Cognitive neuroscience

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrates
underlying cognition,[1] with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. It addresses the
questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive
neuroscience is a branch of both psychology and neuroscience, overlapping with disciplines such as
physiological psychology, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology.[2] Cognitive neuroscience relies upon
theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neuropsychology and computational modeling.[2]
Due to its multidisciplinary nature, cognitive neuroscientists may have various backgrounds. Other than the
associated disciplines just mentioned, cognitive neuroscientists may have backgrounds in neurobiology,
bioengineering, psychiatry, neurology, physics, computer science, linguistics, philosophy and mathematics.
Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental paradigms from psychophysics and cognitive
psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiology, cognitive genomics and behavioral genetics. Studies of
patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience.
Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology.
Cognitive neuroscience can look at the effects of damage to the brain and subsequent changes in the thought
processes due to changes in neural circuitry resulting from the ensued damage. Also, cognitive abilities based on
brain development is studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience.

Contents
1 Historical origins
1.1 Consciousness
1.2 Origins in philosophy
1.3 19th century
1.3.1 Phrenology
1.3.2 Localizationist view
1.3.3 Aggregate field view
1.3.4 Emergence of neuropsychology
1.3.5 Mapping the brain
1.4 20th century
1.4.1 Cognitive revolution
1.4.2 Neuron doctrine
1.5 Mid-late 20th century
1.5.1 Brain mapping
2 Emergence of a new discipline
2.1 Birth of cognitive science
2.2 Combining neuroscience and cognitive science
3 Recent trends

3 Recent trends
4 Topics
5 Methods
6 Related WikiBooks
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Historical origins
Consciousness
Cognitive neuroscience is an
interdisciplinary area of study that has
emerged from many other fields,
perhaps most significantly neuroscience,
psychology, and computer science.[3]
There were several stages in these
disciplines that changed the way
researchers approached their
investigations and that led to the field
becoming fully established.
Although the task of cognitive
neuroscience is to describe how the
brain creates the mind, historically it has
Timeline showing major developments in science that led to the
progressed by investigating how a
emergence of the field cognitive neuroscience.
certain area of the brain supports a
given mental faculty. However, early
efforts to subdivide the brain proved problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis
for its theories and has since been rejected. The aggregate field view, meaning that all areas of the brain
participated in all behavior,[4] was also rejected as a result of brain mapping, which began with Hitzig and
Fritschs experiments [5] and eventually developed through methods such as positron emission tomography
(PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).[6] Gestalt theory, neuropsychology, and the cognitive
revolution were major turning points in the creation of cognitive neuroscience as a field, bringing together ideas
and techniques that enabled researchers to make more links between behavior and its neural substrates.

Origins in philosophy
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind. For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the bodys
cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It has been suggested that the first
person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the
brain was the source of mental activity [7] although this has also been accredited to Alcmaeon.[8] Psychology, a
major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.[9]

19th century
Phrenology
One of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was phrenology, a
pseudoscientific approach that claimed that behavior could be determined by
the shape of the scalp. In the early 19th century, Franz Joseph Gall and J. G.
Spurzheim believed that the human brain was localized into approximately 35
different sections. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous
System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, Gall claimed that a larger
bump in one of these areas meant that that area of the brain was used more
frequently by that person. This theory gained significant public attention,
leading to the publication of phrenology journals and the creation of
phrenometers, which measured the bumps on a human subject's head. While
phrenology remained a fixture at fairs and carnivals, it did not enjoy wide
acceptance within the scientific community.[10] The major criticism of
phrenology is that researchers were not able to test theories empirically.[3]
Localizationist view

A page from the American

Phrenological Journal

The localizationist view was concerned with mental abilities being localized to specific areas of the brain rather
than on what the characteristics of the abilities were and how to measure them.[3] Studies performed in Europe,
such as those of John Hughlings Jackson, supported this view. Jackson studied patients with brain damage,
particularly those with epilepsy. He discovered that the epileptic patients often made the same clonic and tonic
movements of muscle during their seizures, leading Jackson to believe that they must be occurring in the same
place every time. Jackson proposed that specific functions were localized to specific areas of the brain,[11]
which was critical to future understanding of the brain lobes.
Aggregate field view
According to the aggregate field view, all areas of the brain participate in every mental function.[4]
Pierre Flourens, a French experimental psychologist, challenged the localizationist view by using animal
experiments.[3] He discovered that removing the cerebellum in rabbits and pigeons affected their sense of
muscular coordination, and that all cognitive functions were disrupted in pigeons when the cerebral hemispheres
were removed. From this he concluded that the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem functioned together
as a whole.[12] His approach has been criticised on the basis that the tests were not sensitive enough to notice
selective deficits had they been present.[3]
Emergence of neuropsychology
Perhaps the first serious attempts to localize mental functions to specific locations in the brain was by Broca and
Wernicke. This was mostly achieved by studying the effects of injuries to different parts of the brain on
psychological functions.[13] In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca came across a man who was able to
understand language but unable to speak. The man could only produce the sound "tan". It was later discovered
that the man had damage to an area of his left frontal lobe now known as Broca's area. Carl Wernicke, a
German neurologist, found a patient who could speak fluently but non-sensibly. The patient had been the victim

