Background

Bladder injuries can result from blunt, penetrating, or iatrogenic trauma. [1, 2] The probability of bladder injury
varies according to the degree of bladder distention; a full bladder is more susceptible to injury than is an empty
one. Management varies from conservative approaches that center on maximizing bladder drainage to major
surgical procedures aimed at directly repairing the injury.
For patient education information, see Blood in the Urine, Intravenous Pyelogram,Cystoscopy, and Foley
Catheter.

History of the Procedure

Although uniformly fatal historically, timely diagnosis and appropriate management now provide excellent
outcomes. Early clinical suspicion, coupled with appropriate and reliable radiologic studies, facilitate prompt
intervention and the successful management of bladder trauma.[3]

Problem
Aside from iatrogenic injuries, patients with signs and symptoms of bladder injury will likely relay a history
typical for pelvic trauma. This is fairly straightforward, and generally includes motor vehicle collisions,
deceleration injuries, or assaults to the lower abdomen. If the patient is unconscious, family members or
emergency services personnel may be able to provide the history.
Typical histories in patients with bladder trauma include the following:

Bladder injury from a motor vehicle collision may occur from direct impact with the car or indirectly from
the steering wheel or seatbelt
Deceleration injuries of the urinary bladder usually result from falling a great distance and landing on
unyielding ground
Assault to the lower abdomen by a sharp kick or blow may result in a bladder perforation
Penetrating injuries to the bladder usually result from high-velocity gunshots or sharp stab wounds to
the suprapubic area [4]

Epidemiology
Frequency
Frequency of bladder rupture varies according to the mechanism of injury, as follows:

External trauma (82%)

Iatrogenic (14%)
Intoxication (2.9%)
Spontaneous (< 1%)
Approximately 60%-85% of bladder injuries result from blunt trauma, while 15%-40% are from penetrating
injury.[5] The most common mechanisms of blunt trauma are motor vehicle collision (87%), fall (7%), and assault
(6%). In penetrating trauma, the most frequent culprit is gunshot wound (85%), followed by stabbing (15%).
Approximately 10%-25% of patients with pelvic fracture also have urethral trauma. Conversely, 10%-29% of
patients with posterior urethral disruption have an associated bladder rupture.
Traumatic Bladder Rupture
Extraperitoneal bladder perforation accounts for 50%-71% of bladder rupture, while 25%-43% are
intraperitoneal, and 7%-14% are combined. [6, 7] The incidence of intraperitoneal bladder rupture is significantly
higher in children because of the predominantly intraabdominal location of the bladder before puberty.
Combined intraperitoneal and extraperitoneal rupture accounts for approximately 10% of all perforating
traumatic bladder injuries. Mortality rates in these patients approach 60% while only 17%-22% of overall
bladder injury results in death. This emphasizes the severity of the concomitant injuries associated with
combined bladder rupture.
Associated bowel injuries

Among patients with bladder trauma from gunshot, an 83% incidence of associated bowel injury is reported.
Colon injuries are noted in 33% of patients with stab wounds, while vascular injuries occur in nearly 82% of
patients with a penetrating trauma and carry a 63% mortality rate.

Etiology
Blunt Trauma
Deceleration injuries usually produce both bladder trauma (rupture) and pelvic fractures (which can cause
bladder perforation). Accordingly, approximately 10% of patients with pelvic fracture also have significant
bladder injury. The propensity of the bladder to sustain injury is positively associated with its degree of
distention at the time of trauma. A blunt blow to the abdomen, as with a punch or kick, can rupture the bladder
when full; similarly, bladder rupture has been documented in children struck in the abdomen by a soccer ball
while playing the sport.[8, 9, 10]

Penetrating Trauma
Both gunshot and stabbing are examples of penetrating trauma. Often, these patients incur concomitant injury
to other abdominal and/or pelvic organs.

