Chapter 4 - Active Properties of The MMI-BLD

Chapter 4 Active properties of the MMI-BLD
4.1 Introduction
In order to simulate the active properties of the device and in order to model accurate
distributions of photon and carrier densities the photon and carrier interactions are
estimated using the carrier-rate equations and this chapter is dedicated to discuss this
active rate equation and its derivation due to its importance in describing the mode
amplification and absorption.
The optical amplifier and the laser are closely related. Through this chapter Amplifiers
and Lasers are investigated, population inversion and density of states available for
radiation are discussed too. The amplifier is discussed here before lasers. Optical
amplifiers differs from Lasers that they don't have reflection of light preventing self
oscillation while lasers enhance the reflection to create oscillation. All other basic
principles are common to both devices, since the FD-BPM describes propagation through
passive waveguides, so further modifications must be made to support an active device
such as the MMI-BLD. The first step in doing so is to include the effects of gain in a
unidirectional propagating wave, thats why the amplifier is discussed first.
54
To do this, gain is calculated and applied at each point of the grid in the computational
area. To accurately calculate gain it is first necessary to calculate carrier density. This is
done using the carrier rate equations at steady state which will be derived in this chapter.
Optical amplifiers are used for reduced light power, gets amplified by a power
amplifier before it is transmitted, also if received weak at the receiver an amplifier is
needed too. One of the most important applications of the optical amplifier is in repeater
stations. Repeater design is greatly simplified by using an optical amplifier. Else the input
light to the repeater is first detected and converted into an electrical signal. The electrical
signal is reshaped into a well-defined pulse shape, and the timing of the pulse is
readjusted, this new electrical pulse is used to regenerate the light power to send to the
next repeater station. In the repeater station, reshaping, retiming, and regeneration, this is
known as the 3Rs, these three steps can be replaced by an optical amplifier, achieving
simplicity and reliability.
4.2 Types of optical amplifiers

There are two main types of optical amplifiers: the fiber amplifier and the
semiconductor laser amplifier. In the fiber amplifier, the doped core of an optical fiber
serves as the amplifying medium. There are different kinds of fiber amplifiers like the
neodymium-doped fiber amplifier that operates at 1.06 and 1.32m, and the erbiumdoped fiber amplifier (EDFA) that operates in the window of lowest fiber loss at 1.55m.
The other type of optical amplifiers is the semiconductor laser amplifier (SLA) it is the
same as a laser diode, except that end reflections are not present in the SLA. The
population inversion is achieved by injecting current. The pumping schemes are different
for the two types of amplifiers. A light pump is necessary to pump the EDFA. Usually the
light pump is the light output from a laser.
55
4.3 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers

