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Food Hydrocolloids
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Article history:
Received 9 April 2014
Accepted 28 October 2014
Available online 11 November 2014
Emulsion lled gels (EFG) can help food producers to reduce fat content in foods. The present study
evaluated the physical, chemical, sensorial and microbiological properties of emulsion lled gels based
on inulin, a gel-forming prebiotic carbohydrate, and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), well-known for its high
nutritional value and phenolic antioxidant content. EFG based on inulin and EVOO were produced by
means of both mechanical shearing and ultrasound homogenization. Three different ingredient ratios
lead to high, medium and low oil content EFG (H, M, L respectively). H EFG had also lower inulin/water
ratio. The resulting gels could be considered as a healthy alternative to spreads, rich in ber, unsaturated
fatty acids and phenolic antioxidants. Compared to mechanical shearing, ultrasound homogenization
gave more consistent EFG, characterized by lower lightness respect to mechanical processing. Lower
coarseness and fusion-like behavior and higher greasiness, perceived by panelists, conrmed the
structural and textural differences conferred by ultrasound. Higher inulin content and inulin/water ratios
determined consistency increase. The EFG with the best sensory prole (melting, less coarse texture,
higher consistency, greasy mouthfeel) was submitted to consumer test and liked by over 70% consumers
(n 80). The volatile pattern was characterized by compounds found in fresh oils, mainly 2-hexenal.
Oxidized triacylglycerols showed a slight increase in the EFG oil fraction respect to the fresh oil,
particularly when using ultrasound homogenization. The residual phenolic compounds were in the range
50e76%, with losses minimized in mechanically sheared EFG. Ultrasound improved the microbiological
stability of EFG.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Reducing the intake of fats, especially saturated ones, is a
mandatory target for consumers of developed countries
(Utzschneider et al., 2013). Recent recommendations from food
safety authorities invite to minimize the assumption of saturated
fats (European Food Safety Authority, 2011). This reects in a
challenging task for food producers: reducing the fat content of
foods, with special attention to saturated ones, without giving up
the fat-related desirable textural properties of food (Abhyankar,
Mulvihill, & Auty, 2014). The combined use of gelling agents and
31
for 2% on the whole in all of three EFG. The inulin/water (i/w) ratio
for the three formulations was 0.44, 0.59 and 0.58 respectively.
The EFG were prepared in 200 g batches using three different
homogenization technologies:
- Me: mechanical homogenization with Ultraturrax T25 (IKA,
Staufen, Germany) for 10 min at 24,000 rpm (nal temperature
of the emulsion 30 C);
- US: ultrasonic homogenization with Sonopuls HD 3200 (Bandelin Electronic, Berlin, Germany) with tapered tip KE 76 (6 mm
diameter) for 10 min for M and L formulation and 5 min for H
formulation (nal temperature of the emulsion 55 C);
- CUS: cold (ice bath) ultrasonic homogenization with the same
apparatus and times of US (nal temperature of the emulsion
45 C).
The duration of homogenization corresponded to the time
necessary to obtain a homogenous system. No pre-hydration was
carried out. After production, the EFG were cooled down at ambient
temperature and then kept at 5 C.
As a whole, nine EFG typologies were produced and compared,
as a combination of formulation and homogenization system: LMe, M-Me, H-Me, L-US, M-US, H-US, L-CUS, M-CUS, H-CUS.
A portion of the formulations was used for sensory, color, volatile compounds and texture analyses; the remaining part was
placed at 18 C for about 4 h to facilitate water crystallization and
subsequently lyophilized prior to extract the oil fraction.
Six more spreads were produced, according to a hexagon design,
by varying of 4% the proportions of inulin, olive oil and water
respect to the H formulation and using ultrasound (US) homogenization, to be submitted to texture analysis, in order to better
assess the relations existing between formulation and textural
properties.
2.3. Fluorescence microscopy
Fluorescence microscopy was adopted to obtain information
about the morphology of the emulsion formed during homogenization of EFG. To label the oil phase in the EFG, a solution of the fat
specic dye Nile Red (0.15%, w/w, in 1,2-propanediol) was added to
the extra virgin olive oil at a level of 20 mL/ml. The labeled oil was
homogenized with inulin, water and lecithin to produce EFG. The
microscopy observations were carried out using a uorescent microscope (DMLS, Leica) with an excitation lter of 450e490 nm and
a barrier lter of 515 nm. Images were acquired at 40
magnication.
2.4. Texture analysis
The texture analysis of the EFG obtained was performed by back
extrusion with a 3340 Series Single Column Systems (Instron,
Milan, Italy). The test consisted in the penetration of a piston of
40 mm diameter into a sampling tube of 45 mm diameter containing a sample layer of 30 mm of the sample. The penetration
occurred for a stroke of 25 mm at a speed of 0.7 mm/s. The area
under the load/time curve was calculated and converted in N$mm
lez-Martnez et al.,
as a measure of the sample consistency (Gonza
2002).
The analysis was carried out on two samples obtained in independent trials for all of fteen spread formulations.