Obstetric Trauma
During prolonged labor or a difficult forceps delivery, persistent pressure from the fetal head against the
mother's pubis can lead to bladder necrosis. Direct laceration of the urinary bladder is reported in 0.3% of
women undergoing a cesarean delivery. Previous cesarean deliveries with resultant adhesions are a risk factor
for such, as undue scarring may obliterate normal tissue planes. Unrecognized bladder injuries may lead to
vesicouterine fistulas and other problems.

Gynecologic Trauma
Bladder injury may occur during vaginal or abdominal hysterectomy. Blind dissection in the incorrect tissue
plane between the base of the bladder and the cervical fascia is generally the maneuver implicated in such.

Urologic Trauma
Perforations of the bladder during bladder biopsy, cystolitholapaxy, transurethral resection of the
prostate (TURP), or transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) are not uncommon. The incidence of
bladder perforation with bladder biopsy is reportedly as high as 36%.

Orthopedic Trauma
Orthopedic hardware can easily perforate the urinary bladder, particularly during internal fixation of pelvic
fractures. Additionally, thermal injuries to the bladder may occur during the setting of cement substances used
to seat arthroplasty prosthetics.

Idiopathic Bladder Trauma

Patients diagnosed with alcoholism and individuals who chronically imbibe a large quantity of fluids are
susceptible to idiopathic bladder injury. Previous bladder surgery is a risk factor for such, as areas of scarring
are weakened and prone to rupture. In reported cases, all bladder ruptures were intraperitoneal. This type of
injury may result from a combination of bladder overdistention and minor external trauma, such as that from a
minor stumble or fall.

Pathophysiology
Bladder Contusion
Bladder contusion is an incomplete or partial-thickness tear of the bladder. This produces a hematoma within
the bladder at the location of injury. Bladder contusion commonly results from blunt trama or extreme physical
activity (eg, long-distance running). Patients typically present with gross hematuria. On cystography, the
bladder usually appears normal, or it may have a teardrop shape secondary to compression by the hematoma.

Bladder contusion is relatively benign. It is self-limiting and requires no specific therapy, except for rest until
hematuria resolves. Nevertheless, it should remain a diagnosis of exclusion. Persistent hematuria or
unexplained lower abdominal pain requires further investigation.

Extraperitoneal Bladder Rupture

Traumatic extraperitoneal rupture is usually (89%-100%) associated with pelvic fracture. Previously, the
mechanism of injury was believed to be direct perforation by bony fragment or disruption of the pelvic girdle. It
is now thought that pelvic fracture is likely coincidental and that bladder rupture most often is a direct result of
deceleration injury and fluid inertia coupled with the shearing force created by pelvic ring deformation.
Extraperitoneal rupture is usually associated with fracture of the anterior pubic arch. When this occurs, the
anterolateral aspect of the bladder is typically perforated by bony spicules. Forceful disruption of the bony
pelvis or the puboprostatic ligaments also tears the bladder wall. In such instances, the degree of bladder injury
is directly related to the severity of the fracture.
A mechanism similar to intraperitoneal bladder rupture is thought to underly some extraperitoneal bladder
injuries. Specifically, this is the combination of trauma with bladder overdistention, leading to a burst injury.
The classic cystographic finding is contrast extravasation around the base of the bladder, confined to the
perivesical space. Often, areas of contrast extravasation shaped like flames, feathers, or starbursts are noted
adjacent to the bladder. Additionally, the bladder may assume a teardrop shape secondary to compression from
a pelvic hematoma.
With a more complex injury, contrast material can extend to the thigh, penis, perineum, or into the anterior
abdominal wall. Extravasation will reach the scrotum when the superior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm, or
the urogenital diaphragm itself, becomes disrupted.
If the inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm is violated, contrast material will reach the thigh and penis
within the confines of the Colles fascia. Rarely, contrast may extravasate into the thigh through the obturator
foramen or into the anterior abdominal wall through contiguous tissue planes. Sometimes, extravasation of
contrast through the inguinal canal and into the scrotum or labia majora can occur. See the image below.

