Mine Planning PDF

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Chapter 1
About This Volume

In This Chapter
Purpose
Organization of This Volume
General Information
Purpose
This volume explains:
Gemcom block modelling, solids modelling and resource evaluation

concepts.
Step-by-step procedures for using Gemcom modelling menu

commands.
Organization of This Volume

The Gemcom for Windows User Manual Volume III: Modelling is
divided into five sections: Introduction, Block Modelling, Solids
Modelling and Evaluation, Modelling Menus and Appendices.
Section I: Introduction
Chapter 1: About this Volume describes the Modelling volume, its
organization, and the conventions used throughout this manual.
Modelling
Chapter 1: About This Volume
Page 3002
Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling outlines the Modelling

applications of Gemcom, outlines basic concepts, and describes the
functions provided by the system.
Section II: Block Modelling

Chapter 3: Block Model Projects describes the data structure of a
Gemcom block model project, and explains how to build block models.
Chapter 4: Surface Elevation Grids discusses the applications of
surface elevation grids (SEGs) in Gemcom and describes how to select
and display SEG data.
Chapter 5: Block Models discusses the applications of block models
in Gemcom, and describes how to edit, manipulate, select and display
block model data.
Chapter 6: Interpolation and Kriging describes the parameters
and procedures involved in estimating grade models from sample data.
Chapter 7: Economic Modelling describes how to construct
economic models and how to use them in conjunction with pit
optimization software.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation

Chapter 8: Surfaces describes surfaces and their applications in
Gemcom.
Chapter 9: Solids describes the various classifications of solids and
how they can be used in Gemcom.
Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting describes the Gemcom reserves
reporting process and the concepts behind it.
Section IV: Modelling Menus

Chapter 11: The Block Menu tells you how to use each of the
commands on the Block menu.
Chapter 12: The Surface Menu tells you how to use each of the
commands on the Surface menu.
Chapter 13: The Solid Menu tells you how to use each of the
commands on the Solid menu.
Chapter 14: The Volumetrics Menu tells you how to use each of the
reserves reporting commands on the Volumetrics menu.
Section V: Appendices
Appendix A: Kriging Control File Format provides a keyword
reference for editing the files that control the kriging process.
Appendix B: Sample Script provides an example of a block
modelling manipulation script written in GSI Script.
Appendix C: Block Model Project File Formats explains the
formats of the .CAT and .BLF files which list the contents of block model
projects and folders.
Modelling
Chapter 1: About This Volume
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General Information
For overall information about this manual, including organization,
conventions, technical support contacts, and master index, see the
booklet Gemcom for Windows User Manual Guide and Master Index.
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Chapter 2
Introduction to Modelling
In This Chapter
Introduction
Block Models
Surfaces
Solids
Reserves Reporting
Introduction
Gemcom is a 2D (two-dimensional) and 3D (three-dimensional)
graphical environment within which you can display, edit and model
data from a variety of sources. Gemcom provides various practical
tools that make all aspects of geological modelling, and open pit and
underground mine planning and design faster, easier to understand
and more flexible.
Gemcom is designed to help you with:
Geological modelling.. You can interactively query drillhole

data, use the data to interpret lithological or ore zones on plans or
sections, then use the data to construct accurate solids models.
Block modelling. You can create numerical models to

characterize your orebody or seam deposit. Powerful interpolation
tools allow you to create detailed grade models, which you can then
use to determine economic feasibility.
Ore reserves. Solid models, surfaces and block models can all
contribute to ore reserve calculations
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Underground mine layouts. You can use the flexible polyline

tools (see Volume I: Core) to lay out development, shafts, declines,
raises and stopes, then evaluate them against block models to
estimate mining reserves.
Open pit design.. You can plan detailed bench crest and toe
layouts and ramp layouts using the polyline tools. Surface
modelling tools let you incorporate topographies. Block model data
can be exported to pit optimization programs.
Modelling Methods
Gemcom offers two distinct but interlinked ways to model reserves:
numerical or block modelling and solids modelling. Many users will
find it valuable to construct both types of models. Block models can be
used to update solids and solids can be used to update and filter block
model data. Both types of model data can contribute to reserves
reports.
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Block Models
Block models and surface elevation grids (SEGs) can be used to
numerically model many characteristics of your ore deposit, including,
rock type, density, grade, topography, and economic value. Block
model data and SEGs can be selected, filtered and displayed in a
number of ways to give you clear insight into the nature of your
orebody.
Block model projects are designed to easily allow you to organize data
from multi--metallic deposits into individual parcels.
Block Model Updating

