4

TREATISE

THE

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

STEAM

RULES

WITH

ENGINE;/

USE

THE

FOR

T.

BY
AUTHOB

OF

"STATICS
"ELEMENTS

AND

LENGTH,

AT

PRACTICAL

MECHANISM,"

"LAND

WORKED

OUT

MEN.

C.E.,

BAKER,

DYNAMICS,"

AND

OF

OF

EXAMPLES

AND

"MINING

8UBVEYING,'

ENGINEEKING

8UBVEYING,"

ETC.

LONDON:
VIRTUE

BROTHERS

"

CO., 26, IVY

LANE,

PATERNOSTER

1862.

ROW*

v..*

-Uo"[?, U.i"
iuj:^
"

JUN

20

TRANCT:.
.

wrXAflU

.Y

1917

iti'"i--D\\,

COLU-GS

Cn..i"A"r

PREFACE.

of

work

this

kind,

Stationary, Marine,
desideratum;

and

large
the

use

not

time

referred

taken

great

be

full

competence

the

the

in

The

author

new

and

in

as

well

both

the

various

rules
who

application

thus

words

at

have

not

yet

of

this

kind

arrive

at

practical parts

prepared

complexities

to

in

they

and
be

it

adapt

of

length

tific
scien-

mathematical

of

studies

in

theoretical
and

work
has

of

to

as

students

at

large

chain

the

giving

until

have

to

stand
under-

Tredgold's

large

work.

has,

and

given

moreover,

important

slide-valves,
steam

link

progress

subjects,

the

ease

complete

the

to

their

important

with

for

the

for

"Introduction"

this

by

men,

facilitated,

greatly

these

this

also

use;

which

by

will

and

practical

their

of

also

either

purchasing

required,

themselves

formula?,

of

much

so

accustomed

author

but

who

students,

of

supply

to

of

means

The

pains

of
for

length

the

or

to.

research
wants

class

Tredgold's

to

subject,

same

the
been

long

has

introduction

the

on

of

Theory

Engines,

an

as

work

numerous

read

to

just

the

only

important
of

Locomotive

and

not

Mathematical

the

on

method

corresponding

exhausting

of
to

ports, by

in

this

showing
the

"Introduction"
the

various

geometrical

positions

of

openings

of

construction,

VI

PREFACE.

in addition to the rules

method

has been

which
given by calculation,
usually
presentedto him by the eminent engineer,

0. E.

firm of
Amos, Esq.,M.I.O.E.,of the well-known
Eastern,
Amos, and Sons. It is given in as clear a manner
the subjectseems
to admit
as
of, since any intelligent
with rule and compasses, draw the figure
workman
may,
to any convenient scale,and as respectslocomotive engines,
he may draw
The work

it to the full size.

concludes

with

an

Appendix,on

the

strength,

"c, of several importantparts of the Steam

which

are

Tables

of

added

Tables

which
Friction,

precedingparts of

of
are

Engine ; to
HyperbolicLogarithms,and

used in the calculations in the

the work.
T. BAKER

THE

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL
07

THE

ENGINE.

STEAM

preliminary step in this important subject is to treat

which
discovered
of the law
of the expansion of steam,
was
and
by Mariotte, and confirmed
by Arago
Dulong, to all
This
far as
27 atmospheres.
law is the
to
as
pressures
up
be applied t" the steam
be
simplest that can
engine; it may
enunciated
thus :
If a
be
made
to
given weight of steam
without
changing its temperature, the elastic
vary its volume
will vary
in the inverse
ratio
force of the steam
of the volume
The

"

it ia made
Thus

to

positions
pressure
the

of

in

space

the

the
in

pressure

the

occupy.

let ABGDbe

cylinder, EPand

piston ; then
position E.P
the position G
0 D

is

to

the

any

two

the
A

is to
H

as

space

0 D.

Although this is by far the most

simple and
general law that we can
apply, yet it is not strictlycorrect
but

GH

so
sufficiently

showing

the

for

the

purpose

great advantages

of
that

be

gained by working steam

expansively ; the results,
however, will be alway a little greater than the truth, since
during the time tJie expansion is going on in the cylinder, the
does
remain
not
exactly the same;
therefore,the
temperature
various
properties of steam
given by Arago, Dulong, TredPole, and others, shall hereafter be produced
gold, Pambour
can

in

detail.

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OP

THEORY

OP

UNIT

WORK.

to estimate
applyingthis principle
different kinds of work
performednnder

and

In

it becomes

to have

necessary

the
compare
different circumstances,

distinct

measure

or

the various results may be calculated

and the amounts
ascertained.
The Englishunit of work is the power necessary to ram
one
unit

of work,by

pound througha

which

space

of one foot.

Thus, if 1 lb. be raised 1 foot by a machine, then one unit of

work
has been performed
then
; if 4 lbs. be raised 6 feet,
4

24 units of work have been performed; and so on

for other combinations.
Hence the units of work performed
x

measured

are

productof the weightof the body in

in feet,
throughwhich it is
space or height

by

pounds,and

the

the

raised;also

resistances of every kind, in whatever

exerted,may be expressedin pounds,

or

pressures
direction they are

and therefore measured

Let this unit of work

by

unit of time.

view the unit of work

1 lb. raised 1 foot high in 1 minute.

will be

one

that
minute

Hence,

be

referred to

in this

representedas

It is assumed

high in

Taken

the unit of work

here described.

minute, as

one

pointof

horse is able to raise 33,000 lbs.one foot

this is,therefore,
called a horsepower.
; and

to find the number

of

horse-powersconsumed
only be requiredto divide the

in any proposedwork, it will

units in that work
by 33,000 times the number
in which it is done.
To

findthe units ofwork

Given

the

distance moved
and

done

on

the pistonin

length of the stroke

by the pistonbefore

the pressure

the

at

which

the

cylinder(p) ; to find the work

of the pistonin one stroke.
each
The requiredwork on
by Mariotte's law,

steam

done

the

of
the

steam

of minutes

one

stroke.

the
piston(?),
is cut off (j),

is admitted

upon

each

to

the

square inch

square inch of the

pistonis,

jj"(l+logi)"
*

The logarithms
here used are the hyperbolic
j the
and the other formula will be hereaftergiven.

of this
investigation

THE

But
men

is

as

STEAM

ENGINE.

that this Treatise may

be useful to such practical
not accustomed
rule
to use formulas,
the following
are

given :

"

1. Divide the whole

Rule
length of the stroke
distance moved
by the pistonbefore the steam is cut
find the hyperbolic
to which
logarithmof the quotient,

by

"

and

the

and
off,
add 1,

multiplythe

sum
by the productof the pressure of the
distance
and
the
steam
moved
by the pistonbefore the steam
is cut off,
and the result is the whole work
done on each
square inch of the piston.

findthe load.

To
The
the

load is

defined
generally

be the

to

mean

of

pressure

steam.

Let L be the load ; then

H.1).
,_Y(l+.
Or, in words
Rule
one

we
length,

Divide

2.
"

stroke

at

by

the

have

the work

of
length,

the

done

the

:
following

upon

"

one

square

inch in

stroke,and the quotientwill

be the load.
To

findthe

pressure at which the steam is admitted.

L.J
_

+ logi)
*(l
:
following
of
the
stroke by
Rule
3. Divide
the whole
length
of feet described
the number
by the pistonbefore the
is cut off; to the hyperbolic
steam
logarithmof this quotient
and multiplythe sum
of
add unity,
by the number
feet moved
by the pistonbefore the steam is cut off,for a
divisor ; and for a dividend multiply
the lengthof the stroke
by the load. The quotientis the pressure in pounds per

Or, in

words

at

length,there

results the

"

"

square

inch at which
To

Let
number

area

the steam

is admitted.

findthe horse-powers.
in square inches,
and
piston,
minute ; then,

of the

of strokes per

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

THEORY

")
AN?1"(l+log
Howe-power
Or, in words

^fiOO

have the following

we
:
length,
4. Multiplythe work done on one square inch in
Bulb
one
stroke,by the area of the pistonin square inches,and
by the number of strokes per minute,and this productbeing
divided by 33,000,gives the horse-powers.
Example 1. The pressure of the steam upon the pistonis
60 lbs. per square inch,the lengthof the stroke is 12 feet,
is cut off at " of the stroke ; requiredthe number
the steam
and
of units of work upon each square
inch of the piston,
the horse -powers, the diameter of the cylinder
being50 inches,
and the pistonmaking 20 strokes per minute.
By Rule 1,
at

"

"

"

log

i|-=
log 6

1-79175
.\

2 X

60

2-79175

square inch of the

Again, 50 X 50

pistonin
-7854

2-791*5,

335*01

1-79175,and

whole

335-01

on

one

stroke.

one

1963*5

of the

area

1963-5

20
-

QQQ,,fi,
398*66

33,000

done

pistonin

inches,and by Rule 4,

square

By

work

the formula

33501

pistonin

one

(l

qp

whole

work

log

done

on

horse -powers.

")=2x60
one

square

(1+1-79175)
inch

of the

stroke.

Also,
+ logy)_1963-5x20x2x
ANgj"(l
60 (1+1-79175)
_
-~

33,000

33,000
398*66

horse-powers.

as
thingsgiven being the same
find
of
is
the
load
the
it
to
required
engine.
Example 1,

Example
Here

2.

"

the work

The

done

on

one

square

inch in

one

in

stroke of

THE

ENGINE.

8TEAM

QQ/v.A1

is 335-01
piston,

the

load in lbs. on

one

unite ; whence

"

inch of the

square

27*9175

r^"

Bale

piston,
by

2.

pressure per square inch at

be admitted,when
the load is 44 lbs.
which the steam
must
is cut off at 2 feet,and the
inch ; the steam
per square
3.

Example

Kequired

"

lengthof the stroke

By Rule 3,

2
44

-f-

5 feet.

log 2-5

1 +

1+

1-9163

3*8326

Example 4.

the

9163

1-9163,

3-8326,and

58 lbs. per square

inch

nearly.

The

the pistonis
pressure of steam
upon
60 lbs. per square inch ; the resistance from imperfectcondensation
4 lbs. per square inch ; the lengthof the stroke is
"

feet,and the

12

of units of work

the number
the

is cut off at

steam

Required,

stroke.

upon each square inch of

of units of work gainedby working

the number

and
piston,

^ of'the

done

expansively,
Example 1, 335*01 units of work
inch of the pistonin one
stroke.

the steam

Here,
one

as

square

in

are

done

on

is 4 lbs.
But, as the resistance from uncondensed
vapour
48 lbs. for the resistance
per square inch,it will be 12 x 4 =
for the whole

length of

will be 335*01

work

"

the

stroke ; therefore the effective

48'00 =
287-01 units of work on one

square inch.
Now, to find the

advantagegained by workingthe steam

have when
the engine works without expansion

expansively
; we
12
square

60

720

units of

work

done

upon

each

inch.

But, as in this

case

the steam

is not

off tillthe end

cut

of

"
the

stroke,there is

the

same

6 thnee the steam

used ; hence

for

quantitythere results,
720
^ftrt"

-"

120

lbs. per square inch,

While
335-01

has

by working expansivelythere

units of work; hence

gainedin this example.

335*01

"

been

120=

obtained

215*01 lbs.

'

MATHEMATICAL

THE

Also,

"

times

2*79

"

"

OP

THEORY

much

as

done

work

by

the

120

quantityof

same

stroke,there is

distance moved

the

by

expansively.
is cut off at

it is stated that the steam

When
of the

worked

when

steam

j-,
", i, "fcc,

necessityfor dividingthe
pistonby the distance it moves
no

whole
before

need only
be the fractional part ; we
tion,
find the hyperbolic
logarithmof the denominator of the fracand add unit to it ; then multiplythe sum
by the product

expansion,whatever

may

of the pressure and the part of the stroke before expansion

begins,and the last product is the whole work done upon
each square inch of the piston. For example, let the length

feet,and the

of the stroke be 12

the

stroke,the -pressure upon

steam

be cut off at

"

of the

lbs. per square

pistonbeing 60

inch.
Here

of the fraction is 3,and its hyperbolic

the denominator

logarithm is 1*0986, to which add

2-0986; whence 4 x 60 X 2-0986
done

upon

To

Rule.

find'ike work

"

inch of the

each square

Divide

done

that

unity,and
=

503664:

pistonin

shall have

we

whole

one

without
by expansion
logarithms.

work

stroke.

the

use

of

part of the stroke through which

expansion takes placeinto

any

even

number

of

equalparts,

calculate the pressure per square inch upon the pistonat

the
each division of the stroke by Mariotte's law; take
-ofthe extreme
sum
pressures in pounds per square inch,four

and

of
pressures, and twice the sum
the
of
all these by onesum
the odd
pressures ; multiply
the positions
of the
distance between
third of the common
work
done upon
each
piston,and the result will be the

times the

of the

sum

even

after expansionbegins. The work

square inch of the piston
done before expansionbegins being evidentlyequal to the
of feet
by the number
pressure per square inch multiplied
whole
and
the
done
work
before expansion;
moved
during
a

singlestroke

is

equalto

the

expansion.
Example 1. The pressure

and

of the works

done

before

after

"

lbs. per squaTe

pistonis 10 feet,the

is 80

sum

inch, the
steam

of the steam

upon the piston

length of the stroke of the

is cut off at j of the stroke ; it is

THE

STEAM

find the whole

requiredto

ENGINE.

of work

amount

done

upon

each

inch of the

piston.
pistonmoves
" of the stroke,which is 2 feet,with the
full pressure of the steam; let the remaining part of the
stroke,which is 8 feet,be divided into four equalparts,each
of which will be 2 feet ; let these pressures be represented
by P, Pp P8,"c. ; then,by Mariotte's law,

square
The

80

: :

80

Pt

6:2::80:P,

"

?LjL" 40
"

: :

80

P8

10

: :

80

P4

Then, by

lbs. pressure.

^f-=-=26-661bs.
"

8"
8

"

"

"

20 lbs.

-'^J-?
-

16 lbs.

justgiven,

the rule

80

16

least extreme

96

sum

of extreme

sum

of the

greatest extreme

pressure.

pressure.
pressures.

40

20
60

even

pressures.

4
240
26*66'

4 times the

sum

of the

the odd pressure, there

even

pressures.

beingonlyone.

53-33'

twice the odd pressure.

96

sum

240

"=

The
the

above

common

4 times

twice

sum.

6"3*33'
389-33'

of extreme

pressures.

of

even
sum
pressures.
the odd pressure.

389*33 beingmultiplied
by i of 2 feet,
i.e.t
gives
distance,
sum,

THE

389*33

0?

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

25955

each square inch of

the pistonafter expansionbegins,
160
and 80 x 2 =
the

the number

of units of work

done

upon

number

of units of work

expansionbegins.

done

upon

each square

inch before

Hence
259-55
160
41955

number
a

of units of work

singlestroke

of the

each square inch,during

done upon

piston.

of steam
the pistonis
upon
the
resistance
from imperfect
60 lbs. per square inch,
arising
4
the
lbs.
condensation,
length of the stroke
per square inch,
The

Example 2.
"

is 12

feet,and the

requiredto

pressure

steam

determine

is cut

off at

the number

of

of the stroke ; it is
units of work done

the number
of units of
piston,
the load per square
gained by working expansively,
is
inch,and the positionof the pistonwhen the velocity
upon
work

each square

inch of the

greatest.
Let
feet be

remainingpart of the stroke,%.

divided into 10 equalparts; then
the

e.

12

"

and

similarly
Pt

j"

30,

P,_51iJ_,7."3,
7
60x2x

8~

"

10

ENGINE.

STEAM

THB

*2-*l

P7

p"

13-333,

60x2

-io"=12'

^eo^
60 +

10

70

of extreme

sum

pressures.

40-000
24-000

17-142
13 333

10-909
105*384

"=

the

of the

sum

even

pressures.

4
421*536

4 times the

of the

sum

even

pressures.

30-000
20 000
15000
12-000

="

the

154 000

twice the

421*536

4 times the

77000

of the odd pressures.

-sum

70000

sum
sum

of the odd pressures.

of the even
pressures.

of the extreme

sum

pressures.

3)645-536
215178
120

335*178

60

whole

woik

work

done

done before

upon

expansion.

each square inch.

3
b

10

THE

By

the

OF

THEORY

formula,the whole work done per stroke is

^(l+ logy)=2x
60(l+log-)

which

MATHEMATICAL

120

120

is very

(1 + log 6)
2-79175

nearlythe

120

(1 + 1-79175)

3350106,

same

that deduced

as

by

the rule.

Since the resistance from uncondensed

vapour is 4 lbs. per
12
4
48
lbs.
whole resistance,
and
x
square inch,then
=

this from
subtracting

by

will remain

inch,there

square

335*178,the whole
335*178

48

"

work
=

done per
287*178 for

the effective work.

To

findthe advantagederived from workingsteam expansively.

When
720

the steam
works
work done upon

is cut off at

"

without expansion,
then 12 x 60
each square inch ; but as the steam
of the-stroke in working it expansively,
there
720

is only J of the
=120
.

quantityof

or

"

i.
this

case

or

move

the work
this
effect
to produce
;
/.

L, and
12 L

or, L

oox-

nearly2*8

quantityof

done

stroke is 12

"

by the same
expansively.
The
work requiredto

lbs.

times

steam, when

much

as

worked

the load to the end of the

of the -steam has been expended

=335178

27*9315

"

"

=-5

lbs.per square

inch.

when
be the distance moved
over
by the piston,
then by Mariotte's law,
attains its greatestvelocity,
If

r*

335*178

gainedm
work

used in this case,

inch,and 335*178"120=215-178

lbs. peT square

J

steam

'

: :

60
whence

60

27-9315,
=43'

27*315

it

THE

STEAK

KNQINK.

'

/-'
formula,-,"'..

the

By

I
.

11

"

"

"
"

"

"

12

'

12

~"

l+l0g"=l+ l0g6

the
nearly,

2-79175

above.
Example 3. To find the pressure per square inch at
which the steam must
be admitted when the load is 22 lbs.
and the steam
per square inch,the lengthof the stroke 5 feet,
is cut off at 2 feet ; the resistance from uncondensed
vapour
as

same

"

being 2 lbs. per square inch.

Let X?
x, and by
pressure per square inch ; then P
takingthe distances at every \ foot beyond 2 feet,where the
is cut off,
steam
there will result
=

|:2::*:P"
rx"

..

and

similar manner,
the successive
a
of
the
"ett
for every k
romwwing 3 mehes, there

by proceedingin

pressures

will
P

-"

-"

2
x

fe^

1**'t

result,

--

-x

the

of the. greatestand

sum

"

pressures per square

./4a;
4x
4a;\
4 (
=
+
+
-3- j
-g,

least

ex-

inch.;

treme

2288

%
.