CT scan of extraperitoneal bladder rupture. The

contrast extravasates from the bladder into the prevesical space.

Intraperitoneal Bladder Rupture

Classic intraperitoneal rupture is described as large horizontal tears in the bladder dome. This is the least
supported area of the bladder and only portion of the organ covered by peritoneum. In such cases, the
mechanism of injury is a sudden large increase in intravesical fluid pressure that overcomes the mechanical
strength of the bladder wall. This is more likey to occur at greater bladder volumes, as the detrusor muscle
fibers are more widely separated along the thinned and stretched bladder wall, offering a lower resistance to
spikes in intravesical fluid pressure.

Intraperitoneal bladder rupture generally occurs as the result of a direct blow to a distended urinary bladder.
Deceleration injuries can also cause such phenomena. This type of injury is most common in alcoholics and
victims of seatbelt or steering wheel trauma. Otherwise, it is more common in children due to the relative
intraabdominal bladder position that persists until approximately 20 years of age.
Since urine will generally continue to drain into the abdomen through the open bladder wall defect,
intraperitoneal ruptures may go undiagnosed for variable lengths of time. Metabolic and electrolyte
abnormalities (eg, hyperkalemia,hypernatremia, uremia, acidosis) may occur as urine is reabsorbed through
the peritoneal cavity. Additionally, such patients may appear anuric.
The diagnosis is established when urinary ascites are recovered during paracentesis or the leak is confirmed
on imaging. Intraperitoneal rupture demonstrates contrast extravasation into the peritoneal cavity. The contrast
media will often outline loops of bowel, fill the paracolic gutters, and pool under the diaphragm. See the image
below.

Cystogram of intraperitoneal bladder rupture.

The contrast enters the intraperitoneal cavity and outlines loops of bowel.

Combination of Intraperitoneal and Extraperitoneal Ruptures

Diagnostic imaging with cystogram will reveal contrast outlining the abdominal viscera and perivesical space.
Oftentimes this may be observed in penetrating trauma, where the bladder is traversed by a high-velocity
bullet, impaled by a knife, or penetrated by another foreign body. This through-and-through injury creates a
combined intraperitoneal and extraperitoneal bladder rupture. See the image below.

Cystogram of extraperitoneal bladder rupture.

Note the fractured pelvis and contrast extravasation into the space of Retzius.

The high incidence of associated abdominal visceral and vascular injury mandates surgical exploration in
virtually every case of combined intraperitoneal and extraperitoneal rupture. Cystography can be falsely
negative in penetrating bladder injuries secondary to small-caliber wounds, although the capabilities of crosssectional imaging with computed tomographic cystography have improved recently. However, it is often not the
suspected bladder injury alone that drives the consideration for operative intervention. As a result, the
diagnosis of such injuries is commonly made during exploratory laparotomy.

Presentation
Clinical signs of bladder injury are relatively nonspecific. Patients often present with the triad of gross
hematuria, suprapubic pain or tenderness, and difficulty urinating or inability to void.
Hematuria invariably accompanies bladder injury. Gross hematuria is the hallmark of bladder rupture but is not
unique to the injury. Almost every (98%) bladder rupture is accompanied by hematuria. Gross hematuria does
not always occur, however; in approximately 10% of cases, the hematuria is microscopic.
Most patients with bladder rupture complain of suprapubic or abdominal pain but many can still void. The ability
to urinate does not exclude bladder injury or perforation, however.
An abdominal examination may reveal distention, guarding, or rebound tenderness. Absent bowel sounds and
signs of peritoneal irritation indicate possible intraperitoneal bladder rupture. A rectal examination should be
performed to exclude rectal injury, and in males, to evaluate prostate location. If the prostate is "high riding" or
elevated, proximal urethral disruption should be suspected. In the setting of motor vehicle collision or crush
injury, bilateral palpation of the bony pelvis may reveal abnormal laxity or mobility, indicating an open-book
fracture or disruption of the pelvic girdle.
If blood is present at the urethral meatus, suspect a urethral injury. Perform retrograde urethrography to assess
the integrity of the urethra. It is crucial that urethral integrity be confirmed before attempting to blindly pass a
urethral catheter.