Laser materials are fluorescent, a fluorescent material is one that emits light when
subjected to light, and the color of the glow is different from the color of the illuminating
light which is the pump light. Even though fluorescence begins as soon as the pump light
is present, when the pump light is stopped, the fluorescence continues; it decays with a
certain lifetime. This can be explained using the concept of energy levels and transitions
between energy levels. One possible model is shown in Fig.4.1; this model is known as
the three-energy-level model. Pumping takes place between energy levels E1 and E 3 ,
where h 31 E3 E1 and 31 is the frequency of the pump light. Energy level E3 is
actually a number of many closely spaced energy levels, rather than one level. When the
pump light starts, upward transitions from E1 to the E 3 band take place, this happens if
energy contained in the pump light matches the E1 to E 3 band difference.
E3
Pumping
E2
Stimulated emissions
Spontaneous
emission
E1
Fig.4.1. A simple energy-level diagram illustrates a three-level laser
56
Almost immediately, downward transitions are initiated between the closely spaced E3
levels, as well as from E 3 to the nearby level E 2 . Because of the narrow spacing, the
transitions between the E 3 levels will cause phonons and non radiative transitions to
occur extremely fast over lifetimes of femto seconds to nanoseconds.
By examining Fig.4.1, there is a large energy gap between E 2 and E1 , meaning
photons will be emitted in case of energy transition which causes the fluorescent glow. In
amplifiers the downward transition from E 2 to E1 occurs over a lifetime 2 of
milliseconds to hours. When the transition from E 2 to E1 occurs spontaneously, a photon
of energy h 21 is released. This process is called spontaneous emission. Spontaneously
emitted photons travel in different directions and have different phases which make them
incoherent. Light can also be transmitted by stimulated emission; the pump light causes
the population of atoms in level E 3 to increase. This population increase in E3 is quickly
transferred to that of E 2 is a meta-stable state, causing increase population in E 2 . If the
material is illuminated by light of frequency 21 during this increase in population in E 2 ,
a significant increase in the light is emitted at 21 proportional to the illuminated light.
Photons with frequency 21 induce downward transitions from E 2 to E1 . For each
induced downward transition, a photon of energy 21 is released. Furthermore, both
photons are identical in frequency and in phase and direction giving a coherent
illumination. Stimulated emission is the basis for lasers and optical amplifiers. In an
optical amplifier, the photons capable of causing stimulated emission applied by the input
light make one trip through the material. The power of the signal light is amplified by the
stimulated emission while traveling through the amplifier. The probabilities of emission
and absorption between energy levels E1 and E 2 are equal.
57
During normal circumstances, E1 is more populated, and absorption dominates. When

E 2 is more populated than E1 , this case is called a population inversion, and in this case,
emission dominates and if there is light input at suitable wavelength stimulated light is
emitted in proportional to the input and the population inversion is the proportionality
constant. Pump light builds up a population inversion between E1 and E 2 and kept
conceived by the fast decay from E 3 and slow decay to E1 . If there is no signal light at
frequency 21 , then the emission is mainly spontaneous emission. The probability of
spontaneous emission is
21
4.3.1 Density of modes in a SOA

Through using Einstein description of interaction between radiation and matter, he
built the concept of stimulated emission on thermodynamic action of an atom interacting
with electromagnetic field. He used Black body radiation by assuming a structure which
absorbs all coming radiation. Then it transfers it to thermal radiation raising its
temperature.
Rayleigh and Jeans made a theory that energy exists in discrete quantized values KT
, where K is Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, which is the energy per
each longitudinal mode along the direction of propagation confinement and this is mainly
based on the geometry of the device and defined for discrete , where it describes the
modes in the frequency space.
In One-Dimensional cavity with Length a, as shown in Fig.4.2 [20]
E ( z ) Ai sin( k i z )
(4-1)
58
In order to satisfy the boundary conditions
ki
i
a
(4-2)
This means that the wavenumber should be equal to multiples of half the wavelength.
k 0,
,2
,..., K m
The total number of modes N is equal to
km
2na
c
a
(4-3)
Substituting by k
2n
, where n is the refractive index of the medium.
c
a
Fig.4.2 The 1-D cavity consists of two opposite mirrors
Finally reaching the formula for density of modes
1d
1 dN 2n
, modes per unit length per unit frequency

a d
c
59
(4-4)
Following the same previous analysis we can get formula for Two-Dimensional cavity,
having more degree of freedom consequently will increase the possible number of modes,
which will be clear from the relation
2D
2n 2
c2
(4-5)
This is a direct proportional relation with the frequency.

Also for the Three-Dimensional cavity it can be shown that
3D
8n 3 2
c3
(4-6)
As it shows a big number of possible modes, it can be treated as one-dimensional

