Abstract:
In this article I argue that current research indicates that an
isothermal model of galactic expansion appears to tentatively
confirm empirical evidence. I discuss fundamental cosmological
principles which mass accreting theories of galaxy formation are
derived from. I discuss earlier research which has established the
framework. I also highlight ongoing problems that face us in
developing a working model of galaxy formation and accretion in
the early universe.
Introduction:
Big bang – origin of the universe and the precursor to
galactic origination
Explaining the process of galaxy formation is a tenuous hypothetical
endeavor. We do not know the initial conditions in the primordial
Universe with enough accuracy to reconstruct the process with
scientific accuracy.
The big bang, which is current scientific consensus for the origin of
the universe, confines all matter and energy at the beginning of the
universe within an infinitely small space, homogenously distributed.
After staggeringly short and energetic periods of time in which
subatomic and elementary particles formed, and energetic forces
became distinct from each other, we reach a period where the
universe is beginning to resemble its present self.
This point has been described as the opaque era of the universe,
when light and matter were intertwined. Photons of light collided
with free protons (hydrogen ions), neutrons, electrons and helium
nuclei, trapping the light in a thick particle plasma. After about
300,000 years of expansion, following the big bang, the universe
had cooled enough to allow atoms of hydrogen and helium and
trace elements to form, in an event called recombination. As these
primordial atoms started to combine, photons that were trapped in
the plasma were liberated, and the universe became transparent to
light. The process that produced this blast of free energy is known
as photon decoupling, and this period of time is known as the
decoupling epoch. From this decoupling of matter and energy the
cosmic microwave background as we see it today was created. This
period of time is important as it marks the boundary to the cosmic
dark age. Unfortunately, periods before the decoupling are invisible
to us, and are the reason why scientific experiments which
replicate the conditions of this era are important in our
understanding of these processes.
A ripple on a flat surface is an area which has mass that breaks the
uniformity of the background pattern. It is believed that there were
ripples in this primordial superdense plasma, of a few parts per
million. Although tiny, these ripples would have implications as the
Universe expanded, and their scale was magnified exponentially in
tandem with the growth of the matter cloud. These fluctuations in
gas may not have been the only ripples, some propose that at dark
matter may have also began to form clumps at the same time, or
before ordinary matter. Because of it’s gravitational influence, it
may have had effects on the normal matter around it, possibly
disrupting the ripples in conventional matter.(Atwood 2006)
Fig 2.This is a 3-D map of dark matter. Clumping of the dark matter
is more pronounced in the more recent times (left) than in the early
universe (right). NASA / ESA / R. Massey
Dark matter (DM) takes its name from the idea that 5/6ths of matter
in the universe is invisible to us; ‘dark’, though it’s gravitational
effects can be measured on luminous matter, such as that
contained in galaxies(Dekel 1995). DM appears not to interact via
the electromagnetic force, and therefore neither emits nor reflects
light. However, interacts via gravity, and has been observed
through the gravitational lensing it creates (Kitching et al. 2010)
Bottom Up [Isothermal]
Contrastingly, if smaller scale fluctuations in the cloud where more
important, then the first systems to become gravitationally
independent would be smaller. This theory was developed by
Searle and Zinn. They hypothesized that the galactic formation
occurs through a process of accretion (Searle & Zinn 1978).These
smaller, denser areas would over time combine together in a
process known as hierarchical galaxy formation. It would not be
unlike gravitational galactic interactions we observe today, in which
galaxies appear to be in the process of merging or distorting their
mutual structure.
It has been suggested that tidal interactions modify galactic
structures, and can contribute to either a deformation of a galaxy
structure, or if interaction is prolonged, a full scale merger between
them (Alladin & Narasimhan 1982). Galactic cannibalism is the
process in which a more massive galaxy assimilates smaller
galaxies on it’s periphery. The redshifts of many galaxies within the
local group show evidence of a virgocentric flow. This speed of this
flow (the actual difference between the Virgo cluster peculiar
velocity and the peculiar velocity of the Local Group (LG) in the
direction of Virgo) is estimated to be 220 km/s (Courteau 2000)
Jack Oughton / 07023367
Fig 3 Velocity vectors from LG and Virgo. The Virgo infall velocity (
Vi
nfall ) is vectorially subtracted from the LG’s MBR (microwave
background radiation) motion.
Conclusion
In my personal opinion, some derivative of the bottom up
hypothesis of galaxy formation is most credible at this time. I say
this as there is ample observational evidence of hierarchical
clustering.
Dekel, A., 1995. Dark Matter from Cosmic Flows: How Much? Where?
What is it? Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements,
38(1-3), 425-434.
Fixsen, D.J. & Mather, J.C., 2002. The Spectral Results of the Far‐
Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer Instrument on COBE.
The Astrophysical Journal, 581(2), 817-822.
Kitching, T., Massey, R. & Richard, J., 2010. Title: The dark matter of
gravitational lensing. arxiv.org. Available at:
http://arxiv.org/abs/1001.1739.
Searle, L. & Zinn, R., 1978. Compositions of halo clusters and the
formation of the galactic halo. The Astrophysical Journal, 225,
357.