Indications
Foley Catheter
In a trauma situation, blood at the urethral meatus is an absolute indication for retrograde urethrography.
Approximately 10-20% of men with posterior urethral injury have an associated bladder injury. Therefore, it is
critical that no attempt at blind passage of a urethral catheter is made. Doing such may tear a partially
disrupted urethra and convert it into a completely disrupted urethra. Only after urethral injury is excluded should
urethral catheter placement be attempted. In the setting of a posterior urethral injury, placement of a suprapubic
(cystotomy) tube, via an open or percutaneous approach, is generally pursued. Otherwise, direct inspection of
the bladder during surgical exploration, if indicated, can be carried out.

Relevant Anatomy
In adults, the bladder is located in the anterior pelvis and is enveloped by extraperitoneal fat and connective
tissue. It is separated from the pubic symphysis by an anterior prevesical space known as the space of Retzius.
The dome of the bladder is covered by peritoneum and the bladder neck is fixed to neighboring structures by
reflections of the pelvic fascia as well as by true ligaments of the pelvis.
In males, the bladder neck is contiguous with the prostate, which is attached to the pubis by puboprostatic
ligaments. In females, pubourethral ligaments support the bladder neck and urethra.
The body of the bladder receives support from the urogenital diaphragm inferiorly and the obturator internus
muscles laterally. The superior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm is continuous and includes the pelvic,
obturator, and endopelvic fasciae. The inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm fuses with Colle's fascia and
continues as Scarpa's fascia anteriorly. The dartos muscle and fascia in the scrotum as well as the fascia lata
of the thigh are further continuations of this layer.
The type of extravasation (intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal) from a bladder injury depends upon the location of
the laceration and its relationship with the peritoneal reflection, as follows:

If the perforation is above the peritoneal reflection, on the dome of the bladder, the extravasation is
intraperitoneal

If the injury is below the peritoneal reflection, and not on the dome of the bladder, the extravasation is
extraperitoneal
With an anterosuperior perforation, urinary extravasation may be intraperitoneal, extraperitoneal (space of
Retzius), or both. If the tear is posterosuperior, fluid can spread intraperitoneally and retroperitoneally, as well.
With bladder rupture, the superior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm, when intact, prohibits extravasated urine
from escaping the pelvis, while the inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm, when intact, prevents urinary
extravasate from flowing into the perineum.

Contraindications
Posterior urethral injury is a contraindication to urethral catheter insertion. Such an injury should be suspected
if blood is present at the urethral meatus, in all pelvic fractures, or if a high-riding prostate is found on digital
rectal examination.
When posterior urethral injury is suspected, assess urethral intactness via retrograde urethrogram prior to any
attempts at urethral catheter insertion.
A basic retrograde urethrogram is performed as follows:

Gently stretch the penis away from the body at an obtuse angle from the pelvis
Place a 16 French Foley catheter into the very distal urethra
To seal off the urethral meatus, carefully inflate the balloon, using 3 mL of sterile saline, within the
fossa navicularis; or use a Brodney clamp, if available, to obtain a better seal at the urethral meatus

Alternatively, the tip of a 60-mL piston syringe may be engaged directly into the urethral meatus for
contrast injection, but leaded gloves should be worn if doing to provide shielding from radiation exposure

Using a diluted medium of 50% contrast and 50% sterile saline or sterile water, which is suitable for
intravenous administration, slowly inject solution into the catheter using a 60-mL piston syringe

Obtain a plain film or fluoroscopy of the urethra and the bladder before, during, and after injection;
oblique views are usually most informative; extravasation indicating urethral injury is generally readily
apparent
After posterior urethral injury is excluded and a catheter has been inserted, the radiographic workup to assess
for bladder injury may commence. However, in the presence of urethral injury, a suprapubic (cystotomy) tube
must be placed, either in an open or percutaneous fashion, and primary urethral realignment attempted once
the patient is stable. This can help prevent severe urethral stricture formation.
Alternatively, primary urethral realignment may be attempted at bedside via flexible cystoscopy and guidewire
placement. This procedure may eliminate the need for subsequent formal urethroplasty.

