular and transition curves
and horizontal tangents
a)
Danger of Skidding exist when:

V2 > e + fs, the value should not exceed 0.22
127 R
where: e = superelevation
V = speed (Kph)
fs = coefficient of side friction
R = radius of the curve (m)

Horizontal Alignment Parameters
b) Danger of Overturning
1) At low speeds, there is a likelihood of offtracking while at high speeds drivers generally
experience difficulty in steering their vehicles
and thus take the outer side of the beginning of
the curve
2) To reduce the effects of these, some extra
width of pavement often provided on curves

Danger of Overturning
The major requirements are to determine the

following:
Minimum radius and length of curve

Maximum rate of superelevation
Minimum amount of widening

Danger of Overturning
X
V2
127 R
> x + ye
y xe
Where: y & x = coordinates of

the center of gravity of the
design vehicle (Y=1.5 and x =
1.2 m_

Minimum Radius and Length of Curve
The appropriate radius of a circular curves can

be considered to be one that prevent
overturning of heavy vehicles, ensures safety of
each vehicle and its occupants and satisfies the
sight distance requirement
Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd)
Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular curve

Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
V2
Rsr = -----------------------127 (emax + fsmax)
emax=maximum value of supreelevation (rural areas = 0.08 and urban areas =0.04 tp
0.06
AASHTO Values of Side Friction
Design
Speed
(kph)
48
64
80
96
104
112
120
128
Side
Friction
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.11
Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

curve

V2
Rsr = -------------------127 (emax +fsmax)
fsmax = 0.37 {0.0000214 *Vd2 - 0.0064Vd + 0.77}

curve
Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks

on the curve
V2 [y xe]
Rso = ---------------------127 [x +ye]

curve
Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance

requirements
(SD)2
Rsd =--------------8m
SD = sight distance
m =distance from
curve obstruction
Minimum Desirable Rate of

Superelevation
Rsd
Line of sight
obstruction
sight distance

curve
Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks
on the curve
Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance
requirements
Superelevation
Banking or superlevation is necessary to

counteract the centrifugal force that is acting on
the vehicle
The value of maximum superelevation, e, may
range from 6% to 12% depending on the
terrain of the area where the highway will
traverse
Superlevation
CL
Minimum Desirable Rate of

Superelevation
To ensure that a vehicle is traveling at the 99th

percentile speed on a curve if minimum radius will
experience an acceptable lateral acceleration
edmax = Min[emax; V2/282 Rdmin]
edmax=max desirable value of
superelevation rate
Minimum Desirable Amount of

Extra Widening on Circular Curve
Extra widening is often needed on curve

because:
1) vehicles occupy a greater width on
curves because their rear wheels generally
track inside front wheels in rounding a
curve,
2) drivers generally experience difficulties
in steering their vehicle in the center of a
lane
Extra Widening requirement

0.5nl2
0.105V
Wdmin=------------ + ----------
Rdmin
Extra widening
(Rdmin)0.5
Wdmin=desirable min amount of

widening
n= number of lanes
l =length of wheel base of the
design vehicles (m)
Rdmin =min desirable redius of
curve
Widening on Road Curves

Standard Widening of Curves
Radius
(m)
Design Speed
(kph)
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
50
1.75
80
1.50
1.50
100
1.25
1.25
125
1.0
1.25
1.25
150
1.0
1.25
1.25
180
1.0
1.25
1.25
1.25
200
0.75
1.0
1.0
1.0
250
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
1.25
300
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
1.0
400
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
500
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
1.0
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.75
600
800
1000
1200
1500
Transition Curve
A transition curve is sometimes needed to improve the

drivers operation and comfort and make steering easier
and more accurate for a vehicle
This is necessary because the centrifugal force which acts
on a vehicle as it enters a circular curve may result in a
lateral jerk (rate of change of centrifugal acceleration)
which can cause a discomfort to the driver and passengers
of the vehicle
It is used to produce a smoother appearing transition that
is more accurate to the character of the alignment
Transition Curve
The most commonly used type of transition curve

is a spiral curve (clothoid) which is used to
enable a gradual introduction of the centrifugal
force (or slower rate of change of lateral
acceleration)
It shall be designed between circular curves or
between straight alignment and circle when
radius of curvature is 750m or degree of curve >
1 to satisfy different condition of optic condition
and dynamic condition
Optic Condition- the change in direction

(deflection) shall be > 3degrees expressed as
A = R/3 or Ls = R/9
The offset of the circular curve due to the transition curve
shall be > 0.50 m to present a satisfactory aspect in
perspective, expressed as:
Ls = 12R
Limit between these two conditions is R = 972m ; Ls =