4 times the

"

31

sum

of the

pressures;
ft

and

/2

2 I

-j

after

a;

twice

"

Ix

the

=the

T
"315"
expansion. This sum,

the

expansion;

the

odd

"

"

"f a11 the

8Um

by """of
multiplied

af

ineh

", gives

./'''

intervening
space, i. e. by | of
1732a?
=
work
after expansion, and
Q,,
""

of

sum

3464*

Ix
,

+ X
"""-315"
pressures

aj\

a;

"

pressures ;
2288a?

before

.7

-x
o

even

andP

-"

is

the work

done

12

THE

"""*"

MATHEMATICAL

^SiT

22

THBOBT

OF

110, or

29 lbs. per

4/ttO

square inch

nearly.

to condensing
In the examplesjustgiven,
no
referring
engines,
and other
clearance of the piston,
has been taken of the friction,
minutie ; bnt after the mathematical theoryhas been given,exampleswill
both to
be added,in which all these resistanceswill be included,
referring
The
engines.
condensingand non-condensing
objectof givingthe preceding
examplesis to enable the student to obtain an idea of the method of
the horseto finding
powers
at somethinglike an approximation
speedily
arriving

Note.

"

account

of any

engine.
proposedcondensing

On the Resistances to the Pressure of the Steam in ITonand Condensing

Engines.
condensing
made by Pambour
experiments
resistances in non-condensing
enginesare
The pressure of the atmosphere,
which

From

and

the

as

these
others,

follow

"

produces

ance
resist-

of about 15 lbs. per square inch; also the resistance

arisingfrom various parts of the engine at 'a mean, the
estimate is lib. to the square inch for the unloaded engine;
and an additional friction of \ of the effective pressure or
"

useful load,for

friction of the loaded

overcomingthe

engine.

Supposingthe pressure of the steam to be 90 lbs.per square

inch ; the resistances are 15 lbs. per square inch from the
and 1 lb. for the frictionof the unloaded engine;
atmosphere,
be taken from 90, which
"therefore 15 + I =
16 lbs. must
the
the
load
load is equalto 74 lbs.,
leaves ,74 ; hence
+ \ of
74
or

if-of

the load

74;

therefore the load

"

X
-

"

7
=

the effective pressure

="
64Jlbs.

per

square

inch

on

the

piston.
th"
Hence
Resistances are

followingRule.

To find the Load

when
taken into account, viz.,The UsefulLoad.
in the cylinder
From the pressure of the steam
subtract 16,
and
divide
remainder
this
the
by 7,
multiply
productby 8,
will be the useful load.
and the quotient
Example. Given the pressure of the steam in the cylinder
"

"

60 lbs.per square
By the rule,

inch,to find the useful load.

(60-16)

7
=

For

engines,instead
condensingor low-pressure

of the

THE

MATHEMATICAL

THBOKY

OF

STEAM

THE

Example

Given

1.
"

Table.
of the foregoing

the Use

Exampleson

15

ENGINE.

the

of the

pistonof a highlengthof the stroke

area

pressure engine400 square inches,the

of water
in the boiler half a cubic
4 feet,the evaporation
in the cylinder
foot per minute,the pressure of the steam
load and the
find
inch
the
useful
601bs. per square
; to
horse-powersof the engine.

By

rule,page 12,

the

(60

-^16)
x

3g"5 lbfl

useful bad

volume in the
pressure of 60 lbs. the corresponding
table is 467, which being multiplied
by the evaporating
of the boiler gives 467 x J=
233J = number of
power
To

cubic feet
The
to the

evaporatedper

minute.
of cubic feet dischargedper stroke is equal
of the piston
in feet,multiplied
by the lengthof

number
area

4"X"
i_.^.
the stroke

in

feet

1600
4

"77

",

11*.

"

"

144

144

dischargedper minute is equalto the

of strokes per minute, multiplied
number
by the volume
stroke ; and the volume
at one
discharged
dischargedper
be equal to the volume evaporated
minute must
per minute.
of strokes per minute x 11-J- whole discharge
Number
in one minute
also in one
minute.
233J lbs. evaporated
The

whole

volume

Hence

the number

of strokes

______l=21
But the useful work
S8-5

done in
x

400

therefore the useful work

61600
and hence

stroke is

one

61600;

per minute
21

___

is

1293600;

the horse -powers

1293600
~

33000

Example

2." In

at

-^

condensingengine the

area

of the

16

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

square inches ; the lengthof the stroke,

is 5 feet ; the steam is cut off at 1 foot
clearance,
including
of the stroke ; the clearance is J of a foot ; the pressure of

is 1440
cylinder

the

is 30 lbs. per square inch ; the elasticity

of the
in the condenser is 4 lbs.; the effective evaporation

steam

vapour
of the boiler is " of a cubic foot per minute,and the resistances
usual : required,
the useful load and the powers.
horseas
Tate's Mechanics.
before the
The space through which the pistonmoves
and
whole
is cut off is
1
the
steam
J
f,
lengthof
the stroke is
4 J.
5
\
Then
1-8453, and 1-8453 +
log (4J+ f ) log 6*33
2-845,3.
1
"

"

"

Hence
done in

30
one

"

2*8453-=

6401925

the whole work

stroke.

64-01925
M
Mean

By

pressure

the

"

"

13 '48 lbs.

rule,page 12, the useful load

.(13-48-5)x.7==742

cubic foot of water expands into 882

cubic feet of steam, at a pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch.
Honce the volume of steam evaporated
per minute is

By

the

Table,one

i
The

volume

882

of steam

176-4 cubic feet.

==

in
discharged

stroke is

one

1440
x

77T

10 cubic feet.

144

Hence

the number

of strokes per minute

is

176-4
17-64.
10

Now, the useful work

togetherthe
of the

of the

area

per minute

the
piston,

and the number

stroke,

Horse
Horse

useful

by multiplying
load,the length

of strokes per minute ; hence

144"" * 742
Dowers
powers

is found

4j

17-61

^^

27-13.

THE

INVESTIGATION

THEORETICAL

OF

Let

THE

OF

PEOPEETTES

STEAM.

any part of the stroke

that part is described ;

of feet described

number

17

ENGINE.

8TEAM

at

pressure when
is cut off,
of feet described before the steam
number
q
Mariotte's
feet
: by
law,
and I =* lengthof the stroke in

piston
; p'

of the

p':p::q:*f
whence

variable

the

Hence

taken between

q p

"=

Put \

; then

"

"

done

"

by expansion,

is
limits,

proper

I i"-J

work

p'

(logJ_

log q)

the work

done

log

qp

mm

"

"

by expansionwill

log X; and the work done before

is evidently
represented
by qp.
Hence
the whole work done per square inch,both
and after expansion,
is
represented
by

qp

must

log \

qp

qp

sion
expanbefore

(I + logX). (Rule1,page 3).

load per square inch ; then L J

work exerted
the load by each stroke ; and as the work of the steam
be equalto the work done upon the load,there results

Let L
upon

qp

be

Ll=qp(l+log\),
.-.

From

"

"".(1
+

the above formula there

'""gfl +
To

log X). (Rule2, page 3).

determine
*

The

the

logX)-

of
velocity

here
logarithms

results
evidently

(Me

the

used

are

3, page 3.)

pistonwhen
the

any

hyperbolic.

part of

18

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

THEORY

vis viva* must be

in
his
demonstrated,
MechaniqueInthat the work accumulated in any body or machine
dustrielle,

the stroke is described,the

of
principle

applied. Foncelet has

is half the vis viva ; so that if U =

the units of work done
upon
any load or body, the weight of which is W, and
the units of work expendedupon
space s, U'
the resistance which opposes the motion of the body through

throughany
the

="

space ; then U

same

in the

body ;

U'

"

if V

now,

the units of work

of the
velocity

lated
accumu-

body, and
W

accelerative force of

the
gravity,

vis viva is

.V2;

"

work

therefore the accumulated

is

i.

.v2

"

u-u'.

9
with the
or
Assuming that the whole mass
body moves
the work done upon each square
as the .piston,
same
velocity
stroke have been
inch by the steam, when
* feet of the
is
described,

(l-Mogi);

qp

and the work expended on the load up to that pointis L s ;

therefore the work accumulated upon each square inch of the
by
pistonwill be expressed
.

ffjp(l+log^)-L";
or,

i( r

which

radius of the

and
piston,

is the accumulated

work

on

ir

then
3*14:16,

the whole

piston;

...^^Ml+logi)-L'},
=

-dV"=2-^{*i,(l+logi)*

The vis viva of

bodyis its mass

multiplied
bythe

square of itsvelocity.

STEAM

THE

19

ENGINE.

for L its value,*"

whence, by substituting

log X),there
(1 -f-

results

/
V"=^{^(l+logf)^(l+logX)}
2*gqpta

|l logi_i(l+logX)}
+

W
find when

To

the

part of the above

that

maximum,

formula

the

within

the

pistonis a maximum,
the

vinculum

must

be

is,

of
velocity

+ log

(1 + logX) must

j-

be

maximum;

or, 1 -f

which

put

Jog *

logf

"

; then

whence

"

maximum

maximum,

log X

is indicated

(1 + logX)

by differentiation,

1 +
The

-z

by

-j" 2-,

beingevidently
tive
nega-

hence the value of *, being substituted in the formula

for the

velocity,
gives

W^i1""
l.gX)}
g(l
'"" ""

gr"'"t

"

maximum

velocity.

This result can

Calculus.
on

the Steam

be obtained

without

ential
the aid of the Differ-

See Professor Harm's

Engine ;"

Engine," page 98.

see

also his

"

edition of

Theory

"

Tredgold

of the Steam

20

PAMBOUB

THEORY

THE

OF

Pambonr, in his excellent work

his

the

theory

on

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

ENGINE.

STEAM

this

on

grounds
subject,

following principles:

two

"

First, that the engine having attained uniform motion,

between the pressure of
an
necessarily
equilibrium
in the cylinder,
and
the resistance against the
steam

there is
the

piston,that is

p-R
R

being the

whole

(1)
resistance

againstthe piston.

between
an
Secondly,that there is necessarily
equality
productionof steam and its expenditure.
Let P
v
piston,

volume

of

of

pressure

iu the

steam

boiler,A

velocityof the piston in

water
evaporatedin the same

of the

area

the

unit of time, S
unit of time,m

==

formed under the pressure P

ratio of the volume of steam
the
volume
of
that has produced it ;
water
of the boiler to
then m S will be the volume 'of steam formed in the same
unit of time under the pressure P; and assuming,according
to

law,that the temperatureremains the

Mariotte's

volume

S of

each
supplied

steam

unit of time

same,

by the

the

boiler

P
when

transmitted to the

will become
cylinder,

ro

"

; and

A
be

can
beingthe expenditureof steam, the second principle

follows

as
expressed

At;

"

mS."

(2)
P

But

by equation(1)p
.\At;

mS

R,

.-?-

(3)

it

If the unit of time be

strokes in that

one

minute,and N

number

of

time,I being the length of the stroke,and q

the space described before the

"

and since the

the

steam

is cut

off;then

NJ,orN=^;

expenditureof

steam

per minute is

22

TBS

hence

MATHEMATICAL

{p(f

relation there

2^

--

being the

have

For the second

steam

(i"f
)+ qp}RA*.

c) log

t^^fr **(?")}
7

"*"

The

will result

relation

between

the

and
pressure
is of such great importance that numerous
been
made, both in this country and

of the French

from

when

1 to
will

to

whence
in which

the

this

on

and

extensive

most

careful

importantsubject,
; these

government

experiments

of these eminent

represent temperature

the

to

inch of pressure, or
15 lbs. to 360 lbs. per square
24 atmospheres; and the following formula has

pressure, without

experiments
in

France,
the temperature is known, or

been the result of the researches

which

temperature of

is known.
pressure
important subjectswill be forthwith detailed.

at the expense

from

"

clearance.

Arago and Dulong made the

experiments ever yet undertaken
range

Bl

*(")}

ascertain the pressure when

determine
the temperature
These

OF

the first relation becomes

THEORY

any

sensible error,
-0068031

(-26973+

146-96^

is the

temperature

as

philosophers,
compared with the

"

39-644;

pressure in pounds per

in degrees of Fahrenheit.

Tredgold's formula for pressures from 1

is sufficiently
accurate, and is as follows,
zips

whence

(7)

t)*

"y

20118y/p
"

inch,and

square
to 4

atmospheres

103.

steAh

THE

Pambour's formula for the

23

engine.

range is the

same

following,

/jgi+iy

m
(9)

f-ymwl
c

whence
An

196*56

{/jp

988.

"

elasticfluidshas been discovered

important
propertyof

by the famous Gay-Lussac,t. c, that if the temperature of a

given weight of any elastic fluid be made to vary, it will
to the
acquireaugmentationsof volume exactlyproportional
augmentationsof temperature; and for every increase of one
there
degree of temperature of Fahrenheit's thermometer
will be

increase of *00202

producedan

of the volume

of the

the temperature of 32".

If v
of any givenweight of elastic fluid
under any pressure, and at 32" of Fahrenheit's scale,the
volume v, which it will occupy under the same
pressure, and

fluid from

be the volume

other

at any

vx

This

will also hold

if

we

-00202

(t

"

32).

put the ratio of the relative

and uv instead of the ratio of the absolute volumes

and vx ; there will thence result,

volumes
v

Fahrenheit,wilL be

of

temperature t

1 +

'00202.

1 +

-00202

""

ux
Neither

32)
{tf 32)
-

Gay-Lussac nor that

variations which take placein

with

the water

the two

laws

from which

of Mariotte
the steam

will
while

it is evaporated
; but
be obtained,by which

third law may

the variations of the volume of steam, when
from

'

the law of

applyto the
in contact

(t

there is a

change

in both the temperature and pressure at the same

time,may
be determined.
When
it is requiredto find the volume of
a givenweight of steam, which
changesfrom the temperature
d and the pressure p'to the temperature t and the pressure p,
itmay

be assumed

that the steam passes firstfrom the pressure

p' to the pressure p without changingits temperature, then
by Mariotte's law there will result,

p'

"

Again,assume

that the steam

passes from

the temperature

24
1?to the

by

temperaturet without

the law of

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

change of pressure ; then,

any

Gay-Lussac,there results,
*

-00202

(1 +
*

"

~~

(1 + -00202 (t
As
when

this formula
both

p' fl +

32)
U"
32)

(t

"

""

law

temperature and

time, there

of the relative

change

pressure

the
pf and t't

volumes,
the

at

be substituted in the above

must

32)
u'm
32)

"

(1 + -00202 (/

gives the

ft

'00202

same

formula

the

and temperature corresponding

in contact with water, and there
to each other in steam
will result the requiredrelative volumes.
It is well known

values of

the pressure of the atmosphere,

which
inch, and at the temperature of 212" of

that under

per square
the relative volume

which

pressure

it has been

of steam

is 14*7 lbs.

Fahrenheit,

in contact with the water

from
times that of the water,

is 1700
generated,

whence
14-7
-

nM

1700X

1 +

-00202

(*

32)

-00208

-82)-

T*l

"

and any one

of the equations,
Arts. (7),
By this equation,
to
(8),and (9),t may be eliminated. It will be preferable
use
Tredgold'sformula for pressures from 1 to 4 atmospheres,
and from 4 and upwards,that of Dulong and Arago.
It will now
be proper to give the formulae,
showing the

relation between

the pressure

the

where
steam

Pole

and

volume, derived

of
principle

from

expansionis used

periment,
ex-

in the

engine.

givesthe following
formula,
24250
_

%
(a)

F=v^E
24250
whence

"

|~65.

"

P is the pressure in pounds per square inch,and V its

relative volume compared with that of its constituent water.
Here

The

be relied upon throughout

in
Cornish
the
i.e.,
generally
required
engines,
of this formula

accuracy

may

the range
from 65 lbs. to 5 lbs.

Pambour

engines,
givesfor condensing
10000
U

"

-4227 +

-00258 p

'

THE

and

for

25

ENGINE.

STEAM

condensingengines,

non-

10000
U

in which

""1421

-0023

p;

and p the pressure

is the volume

W
in

pounds per

foot.

square

Navier

givesthe followingformula,

m
is the volume

expressedin
Let

can

formulae

to
corresponding

the

pressure

that

square metre.
volume
of water

E is converted

volume
p, and that M is the
be produced by it ; then, by givingthe

at

'

kilogrammes per

it be assumed

into steam
which

'

+ -0000484

"09
in which

w
K

u=

pressure

general application, may

more

we

of steam

preceding

take

1
,^

(c)

u=w=z+wt
Now, if the

same

volume

the pressure pn and

My

there will result -="'

Ji

be the

volume
corresponding
;

"

"

into steam

be converted

of water

whence, between

of steam, which correspond

to the
E of water, there will result,
by eliminatingE
formula (e),
the following
relation,

""""-5(i+")-i
and

/3are
By proceedingin

there

of steam,
the abso-

ppi

lute volumes

in which

at

weight

same

by

means

of

the constants in Pambour's

formula.
the same
with Pole's formula,
manner

results,
M

to)

*-p?
for the ratio of the

volumes,where
c

24250

and

(Z

65*

26

TAB

Pambour

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

states that he has

OF

found,from

great number

of

that the steam, during its action in the cylinder,

experiments,
is always in the condition of maximum
densityfor its temperature,
and that when
the pressure of the steam
changes
its
therein, temperature changes at the same
time, and that
that
which
the presconnects
they alwayspreserve
relation,
sures
and temperatures of the steam
from which it is generated.

ON

THE

WORK

PERFORMED

ON

ENGINE

Put

p'

IN

in contact

PISTON

THE

GIVEN

with the

OF

water

STEAM

TIME.

square feet,
in
the
boiler,
pressure
pressure at the arth foot of the stroke,
of the

area

pistonin

before
pressure in the cylinder
actual lengthof the stroke,

expansion,

that part of the stroke before the steam

the clearance,

is cut

number

per minute,
of singlestrokes per minute,
units of work of the steam per minute.

of cubic

feet of water

converted

off,
into

steam

and

number

ing
Since each cubic foot of water, converted into steam existin the cylinder
before expansion,
beginsunder a pressure

p\ it therefore occupiesa

relative space

by

formula

(e),
represented

by

while the number

in the

of cubic feet of water

which

is

evaporated
of

in the form
boiler,and passes into the cylinder
E

steam

at every

stroke of the

is represented
by -=^;
piston,

therefore the space occupied in cubic feet in the cylinder,

the valve is closed and expansionbegins,will be
when

by
represented

In

the

same

manner

the space

occupiedat

the #th foot

the

stroke,when
expressedby

of tbe

27

ENGINE.