Laboratory Studies
In the subacute setting, the serum creatinine level can aid in the diagnosis of bladder rupture. In the absence of
acute kidney injury and urinary tract obstruction, elevated serum creatinine can be indicative of a urinary tract
leak with systemic reabsorption of the excreted creatinine. A creatinine level alone is not diagnostic, however,
and further workup is required when clinical suspicion for bladder leak exists.

Imaging Studies
Computed Tomography Imaging
Often, computed tomography (CT) is the first test performed in patients with blunt abdominal trauma. Crosssectional images through the pelvis provide information on the status of both the pelvic organs and bony
structures. This modality, and specifically CT cystography, has also largely replaced conventional plain film or
fluoroscopic cystography as the most sensitive means for identifying bladder perforation.
A CT cystogram is performed by filling the bladder with contrast via urethral catheter (once urethral injury has
been excluded) and performing a non-contrast abdominopelvic CT scan to assess for extravastion. Imaging in

this manner is able to detect even subtle perforations and can often clearly define whether the leaks are
intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal.

Other Tests
Cystography
The historical standard for imaging suspected bladder injury is well-performed cystography. Although the ideal
examination is performed under fluoroscopy, clinical circumstances often do not permit this. In such cases,
plain film cystography is performed. The study can easily be completed at bedside using portable imaging
equipment.
While most trauma patients with bladder perforation have multiple injuries and CT imaging is a regular part of
the trauma evaluation, this does not preclude obtaining a separate cystogram if bladder findings on the CT
scan are equivocal.11 A properly performed cystogram consists of an initial kidney-ureter-bladder (KUB) film
followed by both anteroposterior (AP) and oblique views of the bladder filled with contrast as well as another AP
film obtained after contrast drainage.
The following procedure is recommended, if urethral injury is excluded and a urethral catheter can be placed:

Obtain a scout radiograph

Place a urethral catheter into the bladder
Using a contrast medium that is suitable for systemic absorption and has been diluted (50% contrast
and 50% water or saline), slowly fill the bladder by gravity (approximately 75 cm above the pelvis) to a 300 or
400 mL volume
Obtain a single anterior-posterior (AP) film of the pelvis and lower abdomen after the first 100 mL of
contrast is instilled
If gross extravasation is noted, the procedure can be concluded, and the bladder emptied; if no leak is
evident, continue filling the bladder with the remaining contrast solution
With the bladder at maximal capacity, obtain another AP film; if possible, obtain oblique and lateral
films at this time, as well
Completely drain the bladder and obtain the post-drainage film; this is a crucial aspect of the study, as
it may reveal extravasation that was obscured by the distended contrast-filled bladder
In children, determine the estimated filling volume for the cystogram using the following formula:
Bladder capacity = 60 mL + [(30 mL) x (Years of Age)]

Key Points
The importance of properly executed filling and post-drainage films is paramount. Injuries may be missed if the
cystogram is not performed correctly. A well-performed static cystogram has 85-100% accuracy at detecting
leaks.
Oblique films may be difficult to obtain in a trauma patient with pelvic fractures. As such, they may be omitted in
selected cases.
The volume infused is less important than achieving adequate bladder distention. With sufficient bladder
distention, intravesical pressure will rise high enough to cause extravasation of contrast even in patients with
small bladder injuries. False-negative readings might otherwise occur with small puncture wounds or
lacerations, which may be self-sealing because of mucosal edema or may be sealed by overlying hematomas,
omentum, sigmoid colon, small bowel, or other pelvic viscera.