of a stroke, and could not understand spoken or written language. This patient had a lesion in the area where the
left parietal and temporal lobes meet, now known as Wernicke's area. These cases, which suggested that lesions
caused specific behavioral changes, strongly supported the localizationist view.
Mapping the brain
In 1870, German physicians Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch published their findings about the behavior of
animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electrical current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing different
muscles to contract depending on which areas of the brain were electrically stimulated. This led to the
proposition that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain rather than the cerebrum as a
whole, as the aggregate field view suggests.[5] Brodmann was also an important figure in brain mapping; his
experiments based on Franz Nissls tissue staining techniques divided the brain into fifty-two areas.

20th century
Cognitive revolution
At the start of the 20th century, attitudes in America were characterised by pragmatism, which led to a
preference for behaviorism as the primary approach in psychology. J.B. Watson was a key figure with his
stimulus-response approach. By conducting experiments on animals he was aiming to be able to predict and
control behaviour. Behaviourism eventually failed because it could not provide realistic psychology of human
action and thought it was too based in physical concepts to explain phenomena like memory and thought. This
led to what is often termed as the "cognitive revolution".[14]
Neuron doctrine
In the early 20th century, Santiago Ramn y Cajal and Camillo Golgi began working on the structure of the
neuron. Golgi developed a silver staining method that could entirely stain several cells in a particular area, leading
him to believe that neurons were directly connected with each other in one cytoplasm. Cajal challenged this view
after staining areas of the brain that had less myelin and discovering that neurons were discrete cells. Cajal also
discovered that cells transmit electrical signals down the neuron in one direction only. Both Golgi and Cajal were
awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for this work on the neuron doctrine.[15]

Mid-late 20th century

Several findings in the 20th century continued to advance the field, such as the discovery of ocular dominance
columns, recording of single nerve cells in animals, and coordination of eye and head movements. Experimental
psychology was also significant in the foundation of cognitive neuroscience. Some particularly important results
were the demonstration that some tasks are accomplished via discrete processing stages, the study of attention,
and the notion that behavioural data do not provide enough information by themselves to explain mental
processes. As a result, some experimental psychologists began to investigate neural bases of behaviour. Wilder
Penfield built up maps of primary sensory and motor areas of the brain by stimulating cortices of patients during
surgery. Sperry and Gazzanigas work on split brain patients in the 1950s was also instrumental in the progress
of the field.[7]
Brain mapping

New brain mapping technology, particularly fMRI and PET, allowed researchers to investigate experimental
strategies of cognitive psychology by observing brain function. Although this is often thought of as a new method
(most of the technology is relatively recent), the underlying principle goes back as far as 1878 when blood flow
was first associated with brain function.[6] Angelo Mosso, an Italian psychologist of the 19th century, had
monitored the pulsations of the adult brain through neurosurgically created bony defects in the skulls of patients.
He noted that when the subjects engaged in tasks such as mathematical calculations the pulsations of the brain
increased locally. Such observations led Mosso to conclude that blood flow of the brain followed function.[6]

Emergence of a new discipline

Birth of cognitive science
On September 11, 1956, a large-scale meeting of cognitivists took place at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. George A. Miller presented his "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" paper while
Noam Chomsky and Newell & Simon presented their findings on computer science. Ulric Neisser commented
on many of the findings at this meeting in his 1967 book Cognitive Psychology. The term "psychology" had
been waning in the 1950s and 1960s, causing the field to be referred to as "cognitive science". Behaviorists such
as Miller began to focus on the representation of language rather than general behavior. David Marr concluded
that one should understand any cognitive process at three levels of analysis. These levels include computational,
algorithmic/representational, and physical levels of analysis.[16]