STEAM

THE

p, will be

p' becomes

pressure

e/_JL_V
\a

N
Bat

that space

Pp)

filled with
cylinder,

in the

steam

before

expansionbegins,is also representedby A (q + c); and the

occupiedat the a?th foot of the stroke by
space in the cylinder
there results the following
A (x + c). Hence
equations,

l"(7w)

and

whence

equation,

the former

from

n""
and from

A(i? + c);

the

^"=aoTR

latter,
E

A(2
E

c)(a + /JPy

,,

""p-AN'/J(*
But

the work

done

c)~7

by expansionper

by /
pistonis expressed
there

p d x, and

square foot upon

the

by substitutionfrom (Jc)

results,

f1dx

rl
,

which

expresses the whole

since the pressure upon the
is

__

by p\
represented

and

work

done

fa dx

by expansion; and,
expansionbegins,

before
piston,
that it
c

moves

q feet under

this

28

MATHEMATICAL

THE

THEORY

OF

pressure, whence the work performedon

by formula ("),representedby

therefore the

of these two

sum

each

square foot of the

which
sum' is
expansion,

upon

values is the whole

will

foot

work

before and

both
piston,

which,being multiplied
by A N,
done on the pistonper minute,or

each square

whole

give the

in,

done
after

work

Now, the work produced by the power per minute must be

when the engine has attained uniform
equaltathe resistance,
there results
motion,and K being the whole resistance,
,

IW(7$7)+rh}-7-"'-A"4
"aAK,(Ei) f{H(i") 7X.}.
+

for its equal N I,

By substituting
v, in the last formula,
o
f
the
the
velocity
pistonper minute, there
represents

which

results

*"("+*)-

7*7}.
HMj""+

whence

"

"

hog (

"*"C

)+

|- "...(")

"

quantityE, being the whole resistance actingon a

unit of surface of the piston,comprehends the resistance
arisingfrom the useful load,and from friction.
The

Let the resistance from

the

friction of the

friction is

unloaded

augmented by

and the resistance from

"X

the motion

each

of the useful load

engine=/,

the

P(l + S) +f+h.

p,

quantitythe

unit of the useful load

condensation
imperfect

h;

then

dt

30

ON

The
that
as

THE

duty of

an

enginefrom
bushel

or

DUTY

OF

THE

STEAM

engineis the

amount

the combustion

cwt. ; and

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

of

ENGINE.

yieldedby
of coals,
given quantity

of work

a measure
is,therefore,

of cost with

respect to fuel.
Mr.

Pole,who

is the

in this country on
highestauthority
these subjects,
when speakingof the great duty of the Cornish
of the great.
cause
engines,
observes,"Another
duty is the
This is not only advantageous
use
steam.
of high-pressure
to
inasmuch as it enables the expansiveprinciple
indirectly,
be appliedwith greater effect,
distinct
but there is a totally
economical advantagein the use of high-pressure
steam per se,
which is often overlooked,and deserves special
mention.
Jt
is founded on -the principle,
that the pressure of the steam
increases in a greater ratio than its density
itfollows
; whence
that the higher.the pressure the steam
is raised to, the less
and therefore the
'proportionate
quantityof water it contains,
less fuel is consumed, since a given quantityof fuel will
evaporate the same
weight of water at all temperatures."
Mr. Pole gives,
the Cornish
at page 169 of his work
on
Engine,the following
example :
Cornish
A
engine,with a cylinder70 inches
Example.
in diameter,
and a 10-feet stroke,has the steam admitted at
"

"

e., 30 lbs. above

pressure of 45 lbs. to the square inch {%.
the atmospheric
and during
of the stroke,
pressure)
during"$"
the remainder the steam
the
is allowed to expand ; required
a

duty of the engine.

The

cylinderbeing 70 inches,the area is

3848 square inches,which multiplied
the pressure
by 45 lbs.,
each square inch, give the whole pressure on the piston
on
173160 lbs. This weight is moved
throughIf feet,the
is admitted ; hence a quantity
space duringwhich the steam
of work
173160
288600 lbs.raised one foot high
X If
diameter of the

before the steam

is cut off.
Hence the whole work on the
the

by
expansion,

288600

(1 + log6)

Since the
the steam

Kule

area

of the

is admitted

before and after

both
piston,

1, is
288600

2-79176

is 3848
cylinder

during If

of "ei
stroke,the quantity

feet

consumed

805702

lbs.

and
square inches,
inches
20
of the

.to do the above

work

THE

31

ENGINE.

8TEAH

20 X 3848
76960 cubic inches ; and since the relative
densities of water and steam at 45 lbs. pressure are as 1 to
=

7fi960

this volume
(seetable,
p. 13),

608

of steam

will contain

"

126 cubic inches of water ; and as each cubic foot of water

1728 cubic inches,
weighs 62'51bs.,we shall have

1728
that

126

::

625:

455,

cubic inches of water weighs 4*55 lbs.

Now
it has been found by experimentthat 1 lb. of coal
will evaporate ft'27lbs. of water; hence the quantityof coal
4*55
each
stroke
*49 lbs.
for
=
nearlyJ lb. of
required
-r-^z =

is,126

coal,which

stroke,to producea motive

is requiredfor each

power of 805702 lbs.raised one foot high. At this rate,one

bushel
94 lbs. of coal will give the following
amount,
=

805702

94

154"563"4451bB"

largeduty; but this duty will be somewhat

reduced by takingin the minutiae givenin formula (t).
in an engine
of bushels of coals consumed
number
If B
t minutes,D
in any given time
dutyof the engine,and
which

is

very

units of work
units of work per minute ; .then U t
=
sumed
by the enginewhile B bushels of coals are beingconyielded
U

; hence

will be the units of work

-^-

bushel of coals consumed

by

that

yieldedby

each

engine; therefore,

"-""
To

findthe Point

at ufhichthe Steam

the greatest
of
quantity
formula (A)by
By multiplying

be cut
UsefulWork.
must

I there results

EZ

N'=A(f+
and,since N

v,

c)(a+ /?p')'

by substitution,
m

(J + c) (" + /}*"')'

offto

obtain

32
in

THE

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OF

which, by puttingP the pressure in the boiler for p'fthere

v1for the maximum
velocity

wiU result the

usefuleffect,

E /

which,beingsubstituted in formula (*),

gives

this formula
By differentiating
where the steam
a

maximum,

should be

or

cut

other

as

to

givethe

q+y3(A+/)

1^
a+)8'P

is,in

off so

part of the stroke

useful effect
the greatestpossible,
there results
g

that

for q, the

words,
.

q
I

volume

at pressure

volume

at

pressure

pf

By formula (a),given by Pole, this will become

in which

24250, and 0

Example

1.
"

Let the

55.

lengthof the

stroke of the

pistonbe

40 lbs. per square inch,and

to find
5 lbs.;it is required
the useless resistance "+/==
be cut off to give
must
at what part of the stroke the steam
of useful work.
the greatestamount
10

the pressure of the

feet,

By

the

steam

formula
preceding

51^
40

65

1- 00

THE

STEAM

33

ENGINE.

requiredpart of the stroke where the steam must be cut

of useful work.
off to give the greatestamount
clearance,
Example 2. The lengthof the stroke,including
the

"

the pressure of the steam in the

is \ foot,is 10*5 feet,
is 50 lbs. per square inch,the elasticity
of vapour
in
cylinder
which

the condenser

2Jlbs.per

square

lbs.,and the whole resistance from friction

inch; requiredthe point at which the

be cut

must

steam

is 4

produce the

off to

maximum

greatest

or

effect.

By

Pole's

formula,

-V 50
/
'=
''-24250"

P
"

qz=

550

"

is the part of the stroke where

off,includingclearance.
Example 3. Let the surface of the

inches,the

effective

evaporationE

feet,the
1-J-

the number

being as

other data

"

1 52'

8705-.7

the steam

pistonA
be '927

minute, the lengthof the stroke before the

be

which

"

10-5

in

must

be

cut

be 1800 square
cubic feet per

steam

Example

is cut off q
2 ;

required

of strokes per minute.

/ 24250

AN?

T4r=E\_50_+66j'
144

550

""N==

-927

1800
which

is the number

maximum,

or

1-5"-

of strokes of the

=27,

pistonto produce the

greatest effect.

Having now given the mathematical theoryof the steam

be
engine,with a varietyof examples of its use, it will now
proper to advert to the different appendagesof that splendid
power.
ON

THE

VALVE

SAFETY

OF

THE

In the

STATIONARY

ENGINE.

appendix to "Tredgold on the Steam Engine,"

the following
rule is given to find the area of the eperturefor
the safetyvalve :
Divide the area of the fire-surface by the excess
of pressure
in the boiler above that of the atmosphere in pounds per
"

34

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

inch, and the quotientwill be

the

meter
square of the diaof the narrowest
part of the aperture in inches.
The
of a lever,
safetyvalve is usuallyloaded by means

Bquare

with

weight to

find the

To

alongit to

move

JPressure

the Valve to each

on

Weightis put

whole

suit the

upon

SquareInch,when

square of the diameter

product will give the area,

the

of the valve

by *7854,

number

of square
weight upon the

or

in the valve ; then divide the whole

of square inches in the
valve in pounds by the number
inches
and

the

to each

give the number

quotientwill
square
"

valve,the

of

pounds

valve,

of pressure

inch in the valve.

If

Example.

the

the Valve.

Multiplythe
and

requiredpressure.

weight

of 112

of which

is 3

diameter

lbs. be

placed upon the

inches,requiredthe pressure

square inch.
7 square inches nearly; then
32 x -7854 =
the requiredpressure per square inch.
16 lbs.,
each

to

112

-4- 7

:In addition

"weightof
when
the

OF

LEVER

THE

ON

to

the

the lever must

the lever is

THE

VALVE.

weight moving along

the

lever,the

also be taken

large,and

into the calculation ; for

the aperture of the valve small,

of the lever is such

weight

SAFETY

-to

as

produce a

the valve.
pressure upon
The calculation for graduating the lever is

sensible

very
as

follows

:
"

length by the distance between the fulcrum and

valve,and the quotientis the leverage,which, multipliedby
the weight,gives the whole
weight on the valve ; and this
product,divided by the number of square inches in the valve,
gives the pressure per square inch in the boiler.
Or, if the weight per square inch be known, multiplythat
weight by the number of square inches in the aperture of the
valve, and this product gives the whole weight upon the
givesthe weightwhich
valve,which, divided by the leverage,
Divide

the

be put

must

on

the end

Example.^ Given
the distance
diameter
on

at

between

of the valve

the end

per square

of the lever.

length of

the whole
the

fulcrum

2\ inches

of$ielever,so

;
as

and

the lever 32
valve

inches,
inches, the

requiredthe weight to
to have

be put
of 50 lbs.

pressure
inch 4tobn the valve ; also to divide the lever

so

as

.THE

STEAM

40, 30, 20 lbs,,

"fcc,
upon

to have

35

ENGINE.

the

valve

with

the

same

weight.
32

"*- 4

(25)2 x
4*9

-7854

60

leverage,

4-9

245 lbs. =

of the

area

"

whole

valve,
the

weighton

valve,

245

end of the lever to

and

weightwhich

30$vlbs.=

"r-

"

64

distance from the fulcrum

have

lbs. per square

give 50

"

r~

be

must

then

6'4

at which

the

put

at

on

the

inch,
25*6 inches

weight must

be put
25* t"

pressure on the valve of 40 lbs. And 32

6*4 inches,the distance which the weight must be moved
=
towards the fulcrum to have .40 lbs. pressure per square inch ;
and for 30 lbs. per square inch it must be moved
6 '4 inches
to

more,

To

"

"fcc.

graduatethe

Let A.F

be

"a

Lever of the SafetyTake, the

Lever beingconsidered.

graduatedlever,turningon

Weightof the
F

as

F,

fulcrum ;

is raised
the valve, which
when
the elastic force of the
steam
becomes too great for the

of the

pressure

being a portionof
Put

AF

of the valve,and P
boiler. Then wr2 =
=

Z,W

weightof

the lever A

="

radius

greatestpressure of the steam in the

of the aperture of the valve,wr2 P
area
the valve,and by the property of the lever,

on

pressure

the boiler*

L, VF
A, a; =

weight at

weight W,

+ JL.X

irr2F

I, whence

irr^P-jLa,

(1)

be determined
of the lever may
from formula (1); after which the lengthL', corresponding
be found from the following
to any other pressure P',may
V for L, and P'
formula,which is derived by substituting
The

for

weight W

P, in

formula

at the end

which gives
(1),and transposing,

36

THE

THEORY

OF

"..^^tL.

(2)

Required the weight W, when AP

4 lbs.,
radius
inches,weight of lever
1.

Example

24,

"

of the
=
and
the
P
of the
=
inches,
pressure
40 lbs. per square inch.
3-1416 X (l")a
Here the area of the valve 7rrs =
7-07
=
which, by omittingthe small decimal,
square inches nearly,
may be taken as 7 square inches ; whence
V

MATHEMATICAL

1J

aperture of the valve

in the boiler =
steam

*"

That

is,35 lbs. put

which

at

We

requiredpressure.
from

"

the

A48Mtti-

a*-

"

"

of the lever will give the

next to find the distance L'

the end
have

be put

give any
P'.
requiredpressure
Example 2. Let the pressure P; be 30 lbs. per square inch,
all the other dimensions and weightsbeingthe same
as in the
last example; requiredthe distance L'.
F,

at

weight must

to

on

other

"

By
L'

formula

(2),

moved
inch on

16"J

"

on

towards

the valve.

be found

weight W
from

"

and 24

for

must

"

7-|"inches,which
F

-.".'.

7x3x30-12x4.

"4rriiP-lL"
^
=

the

16||inches,

weight W

must

be

lbs. per square

the lever may

give a pressure of 30
the distance on
Similarly,
to

inches,or the
pressure of 20 lbs. to be 10"fbe suspendedat 24
10|f-= 13j" inches

inches
Jj,or 6fs|

further distance of

"

nearer

to F than in the latter case, and

towards

F,

give a pressure of
of the lever may
10 lbs. per square inch : thus the graduation
valve ; for
be completedfor any givenpressure, on the safety
15 lbs.,
if the intermediate pressures of 25 lbs.,
instance,
"fcc,
distance
the
be require^,
6"" inches must everywhere be
2
divided into two equal parts*that is,6"$
3"" inches,
where the weight must
be suswhich will give the places
pended
a

6""

to

-r-

for these pressures.

38

THE

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

01

of the machine

in one entire revolution,

which is represented
will
be
=
by Q,
Q X 2ir R ; but since the whole effect of
the force P is consumed
by the useful and useless resistance
of the

there
machinerytaken together,
2Pr

2QirR,

or,

will result

"

"

"

Now, let the resistance Q justbalance the force P, when

the crank is in the two positions
OH, OS; and put the angle
R 0 A

the

0 S

angle R

Prcos0
and

0.; then

QR;

value of P in this

the
by substituting

will

there
equation,

after reduction,
result,

.%

and the
"

the

71"

R A S

arc

Corollary.For

26',

142" 52'.

find in

engine we
double-acting

similar manner,

.-. arc

To

R S

100" 54'.

Units of Work in the Fly Wheel, and the number

it stops.
Revolutions which it will make before

findthe
Let the

weight of

internal radii of the

rim

the external and

lbs.,

respectively R

and

of revolutions per second

number
axis

the wheel

of

*, the

inches,and the friction upon it =

feet,its

diameter
"

of its

of the whole

weight of the wheel,the inertia of the axle and spokesof the

the result.
wheel beingneglectedas not materially
affecting
(See last figure.)
/ R2 +

the radius of

Then
Baker's

"

Statics and

h
gyration

r2
.

Dynamics,"Weale's Series.)

(See

THE

STEAM

39

ENGINE.

Units of work in the wheel

s"

IfV
of axis

circumference

by
destroyed

work

rr^r

friction in

~~

revolution

one

^"W
~

12w

of revolutions made

number

27

"

12

Now, put

I!?yX

"

by

the wheel

before it stops; then

whole

by
destroyed

work

friction =
** ** W

xrfW
XT

12

"

N,

"

(R" + r2)

"/
XT

whence

+ r*)
12nx"a(R"
^=
=

"

ifafe. This resultis independent

of the
"

weightof the

"

wheel.

internal radii of the rim of

3 revolutions per
and 3 feet,it makes
a
second,the diameter of the axle is 2 inches,and the friction

Example. The
flywheel are 5
"

external and

upon it -^jof the weight of the wheel,or

revolutions will it make before it stops ?

By

the

v
N

precedingformula,the
12 X

10 X

31416

number

32

(g

of

10 ; how

or
revolutions,

+ S")
_

^T32i

many

1tyfto

1793'

Examplesfor the Fly Wheel of the

Double-acting
Engine.

Practical Rules and

The

and
radius,the horse-powers,

mean

the number

or the number
revolutions,

given,to

of double strokes per minute

findthe weightof the wheel.

of

being

of horse-powersof the
Multiplythe number
engineby 2275, and againby the denominator of the fraction
Rule

1.

"

*";-

7*

/":"""'

//*/aA

c
5

~n

V48*+

.v.*,

..',**

ZiytxHn

.'

^
*A.Cl*\A

'***"

THE

*n

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OP

the
showingthe variation from the mean velocity.Multiply
radius by the cube of the number of revolutions
square of the mean
Divide
the former productby the latter,
per minute.
will be the weightof the flywheel in tons.
and the quotient
and Gener's "Treatise on the Steam Engine,"
See Hann
formula (21),
p. 136.
enginemakes 15 revolutions
Example. A double-acting
the horsepowers
per minute,the radius of the flywheel is 15 feet,
60 ; what must be the weightof the flywheel,
are
when the variationis ^ from the mean
?
velocity
the
rule,
By
"

2275

40

60 X

5460000
_

=
-

%;. .,

.wt

iuW

152 X

V*.

.759375

Multiplythe

of horse -powers by the

number
of the fraction showingthe variation from the
divide the product
mean
velocity,
by the area of the section
and extract the cube root of the
of the rim of the flywheel,
Rule 2.
denominator
"

^
,.

~~

158

/2.i7/A^luotient.

/r.

'

v.

Multiplythe cube root justfound by 12*17,and divide

the productby the number
of revolutions per minute,and
will be the mean
radius. See Hann and Gener's
the quotient
"
f
ormula
Treatise,"
(22),p. 136.
steam
lutions
double-acting
enginemakes 10 revoare
minute,the horse-powers
60,the area of the

Example.
"

per
section of the rim is1*3 square feet,
And the variation -^ from
the mean
the mean
radius of the flywheel.
velocity
; required
By the rule,

12-27,
A/^=^/l846-15=
12-27

12-17

",

and

"r

"

14-93 feet

mean

radius of the wheel.

Rule 3. Multiply
1803 by the number of horse-powers,
and againby the denominator of the fraction showingthe
and divide this productby
variation from the mean
velocity,
of the cubes of the mean
radius and of the number
the product
will be the area
of revolutions per minute,and the quotient
of the section of the rim.
engineof 60 horse-powers
Example. A double-acting
makes 10 revolutions per minute,the mean
radius,of the
"

"

w'\ *

THE

41

ENGINE.

feet,and the variation from the

is 12

wheel

STEAM

section of the rim of the

J^ ; requiredthe
By the rule,
1803

60

20

is
velocity

mean

flywheel.

2163600
,
feet

otr"
1252
^

^msoo

i2"xio"

Practical Rules and

Examplesfor the Fly

"

Wheel

of the

Single-acting
Engine.
The

number

of

strokes per minute,the mean

radius,
single
horse -powers beinggiven,to findthe weightof the

and the
wheel.

1.

Rule

the number
of horse-powers
Multiply
by 94880,
and again by the denominator
of the fraction showing the
variation from the mean
and divide this productby
velocity,
the

"

the square of the mean

radius and of the cube
of the number
of singlestrokes per minute, and the quotient
will be the weight of the wheel in tons.
and
See Hann
Gener " On the Steam Engine,"formula (14),p. 133.

productof

Example.
"

engine of
single-acting

20

horse-powers

makes
wheel

30 single
strokes per minute, the mean
radius of the
is 13 feet,and the variation is -^ from the mean
city
velothe weightof the flywheel.
; required
the
rule,
By
20

94880

25

47440000
^A
-

1*
Rule

2.
denominator

30"

104

**"

4663000

nearly'

Multiplythe

of horse-powers
number
by the
of the fraction showing the variation from the
divide the productby the area
of the section
velocity,

mean

of the

"

rim, and

extract

the cube

root

of the

tiply
quotient;mul-

the cube root, thus

by the number of

found,by 42*2,and divide the product

singlestrokes per minute,and the
radius of the wheel.
quotientwill be the mean
Example. A single-acting
engine of 60 horse-powers
makes 40 singlestrokes per minute,the area
of the section
of the rim of the flywheel is 1*2 square feet,
and variation
from the mean
radius of the
velocity
^ ; requiredthe mean
"

wheel.