relation by making all the sides transparent and only the front and back ends as mirrors.
Built on the previous results Planck assumed that at frequency the energy present in
the mode can have discrete values E 0, h ,2h ,...
With average energy
E E * P( E )dE
(4-7)
, which follows Boltzmann statistics
P( E )
e E KT
E KT
(4-8)
dE
60
After some mathematical manipulations E can be calculated to be equal to
h
e
h KT
(4-9)
h is basic quantity of quantized energy multiplied by average occupation, which is
photon population for each mode, finally Planck reached final relation for energy density,
by multiplying the mode density derived before by the average energy per mode.
h
8 2
3
h KT
c e
1
(4-10)
This expression showed more realistic values than wrongly estimated relation of
Rayleigh relation
8 2
* KT , Fig.4.3.
c3
-15
Energy density
1.8
x 10
1.6
Rayleigh assumption
1.4
Planck assumption
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 -7
10
-6
-5
10
10
-4
10
Frequency
Fig.4.3 Planck and Rayleigh assumptions for energy density dependence on frequency
61
4.3.2 Einstein constants

Based on Planck derivations Einstein developed the concept of spontaneous and
stimulated emission. Through the assumption of a cavity with number of atoms in the
energy states E1 and E 2 , and is exposed to light intensity; stream of photons. When
absorption occurs one photon is removed from the mode and one atom is raised to higher
energy level. Since the cavity is at temperature certain T, there will be electromagnetic
radiation , rate equation due to absorption (where the rate of increase of the carriers in
the low level is directly proportional to the present E.M. field). The rate of transitions of
the carriers will now be calculated. The number of carriers in E1 is N 1 , and the number
of carriers in E 2 is N 2 . The number of carriers making the downward transition per
second per unit volume due to absorption is
dN 1
B12 N 1
dt
(4-11)
The subscript of the constant B12 stands for the transition constant from level 1 to level 2.
And due to stimulated emission which is responsible for the amplification process
dN 2
B21 N 2
dt
(4-12)
Spontaneous emission is known by its totally random occurrence, it couples also into any
mode and in any direction and given by the rate of change of N 2
dN 2
A21 N 2
dt
(4-13)
62
Here A and B coefficients depend on the quantum mechanical properties of the

transition. Combining (4-11, 12, 13)
dN 1
dN
2 N 2 A21 N 2 B21 N 1 B21
dt
dt
At equilibrium
(4-14)
dN
0 (population is not changing)
dt
N2
B12
N 1 A21 B21
(4-15)
There are different quantum states that can respond to the same energy, the degeneracy
parameters g1 and g 2 to account to this degeneracy number of states to energy state
E1 and E 2 respectively and using Boltzmann statistics,
N2 g2
exp h KT
N1 g1
(4-16)
Skipping couple of mathematical manipulation carried on the previous equation a relation

between A21 and B21 , with a cubic dependence on frequency can be easily drived
A21 8h 3
B21
c3
(4-17)
This equation is the key of determining Einstein coefficient constants through

experiment, by solving (4-14) at 0 , N 2 (0) as initial condition,
N 2 (t ) N 2 (0) exp
t spon
(4-18)
63
Where the life time spon
1
(reciprocal of the rate of change). Then consequently B21
A21
can be calculated from (4-17).
4.3.3 Lineshape function

In the case of having a frequency which is slightly shifted from the required exact
transition energy, this can be compensated by using the lineshape function g ( ) , it is the
normalized probability that a photon at frequency will interact with a specific
transition of the atom, when population inversion between the previously mentioned two
levels exists there will be gain in optical amplifiers, but the description will be extended
to a population inversion between two bands of energy levels, as is often the case with
semiconductor materials.
Every time a carrier makes a transition from E2 to E1, a burst of light with frequency
21 is emitted. Each emission lasts only for a finite time. This finiteness of the duration
of emission broadens the power spectrum of the light. Its amplitude attenuates with
amplitude attenuation constant . The amplitude is expressed as

2
E (t ) E 0 exp
)t
2
cos(2 0 t )
(4-19)
The spectral distribution is obtained from the Fourier transform for equation (4-19) and
then spectrum near 0 is considered and the light intensity is normalized, this can be
done by defining Lorentz lineshape function for homogeneous broadening as for the case
of semiconductors [21].
g ( )
2
( 2) [2 ( 0 )]2
(4-20)
64
4.3.4 Distributed gain in an active cavity