Block models can be constructed by automatically assigning rock
codes, densities, grades, etc. to blocks based on the solids, polygons or
points they intersect.
Grade Estimation
You can use powerful kriging or inverse distance techniques to
estimate block grades using sample data from extraction files.
Elevation Modelling
You can construct elevation models to represent surface topography or
open pits at various stages of mining using SEGs imported into the
block project or created from surface data
Economic Modelling
You can use grade data and cost and revenue parameters to create
economic models of your reserves.
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Whittle Interface
You can export economic data to Whittle pit optimization programs
and import optimal pit designs as surface elevation grids.
Manipulation and Editing

You can alter the values of block model cells manually, or write scripts
to apply mathematical and logical operations.
Selection
You can select block model cells to be operated on or displayed based
on:
Single, multiple or filtered rows, columns or levels.

Location relative to solids, surfaces, SEGs or polygons.
Values contained in a block model.
Values of point data falling within the cells.
The current view plane.
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Figure 2-1: Block model data displayed as cubes
Block Display
You can display data from one or multiple block models and you can
define:
Display type, either displaying blocks as numerical values, 3D

cubes (shown in Figure 2-1), 2D outlines, or outlines and values.
Block colour using a standard colour profile.
Shrinkage factor, so you can shrink blocks either globally or

relative to the data values they contain.
Text size and number of decimal places when block values are
displayed.
Grid Display
You can display either single or multiple grids. If you display multiple
SEGs, alternate grids can be displayed in different colours.
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Surface elevation grids can be displayed as fishnets in 3D. When you

view a SEG using a 2D view plane (such as a section or a plan view) you
can display the SEG either as a fishnet or as a polyline (the line of
intersection of the SEG with the plane). A SEG is coloured with either a
constant colour, or by using a colour profile that specifies different
colours for different elevation ranges within the SEG.
Figure 2-2 shows a SEG grid display and a single column from a SEG.
Figure 2-2: A surface elevation grid (top), and a single column from
multiple surface elevation grids
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Surfaces
You can create surface models using triangulated irregular networks,
and then display and manipulate the models, as shown in Figure 2-3.
You can:
Create surfaces from combinations of active drillhole intersects,

points and polylines.
Contour surfaces.
Intersect surfaces with other surfaces or solids.
Create surface elevation grids from surfaces.
Figure 2-3: A selection of surfaces, cut away to show detail

Surfaces can be used to represent topographic surfaces such as
original topographies, as-mined topographies, pit designs, dump
layouts; and sub-surface structures such as geological structures,
faults or lithological contacts.
Surface Creation
Surfaces are created from active data consisting of discrete points
(such as drillhole intersects, spot heights, or sample locations) and
polylines representing breaks in slope (such as surface contours, bench
crest lines, or bench toe lines).
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Figure 2-4: A surface created in the XY plane (top), and an

overturned surface created in a best fit plane (bottom)
The surface creation process uses a method called triangulation, which
involves the automatic construction of a network of triangles through
the data, with every data point forming a vertex of a triangle. The
edges of the triangles can be made to either honour any of the
polylines forming the data set (known as breakline honouring), or can
be oriented to minimize the size of the triangles.
The triangulation process can be forced to operate in one of two ways,
as shown in Figure 2-4. You can force the triangulation process either
in the XY plane (in plan), which is the most common method for
modelling topographic data, or in a local plane fitted through the data,
which is the best way to accurately model sub-surface, near vertical or
overturned structures.
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Surfaces can also be created by the Laplace gridding procedure.
Contouring
Contouring involves slicing surfaces with sets of parallel planes.
Contour lines are the polylines of intersection between the surface
being contoured and the parallel planes. The contour lines are stored
as polylines, so that once they have been created, they can be edited,
smoothed, manipulated or used in the same manner as any other
polyline.
You can define the planes a number of ways (Figure 2-5 shows two):
As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations

and the separation between the planes.
In the current view plane, with an upper and lower local Z value,
and separation distances between the planes.
As the current view plane.
Using all active vertical sections.
Using all active plan views.
Using all active inclined sections.
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Figure 2-5: Contours created on a set of plan views

(top), and on a set of vertical sections (bottom)
Intersecting Surfaces
Gemcom includes some powerful tools for intersecting and
manipulating sets of surfaces (as Figure 2-6 shows). You can:
Create the polyline of intersection between two surfaces.