Combining neuroscience and cognitive science

Before the 1980s, interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science was scarce.[17] The term 'cognitive
neuroscience' was coined by George Miller and Michael Gazzaniga toward the end of the 1970s.[17] Cognitive
neuroscience began to integrate the newly laid theoretical ground in cognitive science, that emerged between the
1950s and 1960s, with approaches in experimental psychology, neuropsychology and neuroscience.
(Neuroscience was not established as a unified discipline until 1971[18]). In the very late 20th century new
technologies evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive neuroscience, including TMS
(1985) and fMRI (1991). Earlier methods used in cognitive neuroscience includes EEG (human EEG 1920) and
MEG (1968). Occasionally cognitive neuroscientists utilize other brain imaging methods such as PET and
SPECT. An upcoming technique in neuroscience is NIRS which uses light absorption to calculate changes in
oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin in cortical areas. In some animals Single-unit recording can be used. Other methods
include microneurography, facial EMG, and eye-tracking. Integrative neuroscience attempts to consolidate data
in databases, and form unified descriptive models from various fields and scales: biology, psychology, anatomy,
and clinical practice.[19]

Recent trends
Recently the foci of research have expanded from the localization of brain area(s) for specic functions in the
adult brain using a single technology, studies have been diverging in several different directions [20] such as
monitoring REM sleep via polygraphy, a machine that is capable of recording the electrical activity of a sleeping
brain. Advances in non-invasive functional neuroimaging and associated data analysis methods have also made it
possible to use highly naturalistic stimuli and tasks such as feature films depicting social interactions in cognitive
neuroscience studies.[21]

Topics

Attention
Change blindness
Consciousness
Decision-making
Learning
Memory
Language
Mirror neurons
Social cognition
Emotions

Methods
Experimental methods of specific psychology fields include:
Psychophysics
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Electroencephalography
Electrocorticography
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Computational Modeling

Related WikiBooks
wikibooks:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience
Wikibook on consciousness
Cognitive Neuroscience chapter of the Neuroscience WikiBook
Computational Cognitive Neuroscience wikibook
(http://grey.colorado.edu/CompCogNeuro/index.php/CCNBook/Main)

See also
Cognitive biology

Combinatorial game theory

Cognitive psychology

Brodmann area

Experimental psychology

List of cognitive neuroscientists

Cognitive psychophysiology

Neuroethology

Affective neuroscience
Social neuroscience
Cultural neuroscience

References
1. ^ Gazzaniga, Ivry and Mangun 2002, cf. title
2. ^ a b Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv
3. ^ a b c d e Kosslyn, S, M. & Andersen, R, A. (1992). Frontiers in cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT
press.
4. ^ a b Cordelia Erickson-Davis. "Neurofeedback Training for Parkinsonian Tremor and Bradykinesia"
(https://ida.mtholyoke.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10166/626/153.pdf?sequence=1). Retrieved 2013-05-23.
5. ^ a b G. Fritsch, E. Hitzig, Electric excitability of the cerebrum (ber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns), Epilepsy & Behavior, Volume 15, Issue 2, June 2009, Pages 123-130, ISSN 1525-5050,
10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.03.001.
6. ^ a b c Marcus E. Raichle. (2009). A brief history of human brain mapping. Trends in Neurosciences. 32 (2)
118-126.
7. ^ a b Uttal, W, R. (2011). Mind and brain: A critical appraisal of cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press
8. ^ Gross, C, G. (1995) Aristotle on the Brain. The Neuroscientist(1) 4.
9. ^ Hatfield, G. (2002). Psychology, Philosophy, and Cognitive Science: Reflections on the History and
Philosophy of Experimental Psychology. Mind and Language. 17(3) 207-232.
10. ^ Bear et al. 2007, pp. 10-11
11. ^ Enersen, O. D. 2009
12. ^ Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York.
13. ^ Uttal, W, R. (2011). Mind and brain: A critical appraisal of cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT
PressUttal, W, R. (2011). Mind and brain: A critical appraisal of cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press
14. ^ Mandler, G. (2002) Origins of the cognitive (r)evolution. J. Hist. Behav. Sci. Fall 38(4)339-53.
15. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906"
(http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/).
16. ^ jungminded.weebly.com/7/post/2013/01/approaches-in-cognitive-pscyhology.html
17. ^ a b not available, http://www.petemandik.com/philosophy/papers/brookmadik.com.pdf not available
18. ^ Society for Neuroscience. Date of the first meeting of the Sociefy for Neuroscience
19. ^ https://www.boundless.com/psychology/history-psychology/origin-psychology/growth-of-psychology-as-ascience--31/
20. ^ Takeo, Watanabe. "Cognitive neuroscience Editorial overview"
(http://people.bu.edu/takeo/takeo/Editorial%20(Current%20Opinion).pdf).
21. ^ Hasson, Uri et al. "Intersubject Synchronization of Cortical Activity During Natural Vision"
(http://www.sciencemag.org/content/303/5664/1634.short).