42

THE

By

the

42-2
and

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OP

rule,

144

7x

15-2 feet

40

nearly,the

radius of the

mean

wheel.

THE

GOVERNOR.

the supplyof
governor is an apparatusfor regulating
from the boiler to the cylinder
steam
so
as to givea constant
and steadyvelocity
to the engine.
The

" is a vertical shaft turningfreely

the sole B by its
on
connection with the machineryof the steam
engine; 0 P,
A

bars moving
the
centre
on
0, and
freely
the
two weightsor
carrying
balls
two

two

are

P, Q;
rods

FD,

FE

connected

are

the

to

bars at D and E, and attached

is cato the collar I, which
pable
of
and

slidingfreelyup

down

This

the

shaft A

collar is united

B.

to

closes

lever,which

opens or
with steam.
cylinder

the throttle

valve,which

the
supplies

When

revolves

fast,the balls,
by their centrifugal

A B

too

force,flyoutwards,raisingthe slide I, and partially

closing
the throttle valve ; and when
balls collapse,
and the slide

the shaft

too

moves

the
slowly,

admits
consequently
descending,
the
a
more
regulating
engineto
almost completeuniformity.
the
The ball or weight P is acted upon by two forces,i.e.,
force in the direction P", and gravityin the
centrifugal
direction Po; to represent these two
forces,
completethe
shall have the triangles
then we
Pnmo;
parallelogram
if
P m o, A P 0 similar ; and,
/ represent the centrifugal
ball
the
of
the
and
W
force,
P, then,
weight
full

supply of steam, thus

PO
w

00'

STEAM

THE

43

ENGINE.

Also, by Art. 277, Baker's "Statics

Weale's Series,
W

and

Dynamics/'

V"

/~~$r.PO
'

and

the
by substituting

value

of/ in

the

equation,
preceding

there results after reduction,

angularvelocity
per second of the
unit's distance from the shaft A ", then V
by substitution,
or, if v

governor, at a
P 0
v, and

as

00

Now,
"

if

number

number

per

4.

of revolutions per

minute, then

second,
2tcn

whence

0 0

irn

in

"

"

30*

32|

feet,
x

~~

(31416)'""

12

inincheS'

35200
.

"

"

inches

nearly.

the throttle valve

of the steam engine cannot

be
opened without an adequate force exerted by the governor,
which may be measured
by findingwhat weightwill produce
Since

that force : let p be the required

weight,W beingthe weight
has
of one the balls of the governor, as before ; then Hann
shown in his works on the steam
enginethat

W""

100

"CD'

44

THE

MATHEMATICAL

OP

that,if p=-=r

and

OF

THEORY

(J JJ

is the usual

which

"%,

in
proportion

the

governor,

2L

JL

!*_

"

'

""

and, ifp

weight of

lbs.,then W

10

of the

one

There
which

31

the required
J lbs.nearly,

equalballs.

EXAMPLES

AND

RULES

PRACTICAL

200

100

63

~~

ON

THE

GOVERNOR.

conditions in calculations for the governor

find the position
of the pointF, attached

two

are

are, to

to

when
(seelastfig.),

the governor
performsthe
requirednumber of revolutions ; and to find what should be
the radius of the circle described
the range of the balls,
or
by them, that the supplyof steam throughthe throttle valve

the collar I

may

To

givethe enginea steadyspeed.

findthe Distance of the Plane, in which the Balk revoke,
from their Point of Suspension.

Rule.

"

Divide

revolutions per

35200

of
the square of the number
will be the distance
the quotient

by

minute,and

required.

Example. Required the

"

distance of the

in
plane,

which

the balls of the governor

revolve,from the pointof suspension,
when it makes 30 revolutions per minute.
By the rule,

^?00
30*

To

3_5200

900

findthe Radius ofthe

Circledescribed by the Balls.

in which the
First,find the distance of the plane,
balls revolve,
from their pointof suspension,
by the last rule.
Rule."

Secondly,from

the square of the

length of

the

arm

subtract

4:6

THE

MATHEMATICAL

t/ sin

"J^^

("

"/r2 +

But, if

denote

the

OF

THEORY

l)

a
j?Bin2

force

moving

(2)

acting at 0

in the

B, P' the effective force of D, and e the angle

D 0 0 ; then the force P, transferred in the direction of the
connectingrod, becomes P sec c, and this resqlved in the
direction C

direction of the tangent to the circle =

P

(tanc

cos

sin

a);

also tan

sc%c+ o)

sec

em

y/r2

p2sin2 a

"

-?/
P

reduces to

Equation (2)hence
P"
that

F
v' -=y

and,therefore,

Ft/

is,the moving power

power
The

(4)

at 0 is alwaysequalto the effective

at D.

moving force P being nearlyuniform, the force P'

different at
expressedby the equation(3)will be materially
different positions
of the engine
of the crank,and the velocity
will,in consequence, be subjectto small fluctuations in the
of each

course

revolution.

ascertain the law

To

it will be necessary
variations,

to

have

of these

to the usual

recourse

Let R denote the real moment

equationof rotatorymotion.
-of th" resistance,
reduced to the pointD,
includingfriction,
which uniformlyappliedalongthe circumference
or the force,
llD would justsuffice to preserve the mean
of the
velocity
enginewithout any variation ; then P' beingthe force actually
the effective accelerating
force,or the part tending
applied,
will be P'
to produceacceleration,
R; and where this is
"

the velocity
negative,
-r"

lerated.

If

leverageat

we

now

which

must

be retarded

multiplythe
it acts, the

force F

instead of
R

"

productp (F

"

by p, the
R) is its
Hence, if

moment
or
tendencyto generate angularmotion.
M designate
of the inertia to be overcome,
the moment

if we

acce-

and

variathe slight
as
neglect,
insignificant,
comparatively

THE

STEAM

tions of the resistance R due

it to continue

and

suppose

this

by
beingmultiplied

47

ENGINE.

changesof velocity,

to the small

uniform,we

shall have

2 da
"

there results

j"

d t

^2

dad?

da

da

_*(rV-B,")

by integration,
Consequently,

m(^J=2(PcP*-Rp"),
y/i (Pc
*'""
+

;"

same

p"-

"5"

the

enginebeingsupposedto have acquiredher permanent

acceleration
be
there
can
no
speed,
progressive
; the
at the periodof each revolution.
velocitymust recur
at E is obtained by puttingx
0, a
0,
velocity

Now

The

if

and is

m-^
at
Also,the velocity
o

?r,

"

is obtained

by puttingx

=s

2 p,

and is

2P""-R"''r"
(^)"=V/Sf"Pc
+

(6)

Again,it is to be observed that the precedinginvestigation

to returningmotion
H
equallyapplies
along D", pro-

48

THE

vided,in that

case, the

symbol a representsthe angleHOD",

the retrograde
is accentuated for distinction,
at H
If .\ a x',being each
0; the velocity

x',which

and

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

distance B 0.

will be

a/?^
'(")"=
when

and

v,

x'

2 p, the

"

recurringvelocityat

will be

\/"(*"*Vf-*p')
("t)'"=

("*)

-=-

that this
R

-=-

-tt

are

2 P p

augment

arithmetical progression, and

in

would
progression

did not

of the three velocities

that the squares

it appears

Thus

so

go

on

as

to

if the
indefinitely

ance
resist-

ference
difdestroythe common
the same
to recur
velocity
that,so long as the small

R p w, and cause
at each period. It hence follows
R p x,
of R renders 2 P p
ness
"

R x, positive,
the enginewill be acquiringadditional speed; and when R
R x =
such that 2 P
becomes
0, the power will ju6t be
or

"

2 P

"

"

capableof maintainingunaltered

the

movement,
periodical

and the generalspeedWill not admit

For

permanent speed we

must

of any further increase.

therefore have

2
R

This

result shows

"

(6)

that the

generaleffect of

the

moving
o

force

on
P, actingobliquely

0 D

at

D,

is the

same

as

if

P,

"

IT

7
or

very

the

same

nearlyjj P, were

at
always appliedperpendicularly

point.

It is not to be inferred from this that the effect of any

loped
portionof the power is lost. The quantityof power deveis
measured
the
force
force
by
multiplied
by a constant

through which it has acted. In a semirevolution,the power developedby P is hence P X 2 p ;

be R X xp;
that expended by R would
and,
similarly

into

the distance

THE

accordingto

STEAM

49

ENGINB.

that the

it appears
equation(6),

the

expenditure

in both cases, and that no loss is sustained

would be the same
of the action of the crank,except that
through the obliquity
which arises from the additional friction caused by the stress
the shaft.

on

Substitute the value of R from

(6)in (5),and

there

results,

of the shaft of the

for permanent speed,the angularvelocity
formula,
engineat any periodof the stroke,the following
da

D from
and for any position
EOD, this becomes

"

27~N

/2P,

H,

to

if

CO

/Jdenote

the

angle

(8)
^{c+p(l-co8
/3)_^/3+(r-vV-PW

pointD" in the returninghalf stroke from H to E,

if ftdenote the angleH 0 D", the value of A C is obtained
by substituting
w
" for a in the value of t expressedby
For

"

equation (1),and is therefore

AO
and
we

=p(l

(r

+
+ cos/3)

"

this from the

for B 0
obtain the expression
if

deduct

we

x1

Therefore

(1

"

cos

p)

(r

vVjK^sin3^);

afroledistance A B
WV, viz.,
\/r2

p2sin2/3)

at
by equation(7)the velocity

"

(9)

D" is

be determined
velocities "' J! at D* D" will now
v
ftfor ftin equations(8)and (10); thus
substituting
The

2 p,

by
we

find

"'=V

^jc-p(l~C08i8)+^i8-(r^^
D

50
To
let
and

put these in

denote
("*)

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

comparison,
(a),
expressed
by equation

at E, as
velocity

the

for

convenient form

more

OF

assume

(13)
h

Then

the

-/r2

"

p2 sin2 0

"

angularvelocities

at

any

four

corresponding

pointsD", D, jy,D", will be

""=\A,,)s-ir"A
*"
+

w=y/(u,)*-^(A-*)
(14)

which

here

are

in the
arrangedrespectively
at D"

magnitudes,that

and
being the least,

order

of their

that at D" the

greatest.
These

formula

may

be

put in

the higherpowers
by neglecting
we

stillmore

convenient form
of the very Bmall variations;

shall then have

"

MM

(A + h)'

P
0)

("o)

M(o,)

(A

A),

M(w)

(A

A),

M(")

(A + A).

STEAM

THE

for h

But

we

substitute

now

may

51

ENGINE.

j"-sin2/J,and

there

.willresult

(15)
"'="
w"

in parts of p

of A

the values

in which
to be

M^)(A-"8h^)
M^)(Al7flinJ^

fi
0"

40"

0-0000

10

-0959

45

20

-1619

50

30

-1994

60

these last results

From

at E

occurs

and

+
+
+
+

H,

70" +

-1198

-2071

75

-0922

-1984

80

-0625

-1667

90

0-0000

the

velocity("u),
and that the
velocity,
the quadrantsof D" and
that the

conclude

we

-2080

is the

mean

in

greatest and least velocities occur

D", at

(13)found

from

follows,

as

which

are

pointswhere
+

"

?/3
+

sin* ft or

If

value.

attains its maximum

we

cos

/3 +

assume

g-sin* 0,
these
that

pointsto be
45",
/3

the middle of the respective

quadrants,so
with all the proportions
which will be very nearlythe case
and cannot
sensibly affect the accuracy
observed in practice,
of the results, the greatest and kast velocities will be
=

"

"

+
(""")
v

'

mean

-*

Ti

f\ (4~+

0207

\2r
(g")

and

the

deviation

from

value will be

M(")

("+0-207).
d

2
y

the

52

MATHEMATICAL

THE

THEORY

OF

the values of P', R, the force

Again,by substituting
P'
tends to accelerate motion,is
R, which at each position
"

found

to be

It hence

\v

accelerated f
a

In

/
.

i when

retarded
i

that the motion

appears

Wr2"

(lesserJ

p2sin\i

we
precedinginvestigation

the action of

2
Vthan-.

(greater)

.A.

a(--7=====+l)is"r

sin

the

p cos

is

have

onlyconsidered
found to apply,

singlecrank ; but it will be

with a slight
when
the rotatory motion of the
modification,
shaft is maintained
of cranks
by the action of any number
making given angleswith each other. We have only to
in placeof P',in the right-hand
member
of the
substitute,
of
forces
the
the
of
equation motion,
sum
P',arisingfrom
the several cranks ; and, by followingout the same
process,
formula

(5)will

become

3F~

v/if{Pc
s(Pa')~Rpa}'

in which

(P#)

Let

(o")denote

0, a

ss

the

0, and

includes
value
the

the

same

of this

formula,for

term

for each

crank.

when
angularvelocity,
any

other

will
position,

become

"

V/M,+s{*(P*)~Bpa}
"17"

it is evident
integration,
to any assignedposition
that this formula applies
generally
throughoutthe entire periodof each revolution of the shaft,
if we
signification,
give to the symbols x, a the following

By attendingto

the nature

of the

the entire distance travelled over by the extremity

the angle described by the revolution
c, for each crank; and a
estimated
from
that
each being
of each shaft,
position
t.

e., x

in which

Let

us

the

was
velocity

take the

(w).

practical
case,

in which

the revolution of

54:

THE

MATHEMATICAL

the annexed

In

is the centre and A the axis of

is always fixed on the axis of the

Fig. E
wheel,which

the eccentric
flywheel of the

OF

THEORY

engine;
stationary
this

embraces
hoop BOD
wheel so as jnstto allow it
a

within its circle,

freely
hoop being generallyof
pieces
joinedat B and G ;

to turn

the
two

BFC

frame

the

the bent
on

axis

A,

the centre G.
the frame BFO

and
rightand left,

the

When

revolves
drawn

will be

the

extremityF of
which
lever FGH,

hoop with
turns

connects

its eccentric

on

to
alternately

the
will

end, F, of the bent lever FGH

procating
circle ; the reci-

revolution

of a
two
describe at every
arcs
thus
of
motion
F,
produced,transmits a like kind
of motion to the other end of the lever,to which the slidevalve of the engine is attached.
"
crank
The eccentric arm
or

by far the most simple

and it has the
reciprocation,
is

rotation into
of converting
valuable property of beginningthe motion
and again gradually
retardingit so
gently,

mode

in each direction
as to avoid jerks.

Nevertheless,the law of variation in the velocities is

while to retain the

worth

correct

it in

it is often

the law of
train.

By

velocity
trains of

of motion may be derived from

revolvingdriver." ProfessorWillis.
uniformly

link-work

complexlaws

very

"

To

Construct"an Eccentric

Wheel.

equalhalf the length

the centreof the shaft A take A E

From

the wheel is intended

of the stroke which

requirementsof mechanism

crank,and

combining other pieceswith

by

as

the

is producedso simply,
that
reciprocation

but the

adaptedto

best

always the

not

to work

; and

from E

centre,with a radius somewhat

greater than E D, describe
which will represent the requiredwheeTT*
circle,
a

Example.

"

have

stroke

Suppose
of 16

an

eccentric

wheel

inches,the diameter

is

of the

requiredto
shaft being

inches,and the thickness of metal for keying it on to the

2
8 inches,
from A to E, 16
shaft 2 inches; then set off,
6

"

and

8 +

jr

+ 2

wheel

required.

13

inches,the radius

of the

eccentric

THE

Let S

56

ENGINE.

STEAM

space the end F ismoved throughby the eccentric

wheel, and *
; then
space through which the slide moves
PGxi
GHxS,
If in this equationany three of the
partsbe giventhe fourth may be found.
=

MOTION.

PARALLEL

beautiful arrangement of link-work was

invented by the celebrated Watt, to convert
the reciprocating
of
the
circular motion of the extremity
great beam of the
rectilinear motion adapted
steam
engineinto a reciprocating
This

to the

simpleand

pistonrod.
move

on

are

connected by

their fixed centres

0 0

to
be made
Now, if CB
alternately
upwards and downwards, which will cause

and let M
move

O D

which

OB, OD,

Let the two equalrods

third rod or link B D,

to

be the middle

on

move

of B D.

its centre

0 in the

same

manner,

it will be

point M will ascend and descend in a line

line.
which will not deviate sensibly
from a vertical straight
For when the pointB is moved upwards,the upper extremity
found

that the

time
at the same
of the rod B 0 is drawn a littleto the right,
extremityD of the rod 0 D is drawn a little to the left.
scends;
When
the extremityB descends,the extremityD also dethus the two extremities are again drawn, the one. a
and the other a little to the left. It will
littleto the right,
be readily
understood that while the ends of the rod or link
its
BD
made
thus alternately
to move
are
.rightand left,
middle

pointM

the

sensiblydeviate to the .rightnor to

in a line not
upwards and downwards
When
BC=DO,
a. vertical direction.

will not

but will move

left,
varyingfrom
sensibly
the pointM fallsin the line C Q.
The completeparallel
motion, which is
is shown
adopted in large steam engines,

Fig.

When

so

employedthe

beam

of the

most

universally

in the annexed

engine becomes

56

THE

MATHEMATICAL

OF

THEORY

B is half thisbeam,

of the radius rods of the system,

of which the centre of motion is A.

one

links E

It has two

BF,
which
the
ED

BF

is termed

link, and

main
.

below

link;

back

the

and these
D

D,
it,of

jointedto

are

by

connected
third link

parallel
equalto B E.

F, called the

rod,and

radios

The

rod

bridle

rod

or

CD

is

the end D of
the back link ED, and
0 is fixed
its centre

to
jointed

at

vertical distance

below
or

equalto

BF.

length

The

of the rods are so proportioned

that F shall be the
which the rectilineal motion
is communicated, or

E D

pointto

parallel

See Professor Willis's " Mechanism,"

point,as it is termed.
gation
Art. 447, who deduces from a learned and abstruse investithe proporthe. following
simpleequation,
exhibiting
tions
of the

the parallel
motion,
partsconstituting

CD

DF

AE*

AE"
or

CD

"

DF

lengthof

the radius rod.

Since the parts A E, E D, 0 D, considered separately,

form
in the preceding
a system similar to the arrangement
Fig.,
it follows that if the proper pointd between
D and E be
additional

will be obtained; so
motion
parallel
in one, and is
two
motions
parallel
the
commonly so employed in steam engines,
by suspending
from F, and the air-pump rod Qrf
great pistonrod PF

taken, an

that this form combines

from d in the link E D.

from the

The

of the pointd
position

formula,
following
ED.
_

AE

"

d^aeTed
If the

is found

of
position

the

pointd

be

given,the lengthof

the

TAB

G D
formula,which
radius rod

BTBAM

be found

may

67

ENGINE.

the preceding
by transposing

gives

0D,AB(BD.fDJ)
When

the

lengths of

(2)

several parts of the parallel

motion,as E D, A E, 0 D, are given,the distance D d may be
readilyfonnd by formula (1); and when A E, E D, D d are

given,the lengthof
formula

the

the radius rod

0 D

may

be found

by

(2).