By considering a gain medium like MMI cavity, the intensity of light changes with z,
so it will be useful to drive a relation for I in terms of z , light field intensity can be
shown to be equal to I c , and the change in it is I
dN
h .
dt
Substituting in (4-14) gives, where in the spontaneous emission term the 2 polarization
are taken into consideration by the term
I B21
1
.
2
g I
1
I
g ( ) N 2 zh B21 2 g ( ) N 1 Zh A21 g ( ) N 2 z
2
c
g1 c
(4-21)
After some simple mathematical manipulation and using of equation the of (4-17)
g
A212
I dI
[
g ( )( N 2 2 N 1 )]I 0 ( ) I
2
z dz
g1
8n
(4-22)
Taking the gain to be 0 N , its clear that prior to pumping N 2 0 ; therefore 0 is

negative, this equation can be solved to have
I ( z ) I (0) exp 0 z
(4-23)
65
4.3.5 Gain saturation coefficient

Lets consider that there is pumping rate R , then the rate equations becomes
dN 2
N
I
R2 2
( N 2 N1 )
dt
2 h
(4-24)
dN 1
N
N
I
R1 1 2
( N 2 N1 )
dt
1 21 h
(4-25)
Solving (4-24) for I 0 (absence of input light)

N 2 (t ) R2 2 (1 exp t 2 )
(4-26)
As N 2 approaches R2 2 in steady state (here N 2 represents the inversion). As a solution

for (4-25) in the steady state and presence of input light intensity I we can predict that
N 2 (I )
I sat
R2 2
1 ( I I sat )
(4-27)
(4-28)
When I reaches the value of the parameter I sat the gain will be half its value Fig.4.4.
Back to the change with position, the degree of saturation will depend on position;
equation (4-22) can be expressed as
0
dI
I
dz 1 I I sat
(4-29)
66
1
0.9
Relative Population Inversion,
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 -2
10
-1
10
10
10
I I sat
Fig.4.4 The normalized population inversion versus
I
I sat
By integrating and solving (4-29) one can get this transcendental equation, where
I ( L)
,
I (0)
ln(G )
I0
(G 1) 0 L
I sat
(4-30)
For I I sat (4-30) reduces to ln G 0 L , and if I I sat (4-30) reduces to

I ( L) I (0) 0 I sat L , this response was simulated by Optisystem tool which gave
similar results using the modeled device, Fig.4.5(a , b , c)
67
(a)
-3
OutputOutput
Powerpower
(W)
10
10 0
-4
1010 1
-4 4
1010
-3 3
1010
Input Power (W)

Input power
(b)
68
-22
1010
10
X10
Output power
10
X2000
-1
10
-2
X5000
10
-3
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
-2
10
10
10
10
Input power
(c)
Fig4.5 Optical amplifier response, (a) Optisystem 7.0 layout for semiconductor
amplifier, (b) Optisystem 7.0 output results for light power output versus input power
(c) Output results for similar configured model by Matlab simulations
4.3.6 Lasers
The word laser is Light wave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Lasers are optical oscillators, in a laser; photons capable of causing stimulated emission
make multiple passes through a laser cavity, inducing the release of photons of identical
energy with each pass. A coherent beam of collimated light with a narrow frequency
bandwidth is created. It is simply an optical amplifier with positive feedback.
69
4.4 Semiconductor Laser Principles