Further reading
Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W. & Paradiso M. A.(2007). "Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain" (3rd ed.).
pp. 1011. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 0-7817-6003-8
Churchland, P.S. & Sejnowski, T.J. (1992). The Computational Brain, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-

03188-4.
Code, C. (1996). Classic Cases: Ancient & Modern Milestones in the Development of
Neuropsychological Science. In: Code, C. et al. Classic Cases in Neuropsychology.
Enersen, O. D. (2009). John Hughlings Jackson. In: Who Named It.
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2766.html Retrieved 14 August 2009
Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B. & Mangun, G. R. (2002). Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the
mind (2nd ed.). New York: W.W.Norton.
Gazzaniga, M. S., The Cognitive Neurosciences III, (2004), The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-07254-8
Gazzaniga, M. S., Ed. (1999). Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences, The MIT Press, ISBN
0-262-57117-X.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for
processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97
Parkin, A.J. (1996). Explorations in Cognitive Neuropsychology, pp. 123.
Sternberg, Eliezer J. Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human.
Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Ward, Jamie (2006). The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience
(http://www.psypress.com/ward). Psychology Press (http://www.psypress.com). ISBN 978-1-84169535-8.
Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition By Roberto Cabeza, Alan Kingstone
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=VLQbZGc6vxsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Handbook+of+Functional+Neuroimaging+of+Cognition
&sig=ACfU3U2NTfxoDg4woJaUXFrTQV-_Ju9mhg)
Principles of neural science By Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessell
(http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&id=yzEFK7Xc87YC&dq=Neural+Science+Eric+Kandel&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=5zipfpnGF5&sig=vkmJ0PHf7S-wRZDj9r5PmjjIphs&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result)
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory By Amanda Parker, Edward L. Wilding, Timothy J. Bussey
(http://books.google.com/books?id=vlnrEZrx3QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Neuroscience+of+Memory&sig=ACfU3U0SvQQRNCDDC0NQIrF_
mpZYvOT5AA#PPP1,M1)
Neuronal Theories of the Brain By Christof Koch, Joel L. Davis (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=7TWDYUYSce0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA61&dq=Relational+Complexity&ots=DbrfNCH9r
A&sig=TnRUTuSj3HrDii4EHqVhSgaYOsc#PPP1,M1Large-scale)
Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning By Keith James Holyoak, Robert G. Morrison
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=znbkHaC8QeMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Handbook+of+Thinking+and+Reasoning&sig=ACfU3
U2qCejhQ4oS_tmJf0h67aHzkZq-fQ#PPP1,M1The)
Handbook of Mathematical Cognition By Jamie I. D. Campbell (http://books.google.com/books?
id=AQZ5jmmpaDAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Handbook+of+Mathematical+Cognition&sig=ACfU3