108m
Dynamic Condition
Ls > V [e +e] where e =NC (normal crown), %
Superelevation Runoff Condition: Ls > SR (superelevation
runoff)
Adopt Ls > the length of corresponding to the most
constraining condition
Minimum Desirable Length of

Spiral Curve (Ls)
A) Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration must be

constant and smaller than an established limit
V3
Ls= length of spiral curve
Ls =-----------V = speed, kph
RC
c = rate of increase of centrifugal
acceleration. Its value varies between
1&3
Minimum Desirable Length of

Spiral Curve (Ls)
Criterion 1: Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration and superelevation is incorporated (Lsc)

Lsc = 0.022 Vd {[Vd2/Rdmin] 127 edmax}
Criterion 2: Length must be consider to enable the introduction of the designed superelevation
Lss = edmax * 0.5 [W + We] /RS (if pavement is rotated about the
center)
Lss = edmax * [W + We] /RS
(if pavement is rotated about the
inner edge)
Where: Lsc, Lss = length of transition curve to fulfill rate of change of lateral acceleration and to fulfill
the rate of introduction of the designed superelevation requirements respectively
RS allowable relative slope (0.2% for 1 lane, 0.5% for 2 lanes, 1% for 3 lanes and 2% for 4 lanes)
edmax = maximum desirable rate of superelevation
W and We = normal pavement width and the extra widening at the circular curve, respectively
Lsdmin = MAX (Lsc, Lss)
Ls dmin =minimum desirable length of transition spiral
Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
Is a transition curve needed?

Does a simple curve fit the site condition?
If not, what is the most appropriate
compound curve that fits the site conditions?
horizontal curve
To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 1: Compare Rdmin with Vd3/432: if Rdmin is less,
then transition spirals are required, otherwise, only
a circular curve is required.
Step 2: Compare the value of angle of transition curve
with the total deviation angle (angle between the
two intersecting straights). If the angle of transition
is equal to half of deviation angle, then transition
curves can be used throughout. Otherwise, a
combination of circular and transition curve is
required
horizontal curve
To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 3: Check whether the curve obtained through
steps 1 and 2 is compatible with the site
conditions. If yes, use the curve. If not, select a
suitable compound curve. Two criteria must be
satisfied.
1) minimum radius of the compound curve must not be
less than the minimum desirable radius
2) adequacy of the curve selected must be checked
using this figure:
horizontal curve
After selecting the appropriate type of horizontal

curve, TL12, the length of hor tangent between
two curves must be check to ensure that it is
greater than the critical length of tangent which
is given as
CTL = MAX [{10R10.5}; 2Vd]
CTL = critical tangent length and R1 is the radius of the larger
curves (consider the max radius)
If TL12 is less than CTL, a compound curve must be used to
replace the curves 1 and 2
Sample Problem
The design speed of a highway is 80 kph. However, due to

economic and other reasons, a horizontal curve of radius of
200m is on the highway. Can this speed be safely maintained
on the road? If not, what should be done?
Solution:
Step 1) Estimate the actual value of superelevation on
the horizontal curve. Assuming that emax =0.07.
Using the eqn of
edmax = MIN [0.07; (80)2/282*200]
e = 0.113
edmax = 0.07 (not safe)
Solution:
Step 2) Compare the friction demand and maximum available friction

Based from the friction demand (fd)= [(80)2 / 127 * 200] 0.07 = 0.18
fsmax =0.37{0.0000214 * Vd2 0.0064 Vd + 0.77}
= 0.37{0.000214 * (80)2 0.0064 (80) + 0.77}
= 0.146
Since fd > fsmax; 80 kph is not safe speed on the curve

The maximum desirable speed is given as {127*200 (0.07 + 0.146)}2 = 74 kph
Thus, the speed on the curve should be restricted to 74 kph through use of signs
and markings
Sample 2
A truck with a center of gravity at x=1.2m and y=1.5m is

expected to travel on a circular curve. The design speed on the
curve is 80 kph and the minimum desirable sight distance is
150m. In addition, the expected distance of the obstruction
from the road center line is 10m. Determine the minimum
desirable values of the curve parameters.
Solution
Step 1) Checking of skidding condition

(80)2/127Rsr = e + fsmax
since it is generally recommended that emax + fsmax
should not be greater than 0.22.
(6400)/127Rsr = 0.22
Rsr = 230 m
Step 2) Check condition of stability

against overturning
V2/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
V=80
e=emax: 6400/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
= [1.2+(1.5*0.07)]/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)]
= 0.92
Thus, Rso =6400/(127*0.92)
e
V2
127 R
> x + ye
y xe
Rso =55m
Step 3: Check Sight Distance condition