It's preferred for its compact size, low applied voltage, range of applicable frequencies
and its quality of operation.
In semiconductor lasers we must consider the distribution of energy states involving
both electrons and holes, also emission comes from a distribution over this energy range,
so they can't be summed up to one variable to describe them both,
E g h E g E c E
(4-31)
This represents the range of emitted photon energies; this spread of the energy band,
makes the gain of the semiconductor material is spread over a wide range.
The emission in semiconductor is described as a recombination between an electron
and a hole to emit a photon, during this, conservation of energy and momentum must be
satisfied, this happens between electrons near minimum of conduction band and holes
near maximum of valence band. We will discuss the direct band gap materials which are
mainly compound materials. The emitted photon wavelength depends on the band gap
energy and this is dependent on the relative composition of the compound, so it can be
adjusted within the limited range of band gap energies as discussed before in chapter-3.
But still there is a limitation for this property because the materials selected to make the
layers should have lattice matching between them to decrease losses due to dislocations.
Gallium arsenide lasers doped with aluminum Al x Ga 1 x AS cover the wavelength range
from 0.85 to 0.78 m with increasing x . If the laser is doped with indium and
phosphorus instead of aluminum In 1- x Ga x As y P1- y it will cover the range from 0.9 to
1.67 m , depending on the participation weight of each material which is described by
the values of x and y.
70
With the proper adjusting of x and y, it can be designed to emit at 1.55 m matching to
the lowest loss range of glass optical fibers, through conservation of energy
E 2 E1 h
(4-32)
, and by using conservation of momentum
k1 k photon k 2
(4-33)
By substitution of value of quantum values of the atom in (4-33) it's found out that
k photon k1 , k1 k 2 . By finding the derivative of (4-6), the density of states will be
(k )dk
k2
(4-34)
dk
So the density of states in a semiconductor can be calculated using the relation between
the energy and the momentum in the band by
( E )dE
1
2
2m 3 2
)
E dE
2
(4-44)
From the equation its clear that the density of states is proportional to
E , the density
of states is used to find the number of electrons or holes with certain energy, by
integrating over the energy range whether in the valance or conduction band respectively.
Instead of Boltzmann distribution used before, semiconductors obeys Fermi Dirac
statistics for occupation probability.
f (E)
e
E E f
kT
(4-45)
1
71
That specifies the probability that the energy level E in the conduction band will be
occupied by an electron or hole in the conduction or valence band respectively.
In order to achieve inversion in the junction, holes and electrons should occupy same
volume; this can be obtained by applying forward bias on the junction, eVb Fc Fv .
Consider the energy level E c is the bottom of the conduction band and E v is the energy
level of the top of the valence band. In an intrinsic material, not biased at T 0 K all
valence states are filled by electrons. For n-doped or p-doped semiconductor the
distribution of electrons increase or decrease in the valence and conduction bands differs
accordingly. If p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined, this will be a non
equilibrium state, and applying a bias voltage electrons in the valence band absorb light
and move to the conduction band, where they occupy the lower states of the conduction
band. Given n as the density of electrons in the energy levels between E 2 and dE 2 [21]
n( E 2 )dE 2 c ( E 2 ) f c ( E 2 )dE 2
(4-46)
A similar expression can be given for holes

p( E1 )dE1 v ( E1 )(1 f v ( E1 ))dE1
(4-47)
4.4.1 Gain in a Semiconductor Lasers

Since gain 0 is the difference between stimulated emission and absorption, as
previously derived for amplifiers, for a semiconductor, stimulated emission happens
when an incident photon induces an electron to make the transition from the conduction
band to the valence band, and is proportional to the product of the density of electrons in
the conduction band and the density of holes in the valence band (4-48).
72
Similar to Equation (4-48) for absorption and (4-49) for stimulated emission one can
deduce the rate of change of photon density,
dS
B (hvS )n( E1 ) p( E 2 )dE1 dE 2
dt
(4-48)
dS
B (hvS )n( E 2 ) p ( E1 )dE1 dE 2
dt
(4-49)
It can be noticed that energy density of the light that is stimulating the transition is the
product hvS , using previous two equations an expression for the energy density increase
is deduced
hv
dS
dt
hvB(hvS )(n( E ) p( E ) n( E ) p( E ))dE dE
Knowing that S
(4-50)
I
, it can an expression for stimulated emission rate
hvc
I
dI
hvB(hvS )(n( E 2 ) p( E1 ) n( E1 ) p( E 2 ))dE1 dE 2
dz stim c
(4-51)
Using same procedure spontaneous emission is given by