If the system of link-work in the parallel

motion be moved
Note.
into all
it is capable
the actual pathsof the points
the positions
of taking,
F and i
would be found to be (since
the extent of the stroke of the pistonis small)
"

in the shapeof the figure8 ; but the small portions

of the corves
carves
described differ iusensibly
from rightlines. See Professor Willis's
actually
Mechanism," Arts. 441 to 452, where various other importantinvestigations
in
the
his
works
Professor
the
same
on
on
Hann,
subjectare given.
in
his
of
and
edition
also
various
steam
has
engine,
given
"Tredgold,"
the parallel
methods of constructing
motion adaptedto particular
important
used.
cases
; but the methods here givenare those most extensively
in
"

PADDLE

WHKTETA

may be considered as a
series of levers coming into successive action upon the water.
Each arm
of the wheel to which a float is attached represents
The

floats of the

paddlewheel

lever ; the reaction of the water on the paddleboard or

float constitutes the fulcrum; the resistance is that of the
one

of the vessel at the centre of the wheel ;

is that produced by the engine. As the

to the motion

water

the

and

board

power
is producedby the reaction of the water on the paddle
(asthere can be no reaction if the surface of the paddle
the true fulcrum
does not move
through the water),

must

be at that

fulcrum
board

would
of the
to
to

point on which, if simplyimmersed, there

This point,
be no reaction,.
moving ia the direction
with no resistance
surface of the paddle board, can meet

from the water ; some

power must therefore be exerted
force the paddle boards through the water, in addition
would
be required to propel the vessel.
that which

Hence

statical

to
requisite

move

theory may

be

the floatsof the

deduced

for the

paddlewheel.

power

58

ON

THE

KINDS

DIFFERENT

1. Field's Paddle
wheel,differsfrom the
of the
Lords

of the

took out

OF

PADDLE

WHEELS.

Wheel, which is called the cycloidal

common
paddlewheel in the arrangement

paddle hoards, and

Admiralty in 1833.

patent for this

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

exhibited

was

before

However, Mr. Galloway

invention in 1835

same

the

; but the

credit of it clearly
belongedto the first-named gentleman.
Journal
Mr. Field thus describes his wheel in the London
for

December, 1835
Each

"

"

into several

is divided

board

boards,and

arranged in,

parts,or

such
nearlyin,.

or

they all enter the water in immediate

avoidingthe shock produced by the common

that

(to

narrower

curves
cycloidal

thus
succession,

pleasant
board, so unand wasteful
to the vessel,
passengers, injurious

As the actingface of each board is radiating,

of the .power.
it propelswhile passing under
the centre in the ordinary
it emerges

way, and when

from each narrow

the

simultaneously
cannot
board, and, consequently,
lop*up."
of these wheels :
Mr. Barlow givesthe following
description
"The
principleof this contrivance consists in dividing
the paddle into a number
of parts,which are placed upon
the wheel in "the curve
-of a cycloid,
that "theyenter the
so
water

escapes

"

"

water

at

the

spot and

-same

follow

one

another

so

rapidly

littleresistance to the engine on 'entering

the
cause
as
water, and afterwards separate so as to afford*fall scope for
their action in passingthe centre, and in coming out allow
to

the water

readilyfrom them."
There is some
difference of opinionrespecting
"the advantages
and disadvantages
of these wheels.
Mr. Barlow says
the use of the cycloidal
that
wheel is very likely
to become
that of Morgan, from its superior
general,and supersede,
while it does away
with most of the
strengthand simplicity,
to escape

"

evils

to

which

the

common

wheel

is subject."

Mr.
it.

rather to underrate
Mornay, on the contrary,seems
His opinionis," that it remains to be decided by experiment,
whether
the disadvantages
of this wheel are
balanced
overthe

to possess."
advantagesit seems
This wheel has been improved since the time of its first
introduction,in the followingrather remarkable
manner.
At the time of the adoption
of this wheel,it was
with six or

by

seven

bars in each set,instead of the

common

paddleboards.

THE

in her

used

the wheels
'{indeed

reduced

has been mack

This number

59

ENGINE.

STEAM

have

Majesty'sservice

now

boards

only two

in

found1 to be more
as
advantageous.
set),
every reduction1 was
carried
be
these
on
farther,
However,
improvementscannot
in that

as

they

case

would

to

return

the

wheel

common

again.
Western

Great

The

vessels that have

2. Paddle

simpleof
a

British

and

Queen

are

among

the

been fitted with these wheels.

with

Wheels

Floats.
Oblique

this kind is that of Mr.

Here

patent in 1836.

to the rims and

obliquely

S.

"

One

paddleboards

the

the axis of the wheel.

of the
is not the use

of the patent,however,
but the making one
half of them

of the most
he obtained

Hall,for which

to

enter

placed

are

The

subject
obliquefloats,

the water

in

one

and the other in the reverse.

diagonaldirection,
The objections
are
(1),that it requiresa greater surface
of paddle board to producethe same
for Mr." Mornay
effect,
exceed that in
in these wheels must
proves that the power
and
wheels in the ratio of TV;
common
(2),that the shock
is very little reduced,.
from oblique
and the loss of power
"

action is greater than with the

3.

Morgan'sPaddle

construction

is

wheel.

FeatheringFloats. The
follows. The
paddlesturn

with

Wheel

of this wheel

common

as

"

spindles,
having a bearingon the framework and on the
wheel,which is polygonal,
having as many sides as there are
inside
frame or polygonalone is attached to
paddles. The
the shaft of the engine,which does not continue beyond the
side of the vessel;and the outer one. has an independent
bearingon a centre attached to the jmddle box, so that it
derives its motion entirely
from the arms
or
angles of the
the spacebetween the two frames being leftentirely
polygon,
the
tree.
A
crank is fixed to the paddle box, on which
outer polygon revolves ; it projects
in an inclined direction
on

in the open
paddle has
and

arms

space between the sides of the wheel. Each

attached to it at an angle of about 70",
a crank
the extremities of the cranks with a moveconnect
able

boss,which

of these
fixed centre; one
is fixed to the boss,and is calledihe dividing
arms
arm.
This wheel is quitefree from back-water,and from any

shock,as

both

revolves

the

upper

on

and

.lower

edges-of

the float

are

GO

MATHEMATICAL

THE

THEORY

OF

their

respective
cycloidsat the time of
These wheels have alwaysbeen praised
enteringthe water.
their strength,
and their durability,
for their beautiful action,
for the safety,
comfort,and economy with which
as well as
theyare attended. They have been adoptedin many govern

nearlytangents

to

ment

steamers, and

and mercantile

alwayswith

It

success.

that in lightimmersions little

by experiments,
gainedby these wheels,since,reckoningthe

has been found

advantage is

effective power =
'660 in the
in
arises
and
'666
This
from the
wheel,
Morgan's.

of the

power
common

engine1, the

loss from the additional

to obtain the
velocity
required
the vessel,
being fully
equal to

recedingof

or

obliqueaction

in the

wheel

common

In

cases

ance
resistthat of

of

deep

the result is different ; the effective power

of the
wheel will,in a very deep immersion,equal only
common
'553,while that of Morgan's wheel remains the same.

immersion

In the Firebrand
and less float,
gave

steamer,Morgan'swheel,with less power

wheel.
a greater speedthan the common

conclude that this wheel has the supemay, therefore,

riority
in sea, and the common
wheel in river navigation.
There
other modifications of the paddlewheel with
are
floats,
feathering
by Buchanan and Oldham ; but they have

We

advantagesat all comparableto

been
never
Morgan's,just described,and have, therefore,
adoptedin practice.

been

To

found

to

possess

Centre

findthe

no

of

Pressure

in

Morgan's Paddle

Board, dec.
Put

and

the radii of the wheel

and

rollingcircle

and d
the depth of the paddleboard ; then
respectively,
the depthof the centre of pressure from the upper edge of
is
the paddleboard,as deduced from Mr. Barlow's formula,
=

"/(R-r)

dy

"

Example.
"

steam

The

vessel is 9 J

6| feet,and
the diameter

the

radius

of the wheel

feet,the radius

of
depth,

of the centre

(R

the

Tj.

of fhe

of the

paddleboard

of pressure.

Messenger
rollingcircle is

2 feet ;

required

62

board is 10 feet
square

THEOEY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

long and

2 broad, its

area

OF

is 10

20

feet; hence,

(6-34yx62ix20
=

7871bfl"nearly

o4$
The

of
velocity

1238*6

the

centre

feet per minute

12386

787

Screw
have

now

objectsof

above, is

nearly.

PROPELLERS.
means

of steam

power,

great importanceto all nations ;

to vesselsof war, the machinery

especially
applicable
beingplacedso deep in the hold of the ship
propulsion

they are
for

SOEEW

for navigation,
by
propellers
become

found

59 horse powers,

33-000

MAMNB

of pressure,

STEAM

THS

63

BHGINB.

from the reach of

it completely

gunshot. Screw
however
variouslythey may be modified,all
propellers,
derive their power of propelling
by beingplacedon an axis
which is parallel
to the keel,and by havingthreads or blades
from
the axis,which form segments of a helix,or
extending
the threads or
spiral
; so that by causing the axis to revolve,
in the same
their way through the water, much
blades worm
inserts itselfinto a pieceof wood,
as a carpenter's
screw
way
of the screw-propeller
of its
with the difference in the case
is not of recent
making the water recede. Screw propelling
in 1768,
invention : M. Duquet in 1727, and Mr. Pancton
both producedmachinery of this kind; other inventions followed
to

as

secure

until

Archimedes

the

When

in

Thames

date.

recent

1836,

first tried down

was

the shape of the

screw

was

the

river

represented

as

singlethread of thin sheet

in the

". e., a
iron,bent to
figure,
fitsixteen wrought-iron arms
fixed round the axis at equal
This screw, from
so
or
screw.
as to form
a helix,
distances,
thread of long pitch,
its having only one
viz.,45", caused a
in the water, and a great deal of vibration
that on reachingSheerness the
of the vessel,
so

great commotion

in the stern
vessel was
laid

ashore,and portionsof the .iron platetaken

off at

equalintervals ;

form

of the

screw

series
a
finally,
Admiralty,with
the adoptionof

notimproved. The

then

changed to a
experimentswas made

was

of

double

by

one

order

and,

of the

which

three or four-bladed screws,

ended in
the two-bladed screw.
These
experiments
tried in H. M. shipsDwarf and Rattler,till a speed

were

produced in

had

been

Mr.

Rennie's conoidal

speed which

had

time.

speed

The

nine knots per

a

but the effect was

ever

the

of 12J knots per hour with

of cast-iron,
being the greatest

Dwarf

screw

been attained

attained

by

then

fastest steamers

screw

the Archimedes

hour, which, taken

great performance. The

the

by

as

first experiment,
was

Archimedes

known, and made

up to that
about
was

of the
beat most
all round
voyage

Great

Britain,being a distance of 2096 nautical miles,in

237" hours,or nearlynine knots per hour throughthe whole
distance.
to

Oporto

The

Archimedes

in 69

afterwards sailed from

hours, and

returned

from

Plymouth

thence,against

and high seas, in 88 hours; and the

strong head-winds
of the most eminent officerspredicted
all that
reportsof some
has since been realised by the

screw.

04:

THE

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

"

of the marine

Its chief

produced.

one
probably

is

Screw Propeller.This
QrijjitKt
best modifications

OF

which

screw

in

consists
peculiarity

sphere B being substituted

ordinaryscrew,

blades of the

of the

has yet been

large hollow

for the central

portion of the
the blades A, A, A terminating
the sphere instead of
upon
It has
upon the usual boss.
been found by experimentthat
the

central

portion of

blades of the
absorbs
the

screw

common

nearly20 per

cent, of

propelling
power,

out
with-

giving

useful

out

any

in consequence
effect,

off at

the

rightangles,thus disturbingthe

the
is

water

solid

more

effective

and

more
portionof
upon which the outer
of
the
is
about
The
fore,
to act.
use
screw
sphereis,therethe space otherwise occupiedby the central
to fillup

water

the

being

line with

that

shaft,so

of that

the blades

portionof
nearly in
thrown

the

blades,a smooth globe of this kind

portion of the 6crew
littlefriction or
revolvingin the water with comparatively
resistance.
It is found

also that the vibrations caused

by

the revolutions

lessened by this
considerably
consists
contrivance. Another feature in Griffith'spropeller
in the peculiar
form of the blades,
which, unlike the common
largertowards the sphere and smaller towards
screw, are
the extremities : the diameter
of the sphere being oneof the

common

third of the whole

screw

are

diameter

of the

screw,

the

breadth

of

blade at the root is equal to the full diameter of the

tremities
sphere,taperingto two-thirds of this breadth at the exeach

of the blades.
at their ends

which

is to

The

objectin reducingthe

blades

with
compensate for the varyingvelocity

the different parts of their

length travel through the

water.

There

is stillanother

of alteringthe
power
suitable arrangement of

sphere; or,
under

feature in this

pitch or

t.
propeller,

angle of

"., the

the blades

by

apparatuscontained within the hollow

if it be wished

canvas, the blades may

to

stop the engines,and

be feathered

sail

(asin Maudslay's

THE

screw),so
feathering
and thus
"

present their edges to the water,

to

as

of resistance to the

the least amount

cause

Maudday't FeatheringScrew.
on

the

65

ENGINE.

STEAM

"

The

following
page.

is,that the blades,whenever

This

ship.

is sented
reprebe
to
tained
obsought
object
the vessel is put under
screw

should be placed iu a
not required,
and the screw
direction parallel
with the line of the keel,and so form, as it
of the dead wood, as they cause
considerable
were, a portion
canvas,

obstruction

they

if

thoughtheybe

or even
position,

and allowed
fitted with

to
a

allowed

be

fixed in their
from the engine

disconnected

auxiliarysailingvessels,not
aperture for the purpose of raising
In

revolve.

trunk

remain

to

or

valuable ; but
of the water, this is particularly
the
it will also be found useful in shipsof war, by lessening
the

screw

width

out

of the trunk

through which

and also by the

desired,

it has

which
facility

for

or
placingthe vessel under canvas
for placingthe vessel under canvas
as
possibleto keep the enginesat work

other

by

The

causes.

means

of

blades

oatch and

if this be
rise,
emergencies,

to

it givesin

steam,

as

when

it may

not

for want

of fuel

locked in the vertical

are

well

under

or

position

passingthrough the
figure."

screw,

be

stern

of the vessel,as shown in the

"
The Diameter
of the Screw should,in most cases, be
made
as
great as the draught of water will admit,and for
in smooth water
its upper edge need not be more
sailing
than a few inches below the surface. In the case
of seagoing
it is preferable
to keep it 1J
vessels,
the
"

screw

mean

The

surface of the water."

Area of the Screw.
By the
"

is understood

the

of, their actual

When

the actual amount

of the
areas."

"

This

the

area

by the
of the blades is

obliquesurface should

spoken
from
distinguished
especially
surface.

of the disc of the

of the circle described

area

extremityof its diameter.

area

2 feet below

or

always be

the

of the resisting
planeprojection
latter measurement,
as
representing

of surface

directly
employed in the propulsion
is probablythe most important
of these
vessel,

Murray

on

the Marine

Engine,Weale's

Series.

66

THE

1st. In
2nd.

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

position
for use

as

OF

propeller.

under
In position
for sailing

canvas

alone.

8TBAM

THE

Various
for

Hann

The

one

THEORY

authors

have

OF

given their

of the
power
"
Gener's
Treatise

and

surface of the

Let

at that

The

screw.

the Steam

on

it revolves

is
following
Engine."

line normal

to the extent
uniformly,

of the vessel in feet per second,

velocity
of the screw,
angularvelocity
lengthor pitchof the screw,
radius of any pointP,
angle of inclination of the surface of the

theoretical deductions

is generatedby

screw

axis,round which
revolution.

SCREW.

THE

determiningthe

from
the

THE

ENGINE.

with
point,

axis ;

to the
planesection perpendicular

a)

Then,

u==ku,=s2Zia

(2)

(3)
\
/

tan

"

"

2r*r

Effective

angularvelocity

rwtano-v

r
,.

_l^

to the
Velocityperpendicular

J sin

(rw tan

v) cos

"

Elementarysurface

at P

(u

=
.

cos

.*" the

v) cos

"

r ;

elementary
pressure
W

"V

a/

sin

o\

"

"""""

screw

(cos
r o"

(*"")-

dp

2wr
d

-"

(u

cos* a
t;)2

"

'

2 g

cos

W
as

)lWu

"

"

"" r

cos

(u

"

A. tut-f*
liriCfijA*^
^ W"fi*

v)8.

Dgitlzec

a.

of

screw

and let

*="

to

68

THE

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

Let

"

"

("

OF

*)"

(4)

Cr*dr
and

dp

Or d

cos

"

from formula

"

vk%

r2

(3);

t*dr
C. "* (effective
power)=

A
Let,therefore,

r2

the effective power

the full power

(dp cob a)

(5)

X")
X

"*

2*

,2

log

J AXC
J ifa

tf^

"2

(,ftv
'

6^0'and
Multi^by3^0
=

the effectivehorse -powers

the full horse-powers

Mftke

""

and the full horse-powers

But,

if S

4^)

the

t", and

A*0

u.

Sxoi.

r^

then the effectivehorse-powers

Again,hy (6)the

A*0
m

Ac("A c (u

(7)
v)2v,)
"

v)2u)

,ft*
*

effective propelling
pressure

?^

("-*)".

effective surface of resistance of the

W

vessel,the effective resistance

n-

2^

"

S v2 ;

70

ON

OP

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

BOILERS.

horse-powersis usually15 feet long and

power;
therefore 90 feet of surface,or 4J feet to 1 horse-

boiler for 20

6 feet wide ;
boiler of 14
a

60 feet of surface, or
horse -powers
allow
but engineersgenerally
4*3 feet to 1 horse -power;
5 feet of surface to 1 horse -power ; and Mr. Hicks,of Bolton,
zontal
his boilers at the rate of 5J square feet of horiproportions
Mr.
horse -power.
allows 25 cubic feet of space to each horse -power.
of water

surface

to

Watt

each

Lengthof Bailers for Locomotive Engine*.

and Eastern Counties Bailway,the length
Counties
of the boiler is 8 feet ; while on the North Midland
Eailway, and on several
Railway, on the Great Western
the Northern

On

others,the lengthof the boiler is 8J feet.

engines,the length of

locomotive

feet

12

and

the Bordeaux

On

Stephenson's

boiler is between

the

and

In

La

Teste

11

Bailway the

lengthof the boiler is 8 feet 9 inches ; and in America the

lengthvaries from 10 to 14 feet.
The Inside Diameter
of a Locomotive Boiler is usually
in inches
by multiplyingthe diameter of the cylinder
by 3", and the product is the inside diameter of the boiler.
of the cylinderbe
Thus, for example, let the diameter

found

15 inches

then

the inside diameter of the- boiler.