Rsd = (SD)2/8m
Rsd = (150)2 / (8*10)= 280m
Step 4: Estimate the minimum desirable value of radius
Considering all the conditions:
Rdmin = MAX [280, 230, 55]
Therefore, Rdmin = 280m
Step 5: Estimate the minimum desirable

maximum rate of superelevation
Assume emax = 0.07
edmax =MIN [0.07; V2/282*Rdmin]

edmax = MIN [ 0.07; (80)2 /282 (280)]
= MIN [0.07; 0.081]
edmax = 0.07
V2 > x + ye
Checking adequacy of results:
y xe
There will be no problem of overturning if 127 R
That is [6400/127*280] =0.18
This is less than [1.2+(1.5*0.07)/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)] = 0.92
Therefore the combination of R=280 and e=0.07 is OK!
Technique for Design of

Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment of a road consist of tangent grades
connected with parabolic vertical curves (Crest or sag
curves).Vertical alignment is the profile view of the
centerline of the road consisting of tangent grades
connected by vertical curves
Vertical Curves
Vertical Curves can be circular or parabolic

curves. Parabolic curves are preferred by
many agencies because they provide a
constant rate of curvature
Maximum and Minimum Length of a

Symmetrical Crest Vertical Curve
Maximum and Minimum Length of Symmetrical
Sag Vertical Curve
Gradient or Grade
Gradient is the rate of rise and fall on any length

of road with respect to the horizontal.
The gradient and length of tangent depend
generally on the terrain and the design speed.
In general, maximum grade is considered to be
10-12% for a length of tangent of 150m.
Control Grades for Design

Level
Rolling
Mountainous
Freeway/Xpressw
ay
3-4%
4-5%
5-6%
Rural Arterials
3-5%
4-6%
5-8%
Urban Arterials
5-8%
6-9%
8-11%
Collector/Second
ary
4-7%
(rural)
5-9%
(urban)
Local or Minor
Street
5-8%
5-10% (rural) 6-12% (rural)

6-12%
7-14% (urban)
(urban)
6-11%
10-16%
Min and Max Length of a

Symmetrical Crest Curve
Vcldmin = Max {Lsd;Lc;La}
Vcldmin=min desirable length of crest vertical curve
Lsd=length of curve to satisfy the sight distance
requirement
Lc=length of curve to satisfy the comfort requirement
La=length of curve to satisfy appearance requirement

Symmetrical Crest Curve
SD2A
where: A=algebraic difference in grades
Lsd =-------------------------(a+b+2c0.5+b0.5)200
A=G1-G2
a=eye height above the road
surface
b=object height above the
road surface
Lc =[V2A]/389
Based fro AASHTO
La = 2V
Vcldmin=51A,
A is in %

Symmetrical Sag Curve
For sag curves, the main sight distance criterion to be

satisfied is night visibility
Vsldmin=Max[Lnv;Lc;La]
Vsldmin=min desirable length of sag vertical curve

SD2A
Lnv=----------------------[2h+2SDtan]100
Lnv=min length of sag curve to satisfy night

visibility
h=height of headlight above the surface
(assume to be 0.6m)
=beam angle, 1 degree

Symmetrical Sag Curve
s
Lc = [V2A]/389
La = 2V
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

FOR CROSS SECTION DESIGN
CROSS SECTION IS THE VERTICAL PLANE

(SECTION) PERPENDICULAR TO THE LINEAR
DIRECTION OF THE ROAD
CROSS SECTION DESIGN INVOLVES TWO MAIN
TASKS
USE THE VALUES OF THE QUALITY OF DESIGN TO

ESTIMATE THE CONTROL VALUES OF ROADWAY AND
ROADSIDE DESIGN PARAMETERS
JUDGEMENT ON THE BASIS OF TERRAIN CONDITION,
COST, ETC
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR

CROSS SECTION DESIGN
Built up areas: cross section consists of

basically different types of traffic ways,
parking spaces and medians. The set of traffic
ways for vehicles is known as carriageway; the
combination of carriageways, parking spaces
and medians is a roadway
MEDIAN
CARRIAGEWAY
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

FOR CROSS SECTION DESIGN
FOR ROADS OUTSIDE THE BUILT UP

AREAS: CROSS SECTION CONSISTS OF
ROADWAY (WITH ONE OR MORE
CARRIAGEWAYS) AND A ROADSIDE
FOR INTERSECTIONS, CROSS SECTION
GENERALLY CONSISTS OF OPEN SPACES
AND TRAFFIC