2.5. Color analysis
Color measurement was carried out by a Minolta Chromameter
2 reectance colorimeter (Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with the
32
33
Fig. 1. Images of the EFG obtained by uorescence microscopy. Oil droplets in yellow
(H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization). (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
34
Fig. 3. Ternary plot with surface response regression of the spread consistency (area
under the load/time curve of texture analysis was calculated and converted in N$mm)
as a function of inulin, water and oil contents. Data points indicate the tested
formulations.
Fig. 2. Results of the texture analysis carried out on the EFG. Different letters mean
signicant difference at p < 0.05 according to the Fishers test performed after the
analysis of variance (H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me,
mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound
homogenization).
Fig. 4. Appearance of the EFG under investigation (H, high oil content; M, medium oil
content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization).
35
Fig. 5. Results of the color analysis carried out on the EFG. Different letters in the legend mean signicant difference at p < 0.05 according to the Fisher's test performed after the
analysis of variance (H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound
homogenization).
Fig. 5 reports the results of the color analysis. All the EFG were
characterized by high lightness (L*), due to the white color of inulin
gels (Chiavaro, Vittadini, & Corradini, 2007; Kim, Faqih, et al., 2001)
and a dominant yellow color (b*), attributable to the olive oil, with
very low values of the red index (a*). The analysis of variance
showed no signicant effect of the formulation on the values of L*
and a*, while it gave a p-value equal to 0.08, slightly above the
chosen signicance threshold, for the yellow index, that became
higher as the oil content increased. On the contrary, the homogenization system signicantly affected all of the three color indices.
The legend of Fig. 5 reports also the results of the Fisher's test
performed to compare the homogenization systems. Ultrasound
treatment determined a slight but signicant decrease of the L*
index and an increase of both red and yellow indices. The use of the
ice bath signicantly reduced these effects.
The color of such complex systems is affected by several factors.
As regards concentrated emulsions, that have been widely studied
(McClements, 2002a, 2002b), their color is determined not only by
the concentration and absorbance of the existing chromophores,
but mainly by their physical and microstructural characteristics,
such as reectance properties, which depend on droplet characteristics (radius, concentration) and scattering parameters on one
hand, and on chromophore characteristics (concentration and
absorbance) on the other hand. Decreasing the droplet size and
their concentration leads to higher lightness and lower chromaticness (a* and b* indices). The scattering properties of such systems depend, besides the droplet characteristics, also on the
refractive index of both oil droplets and continuous phase: the
lightness decreases and the chromaticness increases as the
refractive index of the droplets tended towards that of the
continuous phase. This could be achieved by adding a watersoluble solute to the aqueous phase of an oil-in-water emulsion
(McClements, 2002b). Moreover, the magnitudes of a* and b* are
approximately proportional to the reciprocal of the lightness so
that an increase in lightness tends to cause a decrease in chromaticness (Billmayer & Saltzman, 1981). As regards the EFG under
investigation, due to their opacity conferred by inulin gel, probably
absorbance of chromophores from olive oil (carotenoids and
chlorophylls) was responsible of color, more than scattering of oil
droplets. Therefore, smaller oil droplets increased the surface-tovolume ratio of the oily phase and its light absorbance. Possible
incipient browning due to localized temperature peaks could have
contributed to color and have led to lower lightness and higher
chromaticness in US EFG.
36
Fig. 6. Results of the sensory analysis carried out on the EFG. Different letters mean signicant difference at p < 0.05 according to the Fishers test performed after the analysis of
variance (H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization).
p-values
Gloss
Homogeneity
Oil odor
Oil avor
Lecithin odor
Lecithin avor
Rancid odor
Rancid avor
Coarseness
Greasiness
Consistency
Melting
Spreadability
Formulation
Homogenization
Me
US
CUS
<0.001
0.955
0.003
0.205
0.527
0.998
0.111
0.373
0.006
0.023
0.041
<0.001
0.041
0.005
0.193
0.904
0.855
0.665
0.837
0.226
0.554
<0.001
0.477
0.004
<0.001
0.112
A
B
A
B
B
A
B
A
B
AB
B
A
B
A
A
B
A
A
B
A
B
H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical
homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound
homogenization.
a
p-values of the ANOVA for the signicance of each factor and results of the
Fisher's LSD test. Values lower than 0.05 are highlighted in bold.
b
Different letters mean a signicant difference at p < 0.05.
Fig. 7. Results of the consumer test carried out on two EFG (n 80). Frequency of
attribution of liking scores from 1 e dislike to 5 e like very much (H, high oil
content; US, ultrasound homogenization).
37
Fig. 8. Results of the analysis of oxidation carried out on the EFG (H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound
homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization).
respect to medium- and low-oil EFG (mean values 364 and 363 mg/
kg respectively, different at p < 0.05).