Clip the portion of one surface that lies above a second,
intersecting surface.
Clip the portion of one surface that lies below a second,
intersecting surface.
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Figure 2-6: Intersecting surfaces, cut away to show detail (top),

and the minimum of those same intersecting surfaces (bottom)
Create the minimum, or the maximum, of two intersecting

surfaces.
Create the solid formed by two completely intersecting surfaces.
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Figure 2-7: A set of geological and excavation solids,

representing an underground mine
Solids
The solids modelling capability in Gemcom provides you with a
powerful interactive set of tools for the construction of 3D solids
models (often called wire-frames), as Figure 2-7 shows.
You can:
Create solids from polylines, points and 3D rings.

Create tie linking to link polylines, points and 3D rings to control
solid formation.
Intersect solids with surfaces.
Intersect solids with other solids.
Clip polylines with solids.
Contour solids.
Create block models from solids.
Calculate ore reserves inside solids and block models.
Create new drillhole intersect data from solids.
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Figure 2-8: Two intersecting solids

There are two types of solidsgeological solids that represent zones of
homogeneous material, such as a rock code, or an ore zone; and
excavation solids that represent voids that have been excavated. Both
types of solid are constructed in the same way, and can be viewed and
displayed in the same way. However, they are treated differently when
using solids to calculate reserves.
Solid Creation
Solids models are created using 3D triangulation that links together
sets of planar and non-planar collections of polylines (which can be
combinations of open-ended status lines, closed 3D rings and discreet
points from drillhole intersects or other sources). The triangulation
and solid formation takes place after you have linked the data
elements together using 3D tie lines that may be complex polylines
with multiple points. Careful use and positioning of these tie lines let
you apply extensive control on how splits, bifurcations and end
closures of solids are handled.
Solid Intersections
The ability to intersect and combine solids is an extremely powerful
feature of the solids modelling capability of Gemcom. Examples
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operations refer to the sample solids in Figure 2-8. You can

interactively select solids with the mouse and then do the following:
Create the polyline of intersection between two solids.

Clip a solid inside or outside a polygon.
Clip the portion of a solid that lies above or below a surface.
Clip the solid portion of a solid that lies inside another solid (see
Figure 2-9).
Figure 2-9: Solid A clipped by solid B
Intersect a solid with another solid (see Figure 2-10).
Figure 2-10: Solid A intersected with solid B
Create the union of one solid with another solid (see Figure 2-11).
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Figure 2-11: Union of solid A and solid B

You can use solid to surface intersection options to assist in building
accurate geological models, for example, by trimming geological solids
with surfaces that represent fault planes, or by trimming solids that
protrude above surface topographies.
Solid to solid options can be effectively used to add further control to
the shapes of solids representing ore zones, or can be used in various
underground mine planning functions where solids represent mine
development, stopes or other excavations that require trimming or
combining.
Contouring
Contouring involves slicing solids with sets of parallel planes (Figure
2-12). Contour lines are the polylines of intersection between the solid
being contoured and the parallel planes. The contour lines are stored
as polylines, so once they are created they can be edited, smoothed,
manipulated or used in the same manner as any other polyline. This
means that you could create solids from sets of polylines on vertical
sections, create contours on plan views, edit the polylines that were
created in the contouring process, and then rebuild the solids from the
plan view data to get a different interpretation of your data.
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Figure 2-12: Contours from a solid using plan views (top)

and vertical sections (bottom)
You can define the planes in a number of ways:
As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations

and the separation between the planes.
In the current view plane, with an upper and lower local Z value,
and separation distances between the planes.
As the current view plane.
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Using all active vertical sections.