The Inside Diameter
of ike Steam
varied

be
may obviously
to
considerably.It is usual,however, in practice

its diameter
proportion

to

multiplyingthis diameter
in inches.

steam

dome

of the

be
cylinders

15 X
The
varied

1*43

the diameter

by

1*43

of the

for the

cylinder,
by

diameter

of the

Thus, for example,let the diameters

15 inches ; then

21*45 inches

diameter

of the dome.

be considerably
Height of the Steam Dome
may
it appears that a uniform
; but judgingfrom practice,

heightof 2b
The

Dome

Area

feet would

of

the

answer

in all cases.

follows
in practice,
Fire-grate,

more

THE

71

ENGINE,

STEAM

certain rule than any other part of the engineseems

much
but it appears to be in all cases
too small,and

to do ;
causes

a great loss of power

by urgingthe blast itrenders necessary,
from excessive
and a rapiddeterioration of the furnace plates
There is no sufficientreason
heat.
why the furnace should

be

not

the

the boiler ; it would then

and be
marine
engine boiler,

nearlyas long as

furnace

of

rule
manageable. However, the practical
is
fire-grate to multiplythe diameter
inches by #77,and the productis the area

the

in feet. Thus, for

be 16 inches ; then
16 X

'77

let the
example,

12-32 square feet

STEAM

It is usual in

quite as

to find the

area

of

of the cylinder
in
of the fire-grate

diameter

area

resemble

of the

of the

cylinders

fire-grate.

PIPES.

have

the internal diameter of the

steam
of
pipeabout one-fifth of the diameter of the cylinder
the engine. The area of the passages throughthe valves in
of Watt's enginesare nearlyone
some
square inch to each
is
This
in
too large for steam
some
cases
horse-power.
to
practice

passages, but rather too small forthe

valve
exhausting-valve passages
exhausting

Indeed,the largerthe

passages.
are, the

better.
The

method

onlyproper

of

the
proportioning

steam

sages
pas-

of the
by taking into consideration the velocity
Mr.
them.
steam
through
Tredgold says, the force of steam
in the boiler,
and the area
of the
multiplied
by the velocity
the
be
elasticforce
must
the
to
tiplied
on
equal
pistonmulpassage,
by its area and velocity.That is,
is

Where

is the

A V p.

of the steam passages, / the force of

the steam in the boiler in inches of mercury, v the velocity,
denomination
as /,
p the force of the pistonin the same
A the area of the piston,
and V its velocity,
a

area

AVo
a

./

AVo
or

*
=

fv

72

MATHEMATICAL

THE

THE

The

by

AIR-PUMP,

of
proportion

Mr.

Watt,

THB0R7

is

OF

"e.

CONDENSER,

the diameter

air-pump,as given

of the

of the diameter of
the lengthof the stroke of the air-bucket

about two-thirds
usually

the

when
cylinder,
is half the lengthof

the stroke of the steam

piston.
The area
of the passages between the condenser and the
air-pumpshould never be less than one -fourth of the area of
the

air-pump;

have

the

flapor
The

same

the apertures through the air-bucket should

and, ifconvenient, the discharging
proportion,

valve should be made

larger.

should at least be equal to

that of the air-pump ; and, where convenience will admit it,
the largerit is made the better.
of the condenser
capacity

THE

When

SLIDE-VALVE
the breadth

OF

THE

STEAM

ENGINE.

of the slide face of the valve

is

just

equalto that of the steam port,the travel of the elide is

evidently
equalto twice the breadth of the steam port; but
the
slide
when
has lap,
then the lengthof the stroke or travel
the
is
slide
of
equalto double the lengthof the lap,together
with double the breadth of the steam
port. In the annexed
which represents the slide at half stroke,A B or E F
figure,

is the
When

lap,and

BO

the slide

or

D E

begins to

the breadth
from

of the steam

port.

extremityof its
F
D
arrives
and
at
the
when
it has passed
stroke,
point
;
which is its position
half its travel,
shown
the
as
over
m
that
the
F
is
evident
it
has
moved
the
point
over
figure,
the
breadth
is
to
which
of
the
F
steam
D,
equal
space
port
added to the lap; the slide next, moving throughthe other
half of its travel,will bringthe pointA to 0, a space which
is also equalto the breadth of the steam
port added to the
the
slide is equalto twice
lap; therefore the whole travel of
move

one

TBS

the
the

73

ENGINE.

STEAM

port and the

of the breadth

sum

of the steam
In this figurethe slide has

lap.

followingmethod

The

of

no

lengthof

lead.

of the
positions
openingsof the steam

showing

the

correspondingto the various

piston,
and exhausting
ports,has been presentedto me for insertion
Mr. Amos, of the wellin this work by the eminent engineer,
It is givenin as clear and
known
firm of Easton and Amos.
the subjectseems
to admit of,since any
as
simplea manner
draw the figureto any convenient
working man
intelligent
may
scale with rule and compasses, while,for locomotive
engines,the figuremight be drawn of the fullsize.

GEOMETRICAL

From
of the

scale of

equal parts take

divided
piston,

equalto

CONSTRUCTION.

into feet and

the

lengthof

and
inches,

half the stroke describe the circle AOD,

represent the crank orbit.

the stroke

with

radius

which

will

Also form

a scale of equal parts,

with
the radius O P
the scale beingas largeas practicable
y
slide
of
the
describe
circle
and
the
the
oPQ;
lap
equalto
"

"

with
steam

the radius 0 p
equalto the
port describe the circle p q
the travel of the slide ; on

lapand

"

"

breadth

of

one

the distance p q represents

this latter circleset off

"

and from m draw the line

equalto the lead of the slide,
to this line
m
n, touchingthe circle o PQ at P ; and parallel
A
draw
of the crank-pin,
A',and A will represent the position
the
is
half
When
slide
at
stroke.
the crank-pin
when
arrives
will
slide
the
toand
when
it
arrives
at B,
at 0,
begin open ;
will be at the upper end of itsand
the
the piston
steam
stroke,
be
distance
I
will
and
to
a
equal
m,
takingthe
port
open
the upper side of the pistonto commence
the down
steam
on
of the crank and piston
stroke. To ascertain the position
when the steam port is fully
open, from m and n as centres,
describe the arcs de andjfy,and their pointof intersection r,
will be the position
in the circle AOD,
of the crank-pin
;
will
0
line
the
be
and the
to
of the
r ", parallel
H,
position
time.
the
the
When
arrives
at
at the
same
crank-pin
piston
pointt,the slide will have returned to the line m nt and the
will be cut off; and the line Tt, drawn parallel
to OH,
steam
of the piston,
will be the position
showing the portionof the
the crank-pinarrives at h,
half stroke performed. When
the steam
port begin* to open for the admission of steam
Im

74
to

tinder side of the

the

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

crank

the
piston,

having arrived

atD.

of the slide with respect to the

position
of the stroke
the
when
as, for example,
pistonat any portion
pistonhas performed6 inches of its stroke draw 1 1 parallel
To

ascertain the

"

"

to H

0, and from

through the

centre

angles town;
breadth
if the

O, and

then

of the steam

pistonhas

draw

e',which
from the

if

produced would pass

pointe'draw erh at right

equalto the
that time.
Again,
to HO,
vw
parallel

the distance e'h will be

port which is open

travelled

at

draw
33" inches,

TEE-

and from
to m

be

draw

draw

y,

STEAM

75

ENGINE.

to
radiating
cutting
p O in k
tax

closed,and the elide will have

the centre 0" and parallel

; then the upper part will
travelled the distance j" k.

See the precedingfigure.

the slide has been conIn the foregoingconstruction,
sidered
with respect to the admission of the steam only; we
consider it with respect to the exhaustion of the
side of the piston.
from the opposite

shall next
steam

Draw

the

length of

the

stroke

before ; also draw

the line A
with C D, as before ; with the
e

and

the crank

orbit

as

A', making the same

angle
the
side
as
on
lap
exhausting
2

76

MATHEMATICAL

THE

radius,describe

THEORY

OF

the circle

A A' draw the lines xy,

andy ; then the distance

and parallel
to the line
PoQ;
riy',respectively*
cuttingp q in P

Fp'

will represent the breadth of

the steam ports a to the cylinder
(seethe following
figureof
the slide),
and p P will be equalto the breadth of the exhaust
When

the crank is at A, the slide is at the middle

it arrives at B, the steam
of its strike;when
begins to
exhaust from the under side of the piston
the
; and when

port b.

time at the
0, the pistonbeing at the same
its stroke,the slide will be opened the distance

crank arrives at
upper end of
I m ; and when
open

the crank

the distance

ports; when

arrives at c, the same

port will be
y'm'tequal the width P p' of the steam

the crank

arrives

at

r, the slide will be at the

in the precedingfigureof the

shown
of its travel,
as
slide,p P beingequal to the exhaust port b, and * will be
end

of the pistonin its down stroke. It will be seen

position
the
that duringthe time the pistonis travelling
from c to c',
bottom port p'P has been fullyopen, to allow the steam to
the crank
escape from the under side of the piston. When
the

arrives at

w, the lower

shown
position

Formula and

of the

and Lead

Slide.

stroke
$ =
stroke of the piston,
is cut off;
distance before the steam

lead,S

the slide is in the

figure.
following

Examplesforthe Lap

lap,V
and
slide,

Let I
of the

in the

port is shut,and

then

a)

....

(2)

78
the

"

them
"

out

backward

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

"

engine ;

of the

motion

OF

but

of

only two

time,the other two being what is called

gear." Four rods,called eccentric rods, encircling

work
of

at one

the eccentric sheaves

to the slideend, and jointed

at one

valve gear at the other end, completethe connection

slide-valves to the eccentrics fixed on the axle of the

of the

driving

wheels.

parts by which

3rd. The

action of the -locomotive

engine-man

the

are

three

off" the

to

steam

Blide-valves in

the
*'

water
cylinders,

backward"

or

the

rods,
valves,
rods,regulator
shut
on
or
"put
to the boiler,
put the

sets

eccentric
to the slide-valve,
and feed-pipe
cocks; by which he can
connected

controls

of Jevers

and

"

"forward"
,

pleasure.These appendagesare commonly

"

at
position,

called the hand

gear.

4th. The
are

concerned
parts essentially
two

in

motion
producing locotwo
steam-tight

in which work
cylinders,
pistonrods. On the exterior ends of the
which
fixed T pieces,
also called crossheads,

pistonswith their
pistonrods

are

guide bars,also called motion bars,fixed

ends of,and parallel
to,the cylinders. By this means

slidebetween
to the

the
as

or

round

direction
in arightline in the same
pistoncan only move
the lengthsof the cylinders.Two
strong rods, called

of the
connecting rods,attach the crossheads to the arms
drivingwheels, or to a cranked axle, where there is one

pistonsare connected with a cranked

axle or the arms
of the drivingwheels,these connections
fore
are
always made at an angle of 45" to each other; thereone
pistonis exertingits greatest force when the other
is at the end of the cylinder,
and exertingno force. The
connection
between the pistons
and the drivingwheels being
thus fullycompleted,
it is at once
evident that any movement
of the pistons
must
immediatelyact upon the driving
used.

Whether

the

wheels.
5th. The

parts which

forcing
pumps,

connected

supplywater
by

two

to 4he

feedingpumps

boiler

are

to the

two

boiler,

and to a reservoir of water in the tender to the locomotive.

The pumps are worked either from the eccentrics on the axle
of the drivingwheels,or from the crosshead.

rapidcombustion of fuel
required in the locomotive engineare the chimney and the
contrived as to cover
the exhaustingpassages
so
blast-pipe,
6th. The

parts which

excite the

THE

STEAM

79

ENGINE.

in
and terminating
cylinders,

the centre of the

boiler. It is the
the
the
level
of
the
of
about
top
chimney,
-fullof
escape through this pipeof each succeedingcylinder
steam, or that portionof it allowed to escape by the slide-

from

both

valves,which

causes

heard

when

The

the

"

beats

"

the locomotive

er

"

commences

of
and utility
generalproperties

more

will be detailed further

7th. The partswhich

two, four,or
suitable set

"

pulsationsso

tinctly
dis-

its motion.

the steam-blast

on.

support the locomotive engineare

six wheels, besides the two
driving wheels,a
and a strong frame, in which
of springs,
the

fixed,and on which
machineryalreadydescribed is securely
also securely
bound.
the boiler and cylinders
are
8th. From
the co-operation
of the several parts already
described locomotion is produced in the following
manner.
until
it completely
The boiler is charged with water
surrounds
tubes and the internal fire-box,and
applied,in due time steam is produced from
all the

being

fire
the

water, and collected between

the surface of the water and the

top of the boiler until it has reached the pressure required.
The regulator
i3 then opened,and the slide-valves placedin
their

working position
by the engine-man; the steam rushes
the boiler through the steam-pipeto the cylinders,
where its force moves
the pistons,
which, being attached to
the drivingwheels (as has been alreadyexplained),
cause
thus producinglocomotion.
The slide-valves
them to revole,
of the parts set in
and pumps,
being wrought by some
motion by the pistons,
regulatethe admission of steam to
and of water
the steam
to the boiler. When
the cylinder,
has moved *the pistonto the end of the cylinder,
a passage is
opened for its escape to the atmospherethrough the blast
velocityof this escapingsteam
pipe,and the intermitting
in the chimney,causinga rush or
creates
vacuum
a partial
from

"

whieh blast excites the

of air to fillthis vacuum,
tion
rapidcombustion of the fuel,and consequent rapid producof steam.
This completesthe duties of one admission
"

blast

cylinderuntil its escape to the atmosphere,

another admission of
and when this escape has taken place,
side of the pistonforces it back to
to the opposite
steam
of the crank,
the other end of the cylinder
; and by means
the reciprocating
motion of the pistonis converted into a
Thus the locomotion,
begun by the first adrotatoryon.
of

steam

to the

SO

THE

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OF

mission of steam to the cylinders,

is continued
and succceeding
admissions.

by

the second

and
of these simpleoperations
has amazed
repetition
the world by safelyconveying heavy passenger
gratified
trains at upwards of sixtymiles per hour, and merchandise
trains of six hundred tons weight at twenty -five miles per
would
idea of which, not many
hour I the mere
years since,
have been regardedas purelyfabulous.
Such
is the modern
locomotive
engine an illustrative
example of the genius of man ; but, like other important
itis the joint
of many minds, and many
inventions,
production
The

"

stilldirected

are

more

records of the Patent

to the end of

to

its further

Office show

improvement. The

that,from January,1840,

September,1849,no, less than

two

hundred

and
less

all of them more

or
enrolled,
twenty-sixpatents were
to the steam
engineand its appendages. Of these
applicable
enrolled
and twenty-six
-five were
two hundred
patents,forty
It has been remarked
duringthe firstnine months of 1849.
that steam enginesand railways
jects
too matter-of-fact subwere
for poets and painters,
but from the above record it is
tive
evident that theydeeplyimpressthemselves upon the invenintellect of the world ; and if the prodigies
performed
if not
remain
steam
or
un
ed,
dare,
by
they
unsung,
pour tray
the very sublimity
of both poetry and painting
realise,
; for
of these
to delineate than one
interesting
the
statelymachines moving safelyalong,at eagle-speed,
Mite
of
the land,including
even
itself,
through
royalty
very
what

scene

more

dibtricts rich in historical associations of

past ages, and

at

teeming with the great works of Nature and

it cannot
is too lofty
Art ! Surely,
be that the subject
a one
for poetical
for in greatness of idea
or
illustration,
pictorial

the

time

same

lies the

brief review

be here

can

of both.

success

of the progress of locomotives is all that

given. It is now
(1862)about two thousand

since the powers

Hero of Alexandria

years

by

shown
of steam
and recorded
were
than two hundred
but it islittlemore

(in1650) since it was

years

Marquis

of Worcester.

first usefully
employed by the
The firstidea of usingit for propelling

is generally
ascribed
carriages

1759, when
a

steam

had

no

it

was

suggestedto

him

to

Dr.

Eobinson,in

by Watt, who included

1769 and 1784; but we

carriagein his patents of

railwaysthen,and his patents were

never

carried

THE

81

ENGINE.

STEAM

out, otherwise his scientificand

mind
comprehensive

would

several of his less-talented

have accomplished
what
speedily
in attaining.
From
successors
were
a longseries of years
1802 to 1805, Trevithick appliedsteam
carriagesto both

with considerable success

for first
railways,
with Booth's and Stephenson's
experiments
; and his engines,
modern improvements,
constitute the modern locomotive.
now
roads and

common

the year 1803, it appears that a Mr. Fredericks also

locomotive for a silver mine in Hanover, which
a steam

About

made
in 1811
and

suite

This

was

of Westphalia
convey their Majesties
the mineral railwayat a considerable speed.

employedto

was

over

probablythe

1805 to 1814
of the wheels
some
tried,

first royaltripon

invention

was

directed to

a
ensure

railway.From
the adhesion

the

and many
rails,
ingeniousplanswere
upon
of which succeeded well at slow speeds,
but were

at all calculated

high velocities. In 1814, however,

Mr. Blackett,
of the Wylam Railway,revertingto Trevithick's plan,fully
established the fact, that on
or
a level,
the adhesion of a smooth iron
moderatelyinclined railway,
sufficientto draw heavy
wheel upon a smooth iron rail was
loads ; in his experiments
he tried both six and eight-wheeled
engines. In 1814 Mr. Stephensonintroduced two cylinders,
two
or
completesteam enginesin one iocomotive. From
this time,up to 1829, the powerfulopposition
of the owners
of other modes of conveyance
greatlyretarded the progress
of locomotive engines.;
and so strongwas
the feeling
that they
that both Mr. Walker and Mr. Rostrick
not economical,
were
reportedagainstthem in 1829. These reports,and one of
a doubtful character by Telford,led to the offer of a prizeof
and Manchester
"500, in 1829, by the directors of the Liverpool
the weight of
Railway,for the best locomotive engine,
This proceedinggave an
which was
not to exceed six tons.
and
ended in establishing
importantimpulseto locomotives,
all other existingsystems
the superiority
of railwaysover
of travelling.
Three competitors
appeared,namely,Messrs.
Stephenson,Erickson, and Hackworth ; their locomotives
(the Rochet, the Novelty,and the
named
were
respectively
and the prizewas
won
Sanypareil.They were all tried,
by
the Rocket,which, after the trialswere
over, .reached a speed
of thirty
-fivemiles per hour.
The other two enginesreached
the requiredspeed per hour, as shown
but
by their trials,
not

broke

down

for

before the

distance
required
"E

was

completed.

82

THE

Rocket

The

embraced

locomotive

modern

the

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

the

tubes

former

of
blast-pipe

and

(twenty-five

in

the

number)

and the latter

suggestedby Mr. Booth, of Liverpool,
first introduced by Mr. Hackworth, in his locomotives

were
was

previousto the San"pareil.

of generatinga high
The Noveltyembraced
a
principle
heat by means
of bellows,not since that time adopted in
practice.She broke down after the trialcommenced.
introduced
The JSanspareil
embraced
the blast-pipe
(first
with the
by her owner, Mr. Hackworth, as alreadystated),
fully
singlereturn tube of the old locomotives. She was
w
ithin
distance
the
required
greatly
expectedto accomplish
the giventime ; but she unfortunately
broke down, as already
noticed,before the distance was fullycompleted.
Rocket won,
It will hence be seen that Mr. G. Stephenson's
of
chiefly
through the adoptionof the importantsuggestions
inventive genius. He
others,rather than through his own
therefore,only be considered a fortunate.man, and
can,
Mr. Hackworth, a particularly
unfortunate
ponent,
man, as his ophim
beat
Mr* Stephenson,
by the helpof the blast-pipe,
constructed

which

was

From
on

Mr.