1
dI
hvA(hvS )(n( E 2 ) p ( E1 ))dE1 dE 2

dz spon c
(4-52)
The total effect is

dI dI
dI

dz dz stim dz spon
(4-53)
73
dI
gI h
dz
(4-54)
Substituting with value of density of electrons and holes and their probability from
equations (4-46, 47) leads to a condition, that for a positive gain E 2 E1 Fc Fv where
hv E 2 E1 therefore E g hv eVb .
The re-plot of the peak values of the gain curves which are given in the next chapter, as a
function of the carrier density N, it will be observed a quite linear relation with N N 0 so
that it is justifiable to write
g (N N0 )
(4-55)
As a fact the lower and upper limits of hv are E g and Fc Fv . And when the bias
current Vb is increased, the gain shifts toward a larger value of hv , and as well as, the
value of the maximum is increased.
Solving (
dI
gI h ) gives P P0 e gz , when h 0 (ignore spontaneous emission)
dz
4.4.2 Rate equations of semiconductor Lasers

In semiconductor laser, electrons are used for the pump and photons for the signal, the
rate equations are used to obtain quantities such as the threshold current, gain and photon
density.
dN
J
N
Sv ( N N 0 )
dt
ed
(4-56)
74
,where
dN
J
Rate of induced electrons, while
is the number of electrons injected,
dt
ed
Sv ( N N 0 ) is the number of electrons removed from the volume by stimulated

emission, and d thickness of the active region, and
lifetime of the electrons in the
conduction band before being lost by spontaneous emission
4.5 Carrier induced refractive index

While electro-optical effects controls the refractive index also One other matter related to
modeling an active waveguide is the shift in refractive index due to change in carrier
density. The relationship is linear:
dn
N
dN
(4-57)
Fig.4.6 shows field spatial distribution at the output port, at the minimum and
maximum values of the obtained refractive index.
The effects of the refractive index shift do not significantly change the MMI properties,
so it wasnt considered in our model.
75
-10
Light field output intensity (a.u.)
1.2
x 10
n=3.210
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
n=3.197
0.2
50
100
150
200
250
300
x-direction
Fig.4.6 The output field intensity within the MMI under extreme cases of refractive index
due to the Carrier induced refractive index effect, x-direction is given in x steps
Theoretically it is based on three phenomena, band filling which is the change in

absorption of photons due to injection with free carriers and doped material , band-gap
shrinkage caused by caused by injected free carriers only and free-carrier absorption
when a free carrier can absorb a photon and move to a higher energy level within a band.
.Carrier induced refractive index reduction may cause reflections in extreme cases and by
this can control the path of light and many other applications.
76
4.6 High injection approximations for recombination rates

Injection luminescence occurs if extra carriers (more than the equilibrium number)
are injected by forward currents across a junction into a semiconductor; which then
recombines and causes radiation, some of them are light. The extra concentration of
carriers decays with a characteristic lifetime which is given by the individual life times
of all recombination methods possible to the carriers, under high injection approximation
it can be found that [22]
U RG
(4-58)
, where U is the net recombination rates, R is the recombination rate, G is the

generation rate. Recombination through band-band transitions and through deep levels is
given by equations (4-59, 60) with recombination coefficients Bb b (radiative) and
Bdl (non-radiative)
Rb b Bb b n 2
(4-59)
Rdl Bdl n
(4-60)
Other recombination channels are available, especially for direct semiconductors and the
high injection case. Auger recombination is when the energy of the recombination is
transferred to another electron in the conduction band, which then looses its extra energy
by transferring it to the phonons of the lattice; giving no light radiation, this is an
important recombination process that must be taken into consideration which reduces the
quantum giving of radiation production Fig.4.7.
RA BAn3
(4-61)
77
Fig.4.7 Illustration for different kinds of recombination [22]
4.7 Classification of Junctions