Using all active plan views.
Using all active inclined sections.
Reserves
You can easily calculate either ore reserves or mining reserves inside
combinations of solids using grade values from block models. The
reserve calculation procedure uses a sophisticated method to obtain
precise intersections between the solids being used and the individual
blocks of the block models, enabling precise tonnages and grades to be
calculated.
When reporting reserves using Gemcom, you can define flexible
reserve reports that let you group different rock codes together, and
specify grade reporting categories for each group of rock codes.
Constructing Block Models

You can use solids to build rock code, density, grade, or percentage
models (that is, percent of block inside a solid, or percent of a block
mined). When building rock code models, for example, you can specify
an integration level that determines how blocks are allocated rock
codes. For example, if the block centroid lies inside the solid, allocate
the rock code from the solid to the block; if any portion of the block
falls inside the solid, then allocate the rock code to the block.
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Reserves Reporting
Gemcom lets you produce reserves reports containing volume, grade,
density, tonnage and product information. The Volumetrics menu
toolbox is extremely flexible: you can report quantities of ore and
waste within solids and between surfaces by groupings of rock codes
and grade ranges, and with varying levels of detail. Volumetrics can
incorporate block models for the reserve calculations, by evaluating
the proportion of each block that is contained within a solid or between
surfaces. Reserves reports derived from polygon data can also be
issued.
During reserves reporting, Gemcom will assemble a number of
individual categories created from a combination of reporting profiles,
active solids and surfaces, block models, and specified planes. For
example, the comprehensive nature of Gemcom Volumetrics lets you
produce reports showing:
Mined and filled volumes between two surfaces, sorted by bench,

rock code, and by high, low, and waste copper grade ranges. The
grades and densities could come from block models.
The tons of ore and waste (dilution) in a planned stope, sorted

section-by-section, with the ore sorted by gold grade ranges that
are sorted by rock code. The grades could come from block models
and the densities from geology solids.
The Volumetrics menu provides meaningful reports whether you are

working in an open pit or underground environment, and in either the
planned or as-mined stages.
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Chapter 3
Block Model Projects

In This Chapter
Introduction
General Procedures
Starting a Block Model Project
Converting PCMINE Data
Block Model Types
Updating Block Models
Building Grade Models
Building Elevation Models
Seam Modelling
Introduction
Block model projects contain data for modelling ore reserves in the
form of block models and surface elevation grids.
A block model is a 3D array of numeric data representing one
characteristic of the material contained in a set of orthogonal blocks
occupying a volume of your property. These characteristics can include
the rock type, density, grade, elevation, percentage of the block
occupied or mined, economic value, or any userdefined value of
interest.
A surface elevation grid (SEG) is a 2D array correlated with the block
model coordinates and can represent the topography of your property
at a particular date, the limits of a seam, or any other type of surface.
An integrated set of block models and SEGs covering a property yields
a comprehensive picture of the reserves present.
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Chapter 3: Block Model Projects
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This chapter describes:
How to start a block model project.

How to use PC-MINE data in Gemcom block model projects.
The data components that make up a block model project.
Resource modelling procedures.
Block Modelling Capabilities

In Gemcom, you can use block model data in many ways. The
following table lists some key capabilities and where to find
information about them:
To
Define geometric parameters for
modelling reserves.
See
Import and export data between

projects.
Use points, polygons or solids to build
and update models.
Use drillhole sample data and
interpolation techniques to build
detailed grade models.

Chapter 6: Interpolation and
Kriging
Create SEGs from surfaces and surfaces Chapter 4: Surface Elevation Grids
from SEGs.
Select and view SEG data
Edit and manipulate block model data.
Chapter 5: Block Models
Select and view block model data

Use cost and revenue parameters to
create economic models.
Chapter 7: Economic Modelling
Interface with pit optimization

software.
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General Procedures
The checklist below provides a summary of the main steps involved in
a feasibility study using Gemcom. Most of the items in this checklist
are themselves procedures.
1. Define colour profiles.
2. Define rock codes.
3. Define grade elements
4. Create geological plans or sections.
5. Use Block }Create }Create/Edit Block Model Project to start
a new block model project. You must define the geometry here, and
you should also create folders, models and model type mappings.
Later, you can also:
Use Block }Create }Folders }Create Block Folder to

create folders.
Use Block }Create }Models }Create Block Model to define

block models in each folder.
Use Block }Create }Folders }Edit Block Folder to map

model types.
6. Use Block }Create }Models }Init/ReInit Block Model to

initialize block models to background values.
7. Prepare extraction files of topography data.
8. Create surface topographic grid.
9. Create lithological models.
10. Create density models.
11. Prepare extraction files of grades.
12. Prepare interpolation input data.
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13. Create grade models.