Diagnostic Procedures
Operative Exploration
If the patient is immediately taken to the operating room for surgical exploration, inspection of the bladder can
be performed. At this time, if urethral injury is excluded a urethral catheter can be placed. Otherwise, a
suprapubic cystotomy can be made and catheter inserted in an open fashion.

Thereafter, the bladder can be thoroughly inspected for perforation and distended with irrigation to aid in doing
such. The use of intravenous indigo carmine or methylene blue to dye the urine can also aid in visualizing
urinary extravasation.
If surgery is delayed or not indicated, access to the bladder is obtained via urethral or suprapubic
catheterization. A CT or plain film cystogram can then be obtained to ensure that a bladder injury is not
overlooked.[11]

Histologic Findings
Tissue is not generally taken for histology in the setting of bladder injury and repair. However, if bladder
perforation occurs secondary to a disease process originating from or adjacent to the bladder wall, specimens
may be sent for analysis. Results would be reflective of the underlying condition.

Staging
Bladder trauma produces ruptures that are classified as one of the following:

Extraperitoneal
Intraperitoneal
Combined extraperitoneal and intraperitoneal

Medical Therapy
Most extraperitoneal bladder leaks can be effectively managed with maximal bladder drainage per urethral or
suprapubic catheter.[12] Depending on the presumed size of the bladder defect, the bladder should be drained for
10 to 14 days and then assessed for healing via cystogram. Approximately 85% of such injuries will heal within
7 to 10 days, at which point the catheter can be removed and trial of voiding completed. [13, 14] Overall, nearly all
extraperitoneal bladder injuries heal within 3 weeks. However, if surgery is pursued for other indications,
extraperitoneal bladder injuries may be repaired surgically in the same setting if the patient is stable.

Surgical Therapy
Intraperitoneal Bladder Rupture
Essentially every intraperitoneal bladder rupture requires surgical management. [15, 16] Such an injury will not
usually heal with prolonged bladder drainage alone, as urine will continue to leak into the abdominal cavity
despite the presence of a functional catheter. This results in metabolic derangements and can produce urinary
ascites, abdominal distention, and even ileus. All gunshot wounds to the abdominopelvic region should be
surgically explored, as the likelihood of injuries to other abdominal organs and vascular structures is high. At
that time, any concurrent bladder injury can be directly repaired.

Extraperitoneal Extravasation
Bladders with extensive extraperitoneal extravasation are often repaired surgically. In cases where surgical
exploration for other injuries is pursued, minor extraperitoneal leaks can be repaired, as well. This facilitates
more rapid healing and decreases the potential for complications, as well as the necessary duration of
indwelling catheter use in many cases.

Surgical Principles
In the trauma setting, closure of bladder defects is usually performed in a two-layer fashion. With iatrogenic
injury, some surgeons routinely close the bladder in one layer with success. In either manner, a running suture
is placed to obtain a water-tight closure. Only absorbable suture should be used on the bladder, as permanent
sutures serve as a nidus for later stone formation and infection. Similar to nonoperative management of bladder
leaks, an indwelling catheter is left for at least 10 to 14 days to facilitate healing of the defect. A cystogram is
done prior to catheter removal.

Preoperative Details

In any trauma setting, the Advanced Trauma Life Support protocol should be followed first and foremost. With
the patient stabilized in anticipation of surgical intervention, broad-spectrum antibiotics should be administered.
In a non-emergent setting, informed consent should be obtained if possible, from the patient, family member, or
person holding medical power of attorney, as appropriate.

Intraoperative Details
A standard repair of bladder injury in the trauma setting is performed as follows:

Position the patient in a supine fashion.