U20L7O0HqJ990CVdTQbRbJ1Fb7n4g#PPR5,M1)
Cognitive Psychology By Michael W. Eysenck, Mark T. Keane (http://books.google.ca/books?
id=22ZWiLVLDcC&pg=PA526&lpg=PA526&dq=Relational+Complexity&source=web&ots=HJFYcZQ8xH&si
g=mqP4k2wxI6xa4PoInWEb4Lb2Dr0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPP7,M
1)
Development of Intelligence By Mike Anderson (http://books.google.ca/books?
id=Zm0VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR17&lpg=PR17&dq=The+Development+of+Intelligence+Mike+Anderso
n&source=web&ots=AF0rQvsKXh&sig=8Zo44q4FsMa162kZwpt3NryGog0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPR7,M1The)
Development of Mental Processing By Andreas Demetriou, et. al. (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=Y7_F04wAnUgC&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=Processing++working+memory++IQ&ots=3x
GmI_TfKW&sig=6_vmoM0npXHR43te8KPitFjmeb4#PPA3,M1The)
Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly (http://books.google.ca/books?
id=4Yog2csUCFwC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=Relational+Complexity&source=web&ots=Dgwfn
2rjaX&sig=i1cu1S9ioZd3L4lnnmRbuVYWadE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#
PPR8,M1Working)
Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan (http://books.google.com/books?
id=0ojq3qdhf7QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Working+Memory+Capacity&sig=ACfU3U032ARTJN6
W9jEbJXH2tDML8H7XEg#PPR7,M1Working)
Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science
(http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=ILMwZKgkNzIC&oi=fnd&pg=PA406&dq=Relational+Complexity&ots=qqaBJuOmg
M&sig=OnJ0BQW1diJWu5HEU2xs7VlBJws#PPA410,M1)
Models of Working Memory By Akira Miyake, Priti Shah (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=emdwD4Q0HdEC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Development+of+Executive+Function+Wor
king+Memory+Attention&ots=5TGlZME4CP&sig=uF-FoRPuKufEzcVD7QiuA4IMvPg#PPA64,M1)
Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=4Yog2csUCFwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Development+of+processing+capacity+entails
+representing+more+complex+relations&ots=Dgwfn4qibR&sig=BDgBocIdbTyRcH2uFpxHonpNek#PPR5,M1Working)
Variation in Working Memory By Andrew R. A. Conway, et. al. (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=fZuFD4AJOscC&oi=fnd&pg=PA49&dq=On+the+capacity+of+attention:+Its+estimatio
n+and+its+role+in+working+memory+and+cognitive+aptitudes+&ots=esLBgFTqDF&sig=KkkpgHEOl
YmGGauovmxXCFidhqc#PPR16,M1)
Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=00UOAAAAQAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=On+the+capacity+of+attention:+Its+estimat
ion+and+its+role+in+working+memory+and+cognitive+aptitudes+&ots=OHEWdRVcsx&sig=0bIY_lQ
Uk_o12DrB68wtwp7kEDgWorking)

Cognition and Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Jean E. Pretz (http://books.google.com/books?

id=2L5CDYhA1R4C&pg=PA268&dq=Mike+Anderson&sig=ACfU3U1WL2kUZB9Jnk02II1yVVua
Noy5-Q#PPA89,M1)
General Factor of Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Elena Grigorenko (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=2OjruFlEWukC&oi=fnd&pg=PA415&dq=On+the+capacity+of+attention:+Its+estimati
on+and+its+role+in+working+memory+and+cognitive+aptitudes+&ots=eBlVihiMdH&sig=7OEu8Sxs1
Le0Fhv_fsXiFb_NmPo#PPA91,M1The)
Neurological Basis of Learning, Development and Discovery By Anton E. Lawson
(http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=NZS11x10QNwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Cognitive+science+development+learning+a
nalogy+capacity&ots=o_ZwPd9l6F&sig=L89Vll7PFlx4kP8dxxs0uWgYrII#PPR7,M1The)
Memory and Human Cognition By John T. E. Richardson (http://books.google.ca/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=mBf217lUQpAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA89&dq=On+the+capacity+of+attention:+Its+estimati
on+and+its+role+in+working+memory+and+cognitive+aptitudes+&ots=nIx8MJO2t&sig=hYRl_bKEzPSjG3RZi0NNyhY2WDIWorking)
Society for Neuroscience. http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=about_sfn#timeline Retrieved 14
August 2009
Keiji Tanaka,"Current Opinion in Neurobiology", (2007)

External links
Cognitive Neuroscience Society Homepage (http://cogneurosociety.org/)
There's Something about Zero (http://www.in-mind.org/issue-4/there-s-something-about-zero.html)
What Is Cognitive Neuroscience?, Jamie Ward/Psychology Press
(http://www.cognitiveneurosciencearena.com/whatiscognitiveneuroscience.asp)
goCognitive - Educational Tools for Cognitive Neuroscience (including video interviews)
(http://www.gocognitive.net)
CogNet, The Brain and Cognitive Sciences Community Online, MIT (http://cognet.mit.edu)
Cognitive Neuroscience Arena, Psychology Press (http://www.cognitiveneurosciencearena.com)
Cognitive Neuroscience and Philosophy, CUJCS, Spring 2002 (http://www.neuroscience.me/wpcontent/uploads/CUJCS-Spring_2002.pdf)
Whole Brain Atlas Top 100 Brain Structures
(http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/cases/caseM/case.html)
Cognitive Neuroscience Discussion Group (http://www.neuroscienceforums.com/cognitive-neuroscience)
John Jonides, a big role in Cognitive Neurosciences by Beebrite
(http://beebrite.tumblr.com/post/22320464480/jonides-neuroscience)
School of Cognitive Science, Jadavpur University (https://sites.google.com/site/schoolnewsite/home)
Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience (http://bookboon.com/en/textbooks/healthcare-

science/introduction-to-cognitive-neuroscience)
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