Cross Section Design involves the

determination of the following:
Appropriate type of cross section

Appropriate configuration of the type of cross
section
Appropriate dimensions of each of the elements
of the configiration

Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters

a) Width of lane, W = Wv + Sm + Sf
Wv = width of design vehicle (m)
Sm = space reqd for lateral movements (m)
= 0.15-0.30 @ V=30 kph
= 0.25-0.40@ V=50 kph
= 0.40-0.50@V=70 kph or above
Sf= space reqd due to fear of sidewalk or object (trees, parked veh, etc)
= 0.25-0.40 for sidewalk; 0.50-0.60 for objects @ V = 30 kph
= 0.35-0.50 for sidewalk; 0.70-0.80 for objects @ V = 50 kph
= 0.50-0.60 for sidewalk; 0.90-1.0 m of robjects @ V = 70 kph

Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters
For Built Up Areas
W = (Vd/80) + 2
Width of a bicycle lane
Wbc = [2=3a] / 4
a=design number of bicycles riding side by side

= 2<a< 4
For other type of conveyor (road)

Wsc = Wv + 0.50
Wsc =minimum desirable width of special conveyor

Wv =width of special conveyor

Minimum Width of Safety Enhancement Places (Shoulders

and Parking Lanes)
The minimum desirable width of a safety enhancement place depends on

whether the place is designated to be used as a shoulder or a parking lane. In
the case of a shoulder the usable width is usually between 0.6 and 3.6mdepending on the class of road and traffic volume.
The usable width of a shoulder can be determined as:
Ws = minimum desirable useable width o shoulder (m)

Wv = width of design vehicle (m)
Cw = clearance (usually between 0 and 1.5)
In parallel parking, the minimum and desirable width are 3.0 and 3.6m respectively

Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of

Conveyors
The desirable number of traffic lanes for each designated category of

conveyors is dependent on the design entry flow rate and design
service flow rate and can be estimated as:
Ndmin = DDFR/DSFR
Ndmin = desirable minimum number of lanes
DDFR = design demand flow rate in pcph (per car per hour)
DSFR = design service flow rate (pcph per traffic lane)

Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of Conveyors
DDFR = [AADT*EK*PF*DD]/ PHF

AADT = forecast average annual daily traffic
EK = percent of AADT during the peak hour
= 0.12-0.20 for rural routes
= 0.07 0.12 for urban routes
PF = proportion of conveyor category in a peak period traffic stream
DD = directional distribution factor = proportion of traffic of road which moves
in the major direction
PHF = peak hour factor

Minimum Width of Median
The minimum width of a median or center reserve, when necessary, can be between 2m
up and 30 m depending on the available right of way. The minimum desirable width
depends on the purpose of the median.
A median may be designed for safety purposes in terms of (1) preventing accidents
caused by crossover traffic, headlight glare distraction and traffic turning left from
through lanes, (2) provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the highway

Cross Slope or Camber of lanes or Crossfall slope provided to the surface
of a lane in the transverse direction to drain off water from the surface.
Types of Surface
Range of camber in Areas of

Rainfall Range
Heavy
To
Light
Cement Concrete & High Type Bituminous

surface
2.0%
To
1.70%
Thin Bituminous Surface
2.5%
To
2.0%
Water Bound Macadam, and gravel Pavement
3.0%
To
2.5%
Earth Surface
4.0%
To
3.0%
Roadside Slopes
Shoulder
Cut Slope
Carriageway
Shoulder
1
S
Fill Slope
Shoulder
Carriageway
Shoulder
1
S
Main design parameters for the roadside slope
Roadside slopes (embankment or cut) the alternatives are either to select a steep
slope near the roadway and shield it with a traffic barrier or select a flat slope
Drainage ditches this will base from the slope of the drainage
Highway Geometric Design

Process
Specify Design Standards
Local agency,
Functional Design

Topography
Ground/soil conditions
Hydrologic conditions
Environmental conditions/impacts
(Design Speed, cross sectional

features, superelevation)
Habitat
Existing/zoned land use
Specify Design Standards

Local Agency
(Ex. Design speed, cross sectional,
superelevation)
Highway
Geometric
Design Process

Topography
Ground/soil condition
Hydrologic condition
Environmental condition
Existing/zoned land use
Specify Major Design Controls

Design vehicl
Design speed
Volume/capacity/LOS
Horizontal controls(radius,
superelevation) &Vertical controls
(grades, intersection)
Cross section controls/elements
Earthwork controls (excavation,
embankments)
Select Route
Identify alternate routes
Sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
Screen routes and select those for preliminary
design
Conduct (Preliminary) Design

Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Cross sections
Drainage features
Earthwork
Environmental impacts
Evaluate Design
Costs (project costs, user costs)
Environmental impacts
Detailed Design
Modificati
ons?
Existing ground
surface
Propose road
surface
Types of Road
Intersection
The type of intersection may be divided

intro 3 categories. One is from its shape,
and one is from its structural type and
another is from its operational type.
Shape
Three-leg intersection
T-type
Y-type
Four Leg intersection
Right Angle
Oblique
Multi leg intersection
Rotary intersection (Roundabout)
Structural Type of Intersection
Intersection at Grade: two or more

roads intersection or join at the same
level
Grade separated intersection: when one
highway crosses another at grade, the
capacity is reduced
Structures with interchange

Structures without intechange
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design
Data
Geometric Design
Pavement Design
number of lanes
type of pavement
width of lanes
thickness of subgrade, subbase,

base courses
design speed
thickness of pavement
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting

* traffic volume estimation


* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS

Cumulative Equivalent Traffic
(E80/lane)
Description
<0.20 x 106
Very light trafficked, very few

heavy vehicles
0.2 0.8 x 106
Lightly trafficked roads, light

delivery and agricultural vehicles,
very few heavy vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads)
0.8 - 3 x 106
Medium volume of traffic; few

heavy vehicles
4 (Highway)
3 - 12 x 106
High volume of traffic and/or

many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway)
12 - 50 x 106
Very high volume of traffic

and/or high proportion of fully
laden heavy vehicles
Traffic Class
1 (Feeder Roads)
2 (Collector Roads)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected

factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :
Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
where:
Pn =projected number of traffic

Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
using a growth
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Sample
problem: Traffic Forecasting
STANDARDS
Determine the possible number of average vehicle per day of a

rural road if the initial average daily traffic is 200, locality growth rate is
6% and design years is 5 years.
Soln:
Working Formula:
Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
Given: Pi = 200 ADT, r = 6% and n = 5
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 1 =212
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 2 =224.72~225
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 3 =238.20
Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 4 =252.50

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 5 =267.65~268
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk
Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current

circumstances
Transportation System Description:

Networks and Data
Study Area
Delineation of the study area

Subdivision of the study area into zones
Definition of zone centroids
Propose road
Transportation System Description:

Networks and Data
Transportation models are being used

to make prediction and forecasts of
future changes in usage of traffic
facilities for sake of facility design,
control and operation.
Travel Choice Model System
Trip Generation Model

Trip Distribution Model
Modal Choice Model
Route Choice
Zonal
Data
Trip Production
Trip frequency choice
Trip Attraction
Transport
Networks
Trip Distribution
destination choice
Modal Split
Travel
Resistances
modal choice
Period of day
Assignment
Time choice
route choice
Network loads,
travel times, etc

Highway Engineering 1

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Highway Engineering 1

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

DR. MANUEL MUHI

CIEN 3173 Highway Engineering

Transportation Engineering a branch of civil

Highway & Traffic Engineering

Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the

Road transport is one of the most

History of highway engineering

Introduction to Highway Engineering

The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian

The mechanical interlock between the

Scope of transportation system has

National Roads form part of the main road

Municipal roads - roads within

Classification of Traffic Road

Expressway- traffic mobility function for high speed motor vehicles

Modern Highway Location

Reconnaissance eliminate costly locations and limit the

Modern Highway Location

Conduct subsurface investigations

ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3. Reduce undesirable changes in the physical and human

condition in area were the construction will take place

ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS

MORE THAN 2000

Gravel, crushed gravel or

Traffic loading information may be obtained from

* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane

Traffic loading information may be obtained from

* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane

Very light trafficked, very few

0.2 0.8 x 106

Lightly trafficked roads, light

3 (Major Collector Roads)

Medium volume of traffic; few

High volume of traffic and/or

Very high volume of traffic

* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected

Pn =projected number of traffic

n = number of projected years

thickness of subgrade, subbase,

Specify design standards

Survey Major Site Characteristics

Ground soil conditions

Specify Major Design Controls

Earthwork control (excavation, embankments, etc)

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,

Horizontal curve and

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,

Geometric Design for transportation

goals of geometric design

maximize the comfort

geometric cross section

The primary consideration in the design of cross sections is

Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.

Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.

Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.

Geometric cross section cont..

Standard lane widths are normally 3.6 m (12

Tangent grades are designated according to their

Vertical tangents with different grades