Create a vertical midline abdominal incision
Conduct a thorough inspection of the pelvic viscera, ureters, bowel, and blood vessels
Note the presence of pelvic hematoma, and if present, leave undisturbed
Bivalve the dome of the bladder using electrocautery to attain hemostasis
Thoroughly inspect the bladder lumen and remove any foreign bodies encountered
Confirm that both ureteral orifices are intact and productive of urine
Localize the bladder injury and debride all nonviable tissue to healthy bleeding edges
Place a large-bore suprapubic tube via separate cystotomy before closing the bladder
Create a watertight closure using two layers of absorbable suture in a running stitch
Interpose an omental fat flap to protect the closure from sharp or bony protrusions.
Test the integrity of the closure by inflating the bladder with saline or water irrigation
Place a closed suction pelvic drain in the perivesical space and intraperitoneal pelvis
Close the abdominal wall layers and skin, and apply a sterile dressing to the incision

Postoperative Details
Postoperative management following bladder trauma repair is as follows:

Continue intravenous antibiotics through the hospital stay, based on the surgical findings
Remove the pelvic drain when its output has minimized, generally after 48 to 72 hours
Maintain the indwelling urethral and suprapubic catheters for at least 10 to 14 days
Obtain a cystogram before catheter removal to confirm healing and rule out a leak

Follow-up
See the list below:

Instruct the patient to return in 7-10 days for staple removal, and check the wound at that time.
Obtain the x-ray cystogram 10-14 days after surgery.
If the cystogram finding is normal, remove the urethral catheter.
Perform a voiding trial via the SPT.
Remove the SPT when the patient passes the voiding trial.
Advise the patient to return to normal activity within 4-6 weeks after surgery.

Complications
Potential complications of bladder surgery include, but are not limited to, the following:

Persistent or recurrent urinary extravasation

Wound dehiscence
Hemorrhage
Pelvic abscess
Intraabdominal infection
Urinary tract infection
Low bladder capacity
Urinary urgency

Considerations

Despite technically proper reconstruction, urinary extravasation through the bladder closure may occur.
Generally, this will resolve with extended catheter drainage. An abdominal fascial dehiscence presents as
persistent drainage from the incision site, which should not be confused with a urine leak.
Violation of a pelvic hematoma during surgery may result in severe hemorrhage. A pelvic hematoma may be
seeded by bacteria or fungus at the time of injury or surgery, and subsequently become a pelvic abscess.
Lastly, necessary aggressive surgical debridement may result in a small bladder capacity, which can result in
urinary urgency and urge incontinence. However, over time these symptoms may resolve, as the bladder will
generally enlarge.

Outcome and Prognosis

Traumatic bladder rupture, once uniformly fatal, is now managed successfully with or without surgery,
depending upon the type of injury. It is difficult to cite a single specific rate of successful bladder repair due to
the wide variety of concurrent trauma these patients often present with. Regardless, critical to the successful
management of traumatic bladder rupture are a timely evaluation, accurate diagnosis, and proper management
based on the location and severity of the bladder leak.

Future and Controversies

The most recent American Urological Association Guidelines on Urotrauma, published in 2014, state that
"surgeons must perform surgical repair of intraperitoneal bladder rupture in the setting of blunt or penetrating
external trauma" and that "clinicians should perform catheter drainage as treatment for patients with
uncomplicated extraperitoneal bladder injuries."[17]
Nevertheless, the literature contains a handful of case reports describing intraperitoneal bladder rupture
managed conservatively. Two such reports describe successful treatment of small ruptures in patients with a
benign abdomen, using prolonged large-diameter urethral catheter drainage and antibiotic prophylaxis. The
authors warn that communication with the peritoneal cavity may persist, and advise open surgical management
if clinical deterioration occurs (eg, uremia, infection) or follow-up cystography demonstrates a persistent leak. [18]
Similarly, two recent studies found that patients who undergo open repair of extraperitoneal injuries have lower
rates of persistent urine leak than patients treated with urethral catheter drainage. [19, 20] In the absence of a
randomized trial comparing open repair and conservative managemen, the authors advocate performing open
bladder repair in patients who will be undergoing surgery for other reasons.