14. Use Block }Edit }Simple Manipulation to create equivalent
grade models, if necessary.
15. Use Volumetrics menu commands to produce in-situ reserve
reports (See Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting.)
16. Prepare economic input data.
17. Create economic models.
Open Pit Procedures

If you are mining a pit, you would continue as follows:
18. Export data to pit optimization software.
19. Prepare a mathematically optimal pit (optional).
20. Import optimal pit back to Gemcom.
Or, generate a pit using Tools }Pit/Ramp Design.
21. Produce mineable reserve reports, ideally with maximized dollar
value.
22. Define possible ramp alternatives.
23. Generate pits with ramps for these alternatives.
24. Evaluate ramps comparatively; select best ramp.
25. Plot computer-generated design.
26. Prepare detailed pit design by hand.
27. Convert detailed design to SEG.
28. Produce final mineable reserve reports.
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Starting a Block Model Project

A block model project contains all the block model and surface
elevation data for a defined geometric region of a property. This data
is contained in individual block models, which are grouped in various
folders within the project.
Choose Block }Create }Create/Edit Block Model Project to start
a new project and define its geometry. You can go on to create folders
and models within the Create Block Model Project wizard or you can
use specific commands on the Block menu.
Defining the Geometry

The geometric parameters of a block model project (including the
location, orientation, number of blocks, and block dimensions) are
together called the geometry Specific column, row, and level indices
uniquely identify a given cell (i,j,k) in the geometry. This cell
encompasses a specific volume of material. Any kind of block model
data assigned to cell (i,j,k) refers to the material contained in this cell.
Depending on the nature of the deposit you wish to model, you can
choose between two types of block model geometry as shown in Figure
3-1: orthogonal (where the base of each vertical layer is flat) or seam
(where the base of each layer may vary in elevation.) An orthogonal
geometry with uniform layer spacing (every block the same height) is
called regular.
Regardless of geometry, row width and column width are always
uniform and all individual blocks are orthogonal.
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Figure 3-1: Regular (top) and seam geometry
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When working with models created in PC-MINE, do not make any

changes to project geometry if you plan to work with the models in
PC-MINE again. Any changes in geometry will make the data
incompatible with PC-MINE.
Defining an Orthogonal Geometry

Specify the following data to define an orthogonal geometry:
The location of the project axes and their orientation, as shown in

Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2: Block model project geometry (plan)
Number of rows and columns.

Block dimensions.
Default layer thickness (if irregular level spacing.)
Number of levels.
Labels for levels.
To define a seam geometry, see Seam Modelling later in this chapter.

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Creating Folders
Individual block models are stored in user-defined folders within a
block model project. Usually you will define at least one folder while
creating a project. Later, you can choose Block }Create }Folders
}Create Block Folder to create additional folders.
Each block model created within a folder can be mapped to a block
model type. After you create block models (see Creating Block Models
below) you can choose Block }Create }Folders }Edit Block Folder
to remap model types at any time.
Standard Folder
You may choose to define a standard block model project in the Create
Block Model Project Wizard. This will yield a folder called "Standard"
containing the following models:
Rock Type
Density
Economic
Elevation
Grades (up to 10)
Percent (optional)
Additional Folders
Typically, additional folders will be used where individual blocks
contain mixed ore and waste, more than one type of ore, or ores of
varying grades. Multiple folders allow you to assign more than one
type of rock to a block. You can then report the total grade element
content of each block by adding the grade element content of the
various rock types, according to the percentage of each rock type
present.
Additional folders should generally contain a percent model.
When folders represent separate ore parcels in multimetallic
deposits, rock type and density data should be available in each folder,
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either in the form of individual models or via mapping to models in the

default folder.
Default Folder
One folder in each project must be assigned as the default folder.
Block model types in other folders can be mapped to block models
located in the default folder. For example, you may create a rock type
model in the default folder, and, in an additional folder, choose Get
from default folder for the Rock type model mapping in the Folder
Properties dialog box. In the additional folder, any operation requiring
rock type data will then query the model in the default folder.
Creating Block Models