Hack worth's

183Q, up

which

invention.

to the introduction

the Great Western

took

own

Railwayin 1838, no

placein the locomotive.

sprung
developtheir

up

of the

between

the

The

gauges

seven

-feet gauge

marked

improvement
however,
rivalry,

tended

greatlyto

capabilities.

A great number of patentshave been enrolled for improving

the locomotive engine,but only a few of these have been
the most
adopted in practice
conspicuousof them
; among
is Mr. Crampton's arrangement of wheels,Mr. M'Connell's
tank engine,Mr. Samuel's express engine,and Mr. Adam's
of the
steam
carriage.The improvementsin the mechanism
slide-valve motion by Mr. Gray have been widelyadopted.
This great improvement is usuallycalled Stephenson and
Gray's,because the patent was so enrolled. Mr. Grampton
of his plan at work, both in England and on the
has engines
Continent, which enable high drivingwheels to be used on
the centre of gravity. For
the narrow
gauge without raising
and
of these,
other examples,
edition
illustrations
see the new
Steam
of
the
Tredgold on
Engine."
The tank enginecarries on the same
frame water and fueJ,
its tank for water
being placed on the top of the boiler.
"

THE

This
but

is the
on

below

the

STEAM

83

ENGINE.

plan adopted on

the Great

Western

Railway ;

gauge lines the tank is usuallyplaced

the boiler and framing,
which is a better arrangement
narrow

where the machinerypermitsit to be done.

Mr. Samuel's express engine weighs only 25 cwt., and
Mr. Adams'
steam
carriageis on this plan,with a very
handsome

carriagefor

passengers, all on one frame,and has

been tried on some
of the branch railwaysof both gauges.
motive
Having thus briefly
glancedat the progress of the locoengine,it only remains as brieflyto notice some

important discussions which

world concerningthem.

agitatedthe

the earliestintroduction of

From

eight wheels

appear
of
the
makers
designs
of the

to

have

; but about

in the

on

used, accordingto the

1840-42

animated

an

of the four and

railwaypress.

tended
opinionevidently
the Bafer of the two

but

in favour of the six-wheeled

under

all

cussion
dis-

six-wheeled
Both classes

merits,and both had able advocates

have their

mechanical

locomotives,
four,six,or

been

merits
respective

carried

engineswas

as

have

public
engine

contingencies
; hence

the

greater portionof the present locomotives have six wheels.

The gauge controversyof 1845-48 led to the re -introduction
of

eight-wheeled
engineson both gaugeB, weighingabout
36 tons each,which realised speedsof about sixtyand seventy
it will
miles per hour.
The weightof these monster
engines,
be

observed,was

eight times

weight of the
in
the
won
prize 1829; whilst the
miles per
speed is only-twice that of the Rocket (thirty-five
hour)at that time. It is worthy to remark that the existing
Rocket

more

than

the

:(tytons),which

enginesin

-1829

were

from

10

to 16

\ tons, and

were

sidered
con-

heavy ; hence the directors of the Liverpool

and Manchester
Railway bound competitorsnot to exceed
6 tons weight. In 1849 the same
and the
feelingprevailed,
injurydone to the railwaysby these 36 -tons engines was
much
complainedof,and tank enginesand steam carriages,
tilltheir weight was
reduced,were
equallyobjectionable
; bo
the weight of all locomotives is now
reduced
that,generally,
as

to what

far too

may

be considered

as

proper and

in this
practicable

importantrespect.

84

THE

motion

TRAIN

MOVING

ON

When

MATHEMATICAL

the train of
on

ON

OF

LEVEL

RAILWAT.

locomotive

the
railway,

THEORY

of

power

its

engine commences
the engineexceeds

the

sistance,
re-

and therefore the speedincreases until the resistance

equalto the power of the engine; the speedof the

becomes
train will then be

uniform,which

is commonly called

steady

speed,or
speed; the work or motion
greatestor maximum
destroyedby the resistance being now exactlyequal to the
power exerted by the engine. See formula (v),
p. 32 ; see
Statics and Dynamics,"Weale's Series.
also
the

"

It has .been found

by experimentthat

the friction

inclined railwayis invariably

=
horizontal,
or

on

the

or

"

weightw

nth part of the

of the

train, beingthe
"

of friction; therefore the whole

-efficient

co

resistance to motion

the

on

no

railwayis

also

train,"

the

"-

"

space
H

Let

requiredto

power

in feet moved

move

in the time

over

in

of horse-powers
in P; then,
number
since 33000 are the.
estimated number of units of work which
horse
can
one
perform in a minute,P = 33000 H = units

minutes,and

of work

pounds move4

or

one

foot in

minute,and

one

"

tO

feet moved
=

on

in

minute

one

by.the weight

units of work
a

level

in moving
.required
railway.

"\P

3,3000jH =

the

"

In railwaycalculations

miles,which

are

them
multiplying
most

commonly

for w, 5280

result after

to

is

train

"A"

given in
usually

be reduced

"

"

"

M=m^~

whenoe

"

or
carriages

in

; whence

"

to

pounds

tons, and
and

respectively
by 2240 and 5280 ;
280 ; if,therefore,
substitute
we

S for *, and 280 for n, in formula

feet
also
2240

"

by
is
W

(A),there will

reduction,
y

86

THE

be drawn

"

on

engineof 50 horse -powers ?

How
pounds per ton does the friction
many
powers
Example 1, the engine being of 48 horse-

6.
"

to, in

amount

train of 100 tons

level railwayby an

Example

OF

rate per hour will

At what

5.

Example

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

formula (A),
By transposing
33000

J_

.t

33000

48

60 x

_1_ "

_
'

"JT

~~

weight of
being reduced
the

2240

pounds

to

and

5280

feet

AGAINST

TRAIN
AND

FRICTION

45

280

50

or 8 lbs. per ton, the values of

train,

the

MOVING

ON

"

ON

respectively.

THE

GRAVITY

and

JOINT
AN

RESISTANCES

INCLINED

OF

PLANE.

weight in pounds of a train,and

power, and w =
h =
rise of the inclined railway in every 100 feet of its
length;then by Art. (66),Form. (2),Bakers "Statics and
Let P

Dynamics,
J

txt

"

Weale

s, and

H,

feet,and

100

ri

ci

'

Series,

hn

"

"

"

respectively
represent the
.

requiredm

time

in the last articles; then P

in

pounds,

feet moved

"

33000

in

one

An

in

weight

"

"

r-r^

100
as

let

horse -powers, space

100 + hn

the

moving

and

;
'

lOO.n

"?,

units of work

minute

by

the

weight

100
"

hn

100
_

tv

"

100
work

whence

zrp-r

100

s
w

"

...P

in the power

which

100

then

equal

'

siD

"B"

33000X100^

be

must

(100 + hn)

Whence

distance moved

of

8M0oJ=15^"i-.(PX"!

Now, let W

units

"

requiredin moving the weightw,

to the units of work

weight moved in tons, and S the space or

in miles,as usually
lations
given in railwaycalcu2240 W, and *
5280 S ; these values

in the last

(B,)and

in formula

being substituted
as

ENGINE.

8TEAM

THE

being taken

there will result

article,

87

after

H=

(1)

"

looo*,w

t.B.

1000
,

Whence

'

ft)W.

14

(5 +

256(5 + 14ft)B
1000

t.U

256

(5 +

14

256

(5 +

14

'

A) W
h) W

"

1000*.
,

1280

"

W.S

which

negativelywhen
in
moves
a
on
descendinggradientof a railway,
It also appears
gravityassists the moving power.
h is negativeand equal to ^ of a foot,then no

case

that when
is

required to
vanishes,since in this
power

be taken

h must

all these formula

the train

(5)

3584
In

W.S

"
w

1000H
and

280,

reduction,

"

256

the

move

train,for the value

14: h

=
5 +
ascends
A train of 40 tons

case

Example 1.
rising2 feet in 100, with
"

of H

0.
a

railwaygradient,

uniform speed of 15 miles per

a
of the locomotive engine,
hour ; requiredthe horse-powers
the friction being as usual.

By formula (1),
256

UK)

(5 +

256

(5 +

28)

40

15

_
~

1000

1000

84

"$

60

horse -powers.

in the last
horse -powers,
as
the train is 60 tons, the rise
example,when
of
in
motion 30 miles per hour.
" foot
100, and the rate
Answer.
92 horse -powers.

Required the
the weight of

Example 2.
"

"

Example

An

3.
"

gradient,rising
" of

horse -powers
ascends a
foot in 100, with a uniform
speed of

engine
a

of

75

20 miles per hour; required

the
By formula (2),
1000
w

1000

1
.

~"

256

(5 + 144) S

weight of
x

60

the train.

75

_
~

256

(5 +

V)

20

66-7.tonB-

88

THE

MATHEMATICAL

Example 4." A
falling
J of a foot
hour; what

per

THEORY

train of 120
in

100, with

uniform

gradient,

speed of

horse -powers

the

are

descends

tonB
a

OF

50 miles

exerted

the

by

engine?
Here
the

the h must

because
negative,

be

gradient;hence, by
256

(5

14

h)

formula

the train descends

(1),
356

(5

j)

50

60

120

"

~*

1000
=

Example

1000

38f

horse ^powers.

A train of 50 tons ascends

foot in 100 ; required
the

5.
"

rise of -Jof a
its
when
horse-powersare
a

gradient,
having

speedof the engine

40.

SAFETY

In locomotive

VALVES.

enginesthere

the boiler for the escape

pressure limited by the load
on

are

two

valves placed
safety

of steam when
it exceeds the
these valves. One of them
on

is placedbeyond the control of the engine-man,and is commonly

called the lock-up
valve. The
other valve is regulated
by a lever and spring,at a somewhat lower pressure
than

that

the

lock-up valve. The apertures for safety

nice
calculations. It is onlynecessary to
requireno
the aperturesufficiently
largeto let the steam off from
on

valves
have

the boiler

as

fast

as

it is

when
generated,

the

engine is

not

at work.

safetyvalve of a locomotive engine is sometimes

loaded by puttinga heavy weight upon it in the case
of the
lock-upvalve,and sometimes the other valve is secured by
of a lever with a weight to move
means
along it to suit the
requiredpressure, as in the stationary
engine,which has
and the formula for graduating
the
alreadybeen explained,
The

lever

ON

given.

THE

This
on

the

VARIABLE

RESISTANCES

TO

LOCOMOTIVE

ENGINES.

the frictionof the rims of the wheels

engine(besides
which has been alreadythe subject
of investigation)
rails,
has to overcome
other variable resistances,
that
viz.,

89

ENGINE.

STEAM

THE

accordingto the direction of

the wind,which, sometimes, when very high,and in the same
direction as the motion of the engine,assistsits speed. The
direct reverse
takes placewhen a high wind isa-head of the
direction of the motion of the engine.All other directions of
of the

the

varies

which
atmosphere,

winds

assist

or

retard

its motion

more

or

less,
except

direct cross-winds, which may he said to be nearlyneutral

in their effects. There is also a somewhat
variable resistance
from the friction of the axles,from the
engine,and from the passage of the
blast-pipe.
The

resistance of the

it is considered

atmosphereis difficultto

the square
result of the experimentsof Pambour
here be

The

to vary

given,and also
power

estimated

moving parts of
steam
through

as

the

determine

velocity.The

these

shall
subjects
theory.
be
cannot
engine
exactly

examples to

of the locomotive

of the

the

on

illustratethe

the pressure of steam

in the boiler,and the
diameter and length of the stroke of the piston,
since the
elastic force of the steam
is diminished,
in passing
from the

by

boiler to the

by the em alb ess of the apertures of

cylinders,
the steam -pipesthrough which it has to pass. This diminution
is also frequently
producedby the evaporating
power
of the boiler not being capableof keeping up a supplyof
steam
of the same
to the cylinders
that in the
as
elasticity
boiler ; hence the pressure upon
is less than that
the piston
valve of the boiler. This diminution of the
upon the safety
in the cylinders,
steam
will
compared with that in the boiler,
be in the ratio of the increase of the velocity
of
frequently
the

engine. Thus, supposingan

engine can evaporate a

certain quantity
of water
shown
per hour,of the elasticity
by the valve on the boiler ; if this productionof steam is
sufficient to supply as many
-full of steam, of the
cylinders
shall be equal to the
same
as
densityas that in the boiler,
number
of strokes per minute of the pistonrequiredto produce
the given velocity,
the elasticity
in the
of the steam
will be very nearlyequalto that in the boiler,
cylinders
and,
will
also
be
the
the
on
consequently, pressure
piston
very
of the
nearlyequalto that in the boiler. But if the velocity
-full of steam
engine is such that the number of cylinders
requiredis greater than the evaporationof the boiler can
shown
supply at the elasticity
by the safetyvalve,then the
in the cylinders
diminished.
is proportionally
elasticity

90

THE

Example.

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OF

railwaytrain

at the rate of 30 miles

moves
level
t
he
hour
resistance
from friction is
a
rail,
upon
per
8 lbs.per ton, the resistance of the atmosphere30 lbs. on the
train when the rate is 10 miles per hour,the diameter of the
"

drivingwheels 6 feet,the area of the piston100 square inches,

the lengthof the stroke 18 inches,the resistance due to the
is 1 J lbs. per square inch of the pistonwhen
the
blast-pipe
rate is 10 miles per hour ;

requiredthe pressure of the steam,

of the boiler,
the evaporation
the number
of bushels of coals
for a journeyof 160 miles,supposing
that one bushel of coals
evaporate 11 cubic feet of water, the weightof the train

can

being 90
8 x

tons.

90

720

(30\2
j
30

"

resistance from the

370

resistance of the

friction,
atmosphereagainst

the train.
720

-f 270

of the

train,

3-1416

wheels in

whole

18-8496

resistance to the motion

feet moved

by

over

the

driving

revolution,

one

18-8496

990 lbs.

990

18661-104

work

of resistance in

one

revolution.
Since the

enginehas

two

and
cylinders,

each

makes
piston

strokes in one revolution of the drivingwheels,the work

done in one stroke must be multiplied
by 4; hence,
two

1
per

100

square

3
-jr-x 4

inch

on

the

600

the work

in
.pistons

of 1 lb. pressure

revolution

one

of the

drivingwheels.
effective pressure of one
square inch of the piston,
by the work of 1 lb. per square inch pressure in
multiplied
must
be equalto the resistances in one revolution
revolution,
one
The

hence,

18661-104
"

"

600

1AO
031*102

"

lbs. =

pressure

on

one

square inch.

of Pambour, it has been found

the experiments
From
the
of
that the resistance
increases
or
blast-pipe,
steam-jet,

and the co-efficienthe givesis *175;

velocity,
it is *175 multiplied
by that
any given velocity
of 30 miles per hour.
is,for a velocity

the

as
directly

and

hence, at

that
velocity,
"175

30

31102

.-.

91

ENGINE.

STEAM

THE

5*25 lbs.

X 31102

resistance of the

+ 15 + 1

+ 525

blast-pipe,
56-795 lbs.

pressure per square inch.

"

"

140

of revolutions of the

number

60

per minute.

drivingwheels
4

140

"

31416

6 x

560

of strokes of the

number

pistonper

minute.
100

3
X

ttt

-7T

560

cubic

583

feet

of steam

volume

144

dischargedper minute ; but by the table one cubic foot of

water
produces498 cubic feet of steam at 56 lbs. pressure
of
the number
(the decimal '795 being neglected)
; hence
cubic
one

feet

is

"

; and

117

since

of coals evaporates 11 cubic feet of water, the

117
minute is =
of bushels of coals used in one
-=-*,

bushel

number
and

minute

evaporatedper

for 5

hours,which

it

requiresto

go

150

over

miles,

117
there results

-ry~

60

32 bushels of

For
90 tons 150 miles.
convey
the new
these importantsubjects,
see
to

on

the Steam

coals,nearly,

further information
edition of

"

on

Tredgold

Engine."

the subject
of the motion of locomotive engines
la concluding
Note.
on
out
it will be here proper to remark that the methods
of laying
railways,
of cutting,
the ground,
on
railway-curves
embanking,"c, were first prepared
the
author
the
work
of
this
of the railwayera (1824);
commencement
at
by
in
and have since that time been fully
not onlyin this
adopted practice,
its
and
but also in India,the United States,
numerous
colonies,
kingdom and
other foreign
than thirty
thousand copiesof his works,
countries;more
embodyingthese methods in a practical
form, have been sold. He also gave
the contents of railway
a greatly
improvedmethod of calculating
cuttings,
lands and commons
of variable
and remodelled the severalmethods of dividing
"

92

THE

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

in proportion
to the value of their claims,
value among the several claimants,
mathematics
scientific
of
a more
thus givingthese importantparts
applied
"
Baker's
See
Land
form than theypreviously
and comprehensive
possessed.
"
and
Weale's Series,
and Baker's
and Engineering
Engineering
Surveying,"

Earthwork."

ON

THE

STEAM-BLAST,

OR

STEAM-

JET, IN LOCOMOTIVES,

ETC.

in locomotive enginesleads from the exhaust

steam-jet
the
into the chimney,and causes
passages of the cylinders
The

draught through the fire-tubes necessary for the enormous

consumption of fuel which is requiredin the locomotive,
in
emitted creates a partial
since each jet of steam
vacuum
filledby a current
of air
the chimney,which is immediately
rushingthrough the fire-grate.
time econoThis mode of draught,which is at the same
mical
all
to
is preferable
and of extreme
others,
simplicity,
be
inasmuch
varied
the
more
draught may
as, by using it,
effect
of
which
t
han
of
the
machines,
easily
by making use
increase the draught,except by an augmentationof
cannot
found inconvenient and very
the velocity,
which is frequently
limited. It would be importantto bring the steam
to the
exhaustingports by a pipe of largerdiameter,in order that
should experience
in its passage the steam
but littlefriction,
and also that the exhaustingports should have the proper
at itsissue mightnearlyacquire
so that the steam
dimensions,
the velocity
which corresponds
to the pressure in the boiler.
It has been asserted that,in the steam-jet,
allthe effect produced
viva
of
the
the
obtained
unless
vis
not
steam
was
by
the air was
sation
at a temperature sufficiently
high for no condenof the steam
to take place; but it appears that this
"

circumstance

bears

very sensible influence. However, it

would be useful to try some
experimentson that subject."
"It has also been asserted,from experimentsmade
on
no

that by the use

of an intermittent jeta greater
locomotives,
useful effect was
producedthan by a continuous one.
posing
Supthis to be true, itshould be seen
i
n
the
if,
experiments
that have been
with

made, the tension of the

steam

the intermittent

M. Peclet's

"

was

not

greater

jetthan by the continuous one."

Treatise on Heat,"Art 577.