As regards the processing technology, mechanically homogenized EFG presented the highest contents of TPC; US samples were
not signicantly different, while, unexpectedly, CUS systems presented signicantly lower amounts of TPS respect to M, in spite of
the lower temperatures reached than in US processing. The
decrease of TPC in mechanically homogenized EFG respect to the
fresh oil should be attributed to the intense aeration induced to the
system. Ultrasound, instead, is known to induce oxidation of
phenolic compounds in edible oils, with an enhancing effect of
temperature (Luque de Castro & Priego-Capote, 2007), and lead,
therefore, to a more pronounced decrease of TPC than that due to
mechanical homogenization. The reason why CUS systems showed
the maximum decrease of TPC should be studied. An hypothesis
could be made. US are commonly used to degas liquid media
(Luque de Castro & Delgado-Povedano, 2014): decreasing the
temperature could have increased the oxygen solubility and
therefore reduced the degassing effect of US, leaving higher
amounts of oxygen in the EFG.
Fig. 9. Results of the analysis of total phenolic compounds (TPC) carried out on the EFG. The box plot reports the TPC concentration in the EFG, while the corresponding scatter plot
reports the TPC respect to the oil content. Different letters mean signicant difference at p < 0.05 according to the Fishers test performed after the analysis of variance (H, high oil
content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization).
38
Table 2
Volatile compounds analyzed and results of the comparisons for Formulation and Homogenization variables.a
Fishers LSD Testb
p-values
Propanal
Methyl acetate
2-Propenal
Ethyl acetate
2-Methyl-butanal
3-Methyl-butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
2-Pentenal
Penten-3-ol
2-Hexenal
Pentanol
Methylpyrazine
Octanal
3-Hexenol acetate
2-Pentenol
2-Heptenal
Hexanol
3-Hexenol
Nonanal
2,4-Hexadienal
2-Hexenol
2-Octenal
Acetic acid
Furfural
Copaene
2,4-Heptadienal
2-Nonenal
5-Methyl-furfural
2-Furanmethanol
Hexanoic acid
LRI
Formulation
Homogenization
657
809
828
874
905
909
974
1081
1135
1168
1227
1259
1277
1294
1324
1331
1334
1363
1374
1401
1414
1417
1442
1473
1485
1498
1512
1551
1599
1681
1870
0.879
0.020
0.830
0.305
0.192
0.842
0.276
0.425
0.047
0.100
0.026
0.039
0.253
0.559
0.097
<0.001
0.696
0.004
0.002
0.780
0.320
0.007
0.361
0.620
0.552
0.172
0.262
0.217
0.061
0.279
0.167
0.268
0.065
<0.001
0.490
0.005
<0.001
0.931
0.242
0.171
0.341
0.024
0.714
0.039
0.189
0.036
0.030
0.403
0.583
0.541
0.044
0.066
0.042
0.172
0.159
0.218
0.978
0.125
0.476
0.473
0.133
0.717
LPC
LPC
AOC
LPC
AOC
LPC
LPC
AOC
LPC
AOC
AOC
AOC
AB
AB
B
AB
AB
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
AB
Me
US
CUS
a
a
b
b
b
b
ab
ab
b
a
a
b
ab
ab
ab
ab
H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization;
AOC, selected autoxidation deriving compounds; LPC, selected lipoxygenase pathway deriving compounds.
a
p-values of the ANOVA for the signicance of each factor and results of the Fishers LSD test.
b
Different letters mean a signicant difference at p < 0.05. Values lower than 0.05 are highlighted in bold.
39
Fig. 10. Results of the analysis of volatile compounds carried out on the EFG. Different letters mean signicant difference at p < 0.05 according to the Fisher test performed after the
analysis of variance (H, high oil content; M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound
homogenization).
Table 3
Mean values (standard deviation) of cell density (log cfu/g) of total mesophilic aerobic microorganisms, molds and yeasts found in the EFG after 0 (T0), 10 (T10), 20 (T20) e 30
(T30) days of storage at 5 C.a
Total mesophilic aerobic microorganisms
L-Me
L-US
L-CUS
M-Me
M-US
M-CUS
H-Me
H-US
H-CUS
T0
T10
2.4 0.1j
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
0.0
2.9
3.2
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.0
3.8
0.5ef
0.9hi
0.7ghi
2.0k
1.0g
T20
4.6
0.0
4.4
4.7
0.0
1.3
3.8
0.0
5.5
1.1ef
0.1f
1.0ef
1.9k
0.4g
0.3 ab
Molds
T30
5.4
2.6
3.7
5.0
5.1
1.0
3.4
0.0
5.8
0.1bc
0.2ij
0.2g
0.2de
0.3cd
1.4k
1.3gh
0.1a
Yeasts
T0
T10
T20
T30
T0
T10
T20
T30
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7 0.3ef
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
2.4
0.0
1.3
3.9
0.0
3.6
0.0
0.0
3.6
4.2
3.1
1.3
3.1
0.0
4.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.1 0.5d
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.7 1.0d
4.6 1.1c
0.0
0.0
4.6 1.0c
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.4 0.6 ab
5.2
0.0
0.0
5.1
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.0
0.2e
0.6f
1.8g
0.2bc
1.1cd
0.1cd
0.1 ab
0.8de
1.8g
1.2de
0.4a
0.2b
0.2bc
0.1bc
0.2a
H, high oil content, M, medium oil content; L, low oil content; Me, mechanical homogenization; US, ultrasound homogenization; CUS, cooled ultrasound homogenization.
a
For a given microbial group, different letters mean a signicant difference at p < 0.05.
40
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