For the aim of achieving maximum carrier density with minimum injection current three
types of junctions are compared and these are (1) the homo-junction, (2) the single
hetero-junction, and (3) the double hetero-junction; which preserve best performance by
providing maximum carrier density with minimum injection current.
4.7.1The Homo-junction
When n- and p-type layers are joined, electrons which are majority carriers in the n-type
layer start diffusing into the p-type layer as minority carriers, equally, holes in the p-type
layer start diffusing into the n-type layer. Redistribution of the carriers occurs, and
consequently, a potential difference is formed between p- and n-type layers. Forming
potential difference Vd between the two layers; which is called the diffusion potential.
78
Optical output
Electrode
Heterojunction
Injection electrons
Holes
Fig 4.8 Band diagram for the double hetero-junction [23]
At equilibrium, the movement of the electrons and holes stops. When a forward bias is
applied, the steps of the energy levels are decreased. Electrons in the n-type layer start
flowing into the p layer, and the holes in the opposite direction. As the flow of electrons
penetrates into the p region, the electrons have a chance to recombine with holes and to
emit light by what so called "spontaneous emission". This happens with the limited
diffusion length of both carriers into their opposite regions.
4.7.2 The single hetero-junction

The hetero-junction is made of p- and n-type layers with different energy bandgaps.
When the junction is formed Fermi levels of p and n layers line up with each other. The
conduction band of the p layer becomes much higher than that of the n layer; this step is
larger than Vd of the homo-junction structure, while the step between the valence bands
of the p- and n-type layers is smaller than that of the homo-junction.
79
When a forward bias is applied to the junction, the electrons hardly penetrate into the ptype layer because of the barrier, but holes are able to penetrate the n-type layer. Hence,
the recombination takes place only in the n-type layer in a region within the diffusion
length for this junction. The available region of recombination is reduced to roughly half,
compared to the homo-junction, and the carrier concentration can be doubled for the
same injection current.
4.7.3 The double hetero-junction

This Junction consists of two hetero-junctions on both sides of the active region
Fig.4.8. When they are put into contact the junction between the p-type layer and the
center layer makes a barrier against electrons while the junction between the n-type layer
and the center layer makes a barrier against holes. When a forward bias is applied, holes
diffuse from the p-type layer to the center layer, and electrons migrate from the n-type
layer to the center layer; so it is only in the center layer that both electrons and holes are
present for recombination and emission.
Compounds made of valence 3 and 5 atoms such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
indium phosphide (InP) are the most commonly used materials. Also compounds like
Ga x In1 x As y P1 y , where x and y are the molar fraction of the atoms are used. A
configuration that is often used for the double hetero-structure is to use Ga x In1 x As y P1 y
as the center layer, with p-doped (InP) on one side, and n-doped (InP) on the other side.
In the case of the double hetero-junction formed by Ga x In1 x As y P1 y , the energy bandgap
is changed by the molar fractions x and y . An increase in the energy bandgap leads to
an increase in x and y results in a decrease in the refractive index of the layer.
The diagrams Fig.4.8 is the energy band after the junction is formed and a forward bias is
applied.
80
4.8 Multi-Quantum well Lasers

By pilling thin layers of wider and narrower bandgaps number of potential wells is
formed that is called a multi-quantum well (MQW) Fig.4.9. As the dimensions of the
potential wells are further decreased to the order of 10 nm, the movement of the electrons
is restricted inside the potential well, and quantum effects become of major effect.
The pre-discussed laser gain curves are strongly governed by the shapes of the density of
the states, consequently by adjusting the thickness of the layers desired frequency peaks
can be achieved. Added advantages are:
1. Narrow frequency band gain curve
2. Lower threshold current
3. Less temperature dependence
4. Frequency of emission that can be designed by the dimension of the wells
5. A higher peak gain
Fig. 4.9 Schematic of fabricated active MMI-BLD [24]
81

Chapter 4 - Active Properties of The MMI-BLD

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Chapter 4 Active properties of the MMI-BLD