See

94:

equationfrom which
can
readilybe

an

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

the volume

"of air at any given temperature

other
from its volume at any

found

temperature.

heightof a chimney in which air

is allowed to expand freely
by heat,under a constant pressure
(barometrical)
; by heatingthe air in such a chimney from a
will be
its contents
temperature t to a highertemperature if,
expanded in the ratio of
It is known

and hence

T/*'+

would

that if h

the

difference,
x/tf+

459\
_

459

represent the length of

h(t!"t)

/rt,

column

of air at t!,
having
would be expelled
from

the chimney,which
increase
of temperature.
it by
The
an
height of
reduced
such expelled
air
of
the
to
column,
temperature t,
the

area

same

as

such

would

be
(f +

K{l! -t)
^

This may
v

which

459

459

*)

""

if+

459

be called the motive

theorem

the constant, which

as

that

is

459

'

height;whence

same

(t

y/ motive height

is the

i!

"

cepting
given by Tredgold,exthat given

littleless than

by Regnault.

THE

Vl'./7iJuA tiurr

STEAM

95

ENGINE.

It--

MISCELLANEOUS

1. Given the

area

of the

EXAMPLES.

of a high-pressure
piston
stationary
r

^
'

'

..

""'
*

"

%X

the
feet,
minute,-N^V^

*"

H*lf^"*.

and the pressure of steam

in the cylinder60 lbs. per square
inch ; requiredthe useful load and the horse -powers.
2. In a condensingenginethe area of the cylinderis 1000
clearance
square inches,the length of the stroke including

\*

square inches,the lengthof the stroke 6

of the boiler 1J cubic feet of water per
evaporation

engine 400

/,

"

* *
is cut off at 1 foot of the stroke,,
the clear -v'*
the pressure of steam is 30 lbs.,,
the elas---;
2.7. "2
*^ance is i of a foot,
ticityof vapour in the condenser is 4 lbs.,the effective

#5

feet,the

cubic foot per minute,and

the useful load and horsepowers.
the resistance as usual ; required
See solution to question3, page 33.
3. Let the area
of the pistonbe 1800 square inches,the
of
evaporation

'

steam

of
the boiler is -J-

"

"":

the clearance
lengthof the stroke includingclearance 10J feet,
of
is
off
2
feet
the
cut
of
the stroke,..
steam
\ -0
at
a
foot,
being -J

;"

'
"

in the cylinder
is 48 lbs. per square
the pressure of steam
the*r
of vapour in the condenser is 4 lbs.,
inch, the elasticity
total resistance from friction is If lbs. per square inch of the
.

piston,the

effective evaporation
of the boiler is "" of

foot per minute ; requiredthe useful work

per
of strokes per
effectivehorse -powers, the number
the

duty

of the

engine,allowingone

bushel

cubic

minute, the
minute,and

to

evaporate

10 cubic feet of water.

4. The

of the

'

pistonis 1500

area
6quare inches,lengthof X-Z '.
the stroke including
clearance of 6 inches is 9 feet,
the steam
c
"
z

'

"

is

the number

of strokes per minute is 20 ; requiredthe

of water
evaporatedper minute, the horse -powers,
useful load on the piston.
ICS

"

"- The

area

cubic foot of water

.

"

"

'

-*

steam

lt$*~

and the

pistonis 1800 square inches,%% of ay,

of
is evaporatedper minute, the number
is 18, the length of the stroke including
fc

strokes per minute

.JJcle"T"nce"f ^ inches is 10J feet,the

"

""

quantity

of the

"

off at 3-feet of the

stroke,the pressure of steam in the

lbs.
i
s
45
of the vapour
cylinder
per square inch,the elasticity
in the condenser is 3 lbs.,
and the resistance is 1 J lbs.,
and
cut

is cut off at 2 feet "."

'

""
f

'
"
-

:i

"
, .

stroke,and the total resistance of vapour in the condenser and of friction are
together 5^ lbs.;requiredthe
of the

horse -powers.

I
I

96
6. The

MATHEMATICAL

THEORY

OF

horse-powersof

an
engineare 200, the lengthof \
stroke with clearance of 6 inches is 10 feet,the steam is
^cnt off at 20 inches of the stroke,the pressure of the steam
"

y"

:.

THE

"'

of vapour
the elasticity
45 lbs.,
3-r.V7'is

in the condenser

is 4

lbs.,

the resistance from friction 2 lbs. per square inch,and the

of strokes 20 ; requiredthe area
of the piston,
number
and
each square inch thereof.
the useful
on

|bad

7. The

pistonis4000 square inches,the length

includingclearance of J a foot is 10J feet,the
the steam 40 lbs. per square inch,the pressure of

area

of the

of the stroke

pressure of
vapour in the condenser

the resistance from

and

friction are
inch
lbs.
5
what
at
together
; required
part of the
per square
be cut off so as to yieldall its work,
stroke the steam
must
the horse -powers of the enginertheuseful load on
of water evaporated. 1 'ir.'
and the quantity
Let
of the piston=
3600 square
the
8.
area

the

piston,

'

*""

.","""
""*

lengthof the stroke

10

inches,the

feet,the number

of strokes per
*i minute = 18, the elasticity
of the steam
36 lbs.,
that of
=
the resistance of friction
the vapour in the condenser including
h
of the stroke ; required
5 lbs.,
and the steam is cut off at -Jthe

"i

'

3
'

the load,and the pointat which

horse -powers of the engine,
the velocity
of the pistoni" a maximum.
the pressure of steam
9. The lengthof the stroke is 12 feet,
in the

lbs.; at what point of the stroke

off so as to yieldall its work, when

is 50
cylinder

the steam

be

must

the
resistance of the vapour in the condenser togetherwith the
friction of the engineis 5 lbs. per square inch on the piston?
10. The length of the stroke is 10 feet,
the steam is cut

/.V*

cut

"

off at

A
'

$ of the stroke,the

of the

pistonis 3600

square

of strokes per minute is 18,the clearance is

the number
inches,
the
and
J a foot, pressure of vapour in the condenser is 3 lbs.,
is
of
cubic
the water evaporated
minute
foot
a
J
required
;
per
the useful load,supposingthe friction of the unloaded piston

"*"? uX

to be 5 lbs. per square

inch,and the additional frictionto be

of the useful load.

-J-

...

the length
P^8tonifl2000 square inches,
the clearance of 6 inohes is 12 feet,
of the stroke including
"\*^ the effective evaporation
is ^f of a cubic foot per minute,
in the cylinder
is 50 lbs.,
and the
; the pressure of the steam
of the vapour in the condenser togetherwith the
\
elasticity
'^Resistance of friction is 6 J lbs.;requiredthe pointat which
11- ^ne

'- ,o3

*:

area

area

"f tne

must

be

"

the
.

steam

cut

off,so

that all its work

may

be

THB

the
expended,

number

STEAM

97

ENGINE.

minute,the useful work,

allowing
duty of the engine,

of strokes per

the effective horse -powers, and the

bushel of coals can
that one

evaporate12 cubic feet of

water,
i

12. The

diameter

stroke

of the

10

of the

is 40 inches,
the length
cylinder

feet,the clearance -fa of the stroke,the

pressure in the boiler 21*5 lbs. per square inch,the effective

^ of a cubic foot of water per minute, and the
evaporation
time 8 J lbs.; requiredthe
consumptionof coals in the same
with the velocity
useful horse -powers, when the piston
moves
useful
also
find
the
effects of one
of 250 feet per minute ;
pound of coals and one cubic foot of water.
The solution to all these qaestiona
Note.
may
the formula,commencing at page 26.
"

be obtained

by

means

of

APPENDIX.

ON

THE

STRENGTH,

IMPORTANT

FRICTION,

PARTS

OF

ON

In

and

STEAM

THE

Mr.

SEVERAL

ENGINE.

GUDGEONS.

-fifth of the diameter

gudgeons,one

for wear,

ETC., OF

this

Tredgold,on

usuallyallowed
gives the
principle,
is

following
Rule.

Multiplythe

"

stress in

pounds hy

gudgeon in inches,and the cube root

by 9, is the diameter of the gudgeon

of the

in inches.

Example. If the stress on a gudgeon be

length8 inches ; requiredits diameter.
"

2240

12

215040

60

lengthof the
product,divided

the

12 tons, and its

215040

nearly,

fiO

and

-"

6| inches,the

diameter

of the

gudgeon.

CRANKS.

weight actingon a crank beinggiven,to find

its breadth and depth.
Rule.
Multiplythe weight in pounds,actingat the end
and this product
of a crank,by the cube of its lengthin feet,
will give the
being divided by 2662 times the deflection,
productof the cube of'the depth and the breadth in inches.
Example. If the force actingupon a crank be 6000 lbs.,
The

force

or

"

"

and

its length3 feet ;

the deflection may

not

requiredits breadth
exceed

-^ of

an

and

inch.

depth,so

that

99

APPENDIX.

6000
the

By

3s

'1

rule,

rrrr

"

be assumed

inches,then

the

nearly

6 inches

of the

cube

:=

the breadth.

by
depth multiplied
If the breadth

nearly

609

=*

JobJ

depth,

depth at the end

divide by
the axis,

If the

depth at

995

"

-"

depth multiplied
by

of the

cube

; then

instead of 2662

1628

be taken

if the breadth

breadth; and

the

the force acts be half the

where

inches,as

"

before,then

"/"
995
"

inches,the greater depth ;

6*93

6*93
and

"

"

3*465

the
inches,

Let P

f
and

AXLE.

of revolutions per second,

ratio of the friction to the pressure
to the bodies in contact,

number

ing
correspond-

; then

3-1416

7r

depth.

pressure on the bearings,

radius of the axle,

7T

AN

OF

FRICTION

lesser

of friction per second.

work

inches,the
it
1500 lbs.,
on
weightof the shaft and other parts pressing

Example.
"

the radius of the axle

Given

making
expended on

the shaft
work

10 revolutions

per minute

Let the co-efficientof friction/

'5 of a foot,there results from the
2

3-1416

1500

-07

-5

quantityof

work

0*7,and since 6 inches

precedingformula
10
=

go
the

requiredthe

friction.
=

expended on
f

ono,,
^
54-992

lbs.,

friction per second.

100

APPENDIX.

FRICTION

ON

PIVOT.

the
symbolsP, r, n, /, representing

The

there "will resnlt the

article,

in the last

for the friction on

thingsas
formula
following
same

pivot,

4"2P/r"
the work

"

10

weight pressingupon
per minute; requiredthe

-efficientof friction /

co

2000

-07

25

10

of which
be shown

is

the frictionof
of

number

bears
largecylinder
the sum
of the
cylinders,

equal to the area

manner
following

of the

in the

Let d

s=

diameter

and

==

the number

"

CYLINDERS.

OF

proportion which

to the friction of any

"

ft.,

24" lbs. nearly.

s=

FRICTION

may

pended
ex-

*07,and since 3 inches

"

areas

pivot

work

foot,there results from the formula

4-2 X

The

friction.

Let the
'25 of

pivot

lbs. ; the

revolutions

on

of the

it 2000

the
inches,

makes

the radius of the base

Given

Example.
3

friction per second.

expended on

of

"

of the small

one

of them

largecylinder

cylinders,

; then

it
n

"

/.

But

eP

*/n

area

diameter

the frictionis

cylinder
; therefore

of the

of the

largecylinder.

to the
proportional

circumference

the friction of the small

and the friction of the

of the

is
cylinders

d n,

ir

is
largecylinder
t

Hence, the friction

of
all the small

largecyKnderj

the

::wd
cylinders
::

\/".

largecylinder:
*Sn : wdn,
:

v^m;
y

the

of
friction

102

APPENDIX.

formula,

the

By

100
that is.

72

"

"

3-1416

202

=s

31416
7200

20

1256-64

^832

94-59 inche8"

of the roll.

nearly,the requireddiameter

7 feet 10-6 inches

that if an engine be drawing

It is proper here to remark
coals out of a pitwhere round ropes have been used, and if
it be requiredto take the round ones
off,and supplytheir
flat ones, the formula just given will determine
that the engine
the diameter of the roll at the first lift,
so

placewith

go the

may
were

of strokes

number

same

the round

when

as

ropes

on.

If

Example.
"

up

shaft,the

where

ropes,

what

these round

engine may

the

go

of strokes

number

being\
d
x

fathoms,with

corf

round

each other,
do not coil upon
that the
of the flat rope roll,
so

same

thickness of the rope

By the formula,

is 60

drawing a

ropes

be the diameter

must

10 strokes in

engine goes
depth of which
an

before,the

as

inch ?

an

7T

"

n2 1

irn
AH
60

that

is,

79
72

"

3*1416

4320

To
When

inch

10

132-5

inches

,^ fi

the diameter

enginedraws

coals out of
each

the corves
will not pass
half way between the top and
corf which
from the
descends

of the rope roll.

in
findthe Position of the Meetings
an

157-08
=5

p..

OJ

102

"

3-1416

11 feet

"

Coal

Shaft.

shaft with flatropes,

other at mid-shaft, that is,
bottom of the shaft ; for the
a

top of the shaft will pass

103

APPENDIX,

in the

time than the eorf which

ascends from the bottom, owing to the circumference of the
roll beingalwaysgreater until the enginehas performedhalf

througha greaterspace

of strokes ; therefore the meetingswill always be

At the meetings the number
of coils of

its number

below

same

midshaft.

the ropes
which the

the roll

on

are

ascendingcorf

equal,and after this the roll on

hangs continues to increase until

the corf arrives at the top of the shaft.

To

findwhere
The

the

depth of

Ascendingand DescendingCorves
the Shaft.
the

shaft,the thickness of the rope, and the

radius of the roll are

the

depth
as
represented

Let
be

will meet in

given.

of the shaft and the thickness of the rope

in the last formula,and let r
radius of
"

and let the distance

roll,
of the shaft
y ; then,

the

of the

meeting

from the bottom

dt

1.

At

what

distance from

the bottom

of a coal
radius
of
the
the
roll
corves
meet,
being 3" feet,
of
the
of
and
the depth of
thickness
the
rope being -J- a foot,
the shaft 170 fathoms?
6 x 170
1020
feet ; then,by
First,170 fathoms

Example

"

shaft will the

the

formula,
dt

\
^

1020

420*76

feet

the shaft ;

distance of the

meetings from

the bottom

of

104

APPENDIX.

whence, 1020

"

42076

59924

feet

distance of the

meetingsfrom

the top of the shaft.

Example 2. At what distance from the top of a coal
the radius of the roll is 6 feet,
shaft will the corves
meet when
"

and the depth of the

the thickness of the rope i of a foot,
shaft 1500 feet,
being the depth of one of the lowest coalseams

in the Monk

Wearmouth

Colliery?

TABLE

OF

HYPEEBOLIC

jp

LOGARITHMS.

106

APPENDIX.

107

APPENDIX.

108

APPENDIX.

110

APPENDIX*

APPENDIX.

Ill

112

AITBNDIX.

113

APPBHDIX.

114

APPENDIX.

TABLE

OF

FRICTION

OF

GUDGEONS

MOTION

ON

THEIR

OR

ENDS

AXLE

EN

BEARINGS.

{From the experiments

of M. Morm.)
Co-efficients of Friction.

Surfaces in Contact

State of the Surface.

In the usual

Con-

tinuously

way.

with oil of olives,

greased
007
hog'slard,tallow,or
soft gom

Oast-iron axles in
cast-iron bear-

ings

0054

greasy

014

0075

greasy and wetted

with oilof olives,
greased
.

wrought iron
bearings

soft gom

damped

scarcely
greasy

lignum vitse
bearings

unguent

with oil or

Cast-iron axles in

016
019

018

hog'slard

009

greasy with ditto

greasy with a mixture

0*056

016

greasy and
without

to 008

greasy
.

013

1007

028
019

hog'slacd,tallow,or

Cast-iron axles in

0054

with the same

and water
coated with asphaltum

to 008

0*10

of
l
ard
and
014
hog's
molyb
dena
with oilof olives,
Wrought-ironaxlesgreased
in cast-ironbear007 to 0*08
hog'slard,tallow,or
.

....

"

ings

...

soft gom

with oilof olives,

greased
0*07 to
hog'slard,or tallow
r

Iron axles in brass

bearings.
.

coated with hard gom

greasy and wetted

bearings
.

Brass axles in castiron

bearings

axles J
Lignum-vitas
in ditto

lard

"

with hog's
lard
ligoum-vitae greased

bearings
.

011

010

009

}
.

0045
0052

0'12
015

greasy

...

025

019

with oil
greased
with hog'slard
greased with oil, or
tallow
with hog's
lard
greased

Lignum-vitaaxles
in

019

greasy

0054

009

scarcely
greasy
with oil,
or hog's
greased
.

Brass axles in brass

0-08

Iron axles in ligings

num-vitee bear-

0054

....

007

to

116

APPENDIX.

FRICTION

OF

TABLE

OF

ONE

{From

UPON

SURFACES

PLANE
THE

OTHER.

the experimentsof M.

Dispositionof

Surfaces in Contact.

Mbrm.)

the

wood

endways
ways

upon

dry soap

oak

Ash, fir,
beech,wild

and service-treeupon

oak

unguent

j
)

water

)-

parallel
/
perpendicular
pear-tree,
ditto

without
in
steeped

\
onwoodlengthElm

rubbed with

perpendicular
j
ditto

eieot of
Friction.

without
|
unguent j

ditto

oak

Co-effi-

State of the
Surfaces.

Fibres.

parallel

Oak upon

MOTION

IN

without

unguent /
ditto

ditto

019

036

io

040

026

rubbed with )

dry soap

without

with water
rubbed with

ditto

025

062

unguent /
Cast-iron upon oak

0-34

0-45

ditto
with water
ditto

016

043

ditto

Iron upon oak

0-48

0-21

049
0-26

j, 019

dry soap /

Copperupon

oak
.

Iron upon elm

Cast-iron upon "lm
Black dressed leatherupon

ditto

oak

ditto
ditto
ditto

...

Tanned

leather upon oak

lengthways j

without

unguent i

leatherupon cast-iron\

and brass

ditto

062

ditto

025

ditto
ditto

020

027
032

ditto

029

with water
without

unguent

in
steeped

Tanned

\
.

water

greasedand
in
steeped
water

with oil

0-56*
036

023

015

116

APPENDIX.

Surfaces

in Contact

Disposition of the

State of the

Fibres.

Surfaces.

without
in threads
upon oak

Hemp,

parallel

in cord,

or

perpendicular

Oak and elm upon cast-iron

parallel

Cast-iron ditto
brass
upon cast-iron
upon iron

!npon

....

unguent
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
Wild pear-tree
Iron upon iron
Iron upon cast-ironand brass
.

unguent
with water
without

....

greased in.\
the usual

Oak, elm,yokeelm,wild pear,

cast iron, wrought-iron,
steel,moving one
upon
another,or on themselves
"

way, with

ditto

tallow,
hog's
lard,oil,or
soft gom

slightly\

the]

Calcareous oolite stone uponV

}
calcareous oolite
Calcareous stone,called mus)
chelkalk,upon calcareous "
.

greasy to
touch
without
ditto

unguent
ditto

ditto

oolite
brick upon calcareous )
Common
ditto
/
oolite
wood endways
Oak upon calcareous oolite
parallel
ditto
Wrought-iron
called
mus-1
Calcareous stone,
ditto
chelkalk,
upon muschelkalk }

ditto
ditto
ditto

....

Calcareous oolite stone

muschelkalk
brick ditto
Common
Oak upon muschelkalk

upon \

ditto

ditto

ditto

ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto
saturated

"
.

Iron upon muschelkalk

"

wood

Printed by James

endways

parallel

with water

8. Virtue,City Road, London.

j
\