Each folder will contain one or more block models. Each block model is
stored as an individual file containing one kind of data.
Choose Block }Create }Models }Create Block Model to define a
block model. Specify the following details:
Name.
Default value.
Units in which the data will be reported.
Product factor. Use this multiplicative factor to convert the data
value to the desired product units.
Elevation model toggle. Elevation models are structured
differently than other block model types.
Data storage type. Disk space can be conserved by careful selection
of a storage type suited to the kind of data to be stored in the
model. Ranges are found in the following table:
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Integer
type
Min.
value
Max. value
Significant
digits
Bytes used
Byte
-128
+127
Short
-32,768
+32,767
Integer
-2.1 E9
+2.1 E9
10
Real type
Min.
value
Max. value
Significant
digits
Bytes used
Scaled
-32,768 / S
+32,767 / S
1 to 5*
Single
-3.4 E38
+3.4E38
Double
-1.7 E308
+1.7 E308
15
8
*Depends on scale factor (S)
Scale factor (if scaled). Storing real values as scaled integers may
conserve disk space. For example, a value of 9.522 could be stored
as 9522 using a scale factor of 1000. With enhanced computer
resources, this benefit is less significant now than previously, but
scale factors must still be taken into account when working with
older data.
Number of decimals to display.
Display profile to be used when viewing this model.
Mapping to block model type (see the next section.)
Converting PCMINE Data

Block modelling data created in PCMINE will generally transfer
seamlessly into Gemcom. However, in some cases, the placement of
models in folders will not be ideal. An example case would be one
where six or more grade models were created in PCMINE. Because of
the limitation of that system to five grade elements, these models
would have been placed in two profiles. Upon assigning that project in
Gemcom, the grade models will appear in two separate folders, even
though all are meant to be associated with the same rock type model
in the same ore parcel.
By editing the .CAT file found in the block model project directory and
the .BLF files found in each block folder (see Appendix C: Block Model
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Project File Formats), you can move the desired models into the valid
folder and eliminate the superfluous folder.
1. In your text editor, open the .BLF file in the superfluous folder.
2. Cut or copy the model information from the BLF file in the
superfluous folder. This data should consist of three lines for each
model, plus any mapping data.
3. In your text editor, open the .BLF file in the valid folder.
4. Paste the model data into the .BLF file in the valid folder.
Be sure to alter the model number to preserve a continuous

numerical order in the .BLF file.
5. In your text editor, open the .CAT file in the project directory.
6. In the .CAT file, cut the names of any superfluous folders. Data in
folders not listed in the .CAT file will be unaltered but will not
appear in the folder tree nor be accessible to Gemcom block
modelling commands.
Block Model Types

Each block model can be mapped to a block model type during creation
or by using Block }Create }Folders }Edit Block Folder (see
Creating Folders above.) You will generally use several types of block
models in resource evaluation.
The table below lists each block model type and the icon which
represents it in the project view area. Block model names appear with
the generic icon if they have not been otherwise mapped.
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Icon
Block model type

Rock type
Examples
Typical
units
standard rock type
none
ore rock type

Percent
percent ore
percent mined
Density
standard density
tons/m3
ore density
Elevation
elevation
Grade
grade 1 through 10
g/ton
Generic
variance 1 through 10
Economic
user-defined
varies
economic
dollars
In each folder, you may create as many models as you wish, but at one
time, only one model can be mapped as the rock type model, one as the
density model, etc., for that folder. You can alter the mapping to
experiment with different scenarios, but if you wish to make two rock
type models (for example) active, you must assign them to separate
folders.
Rock Type Model

This model represents the lithology of the deposit. Each block contains
a numerical code indicating its assigned rock type. Rock type codes are
indexed to the rock code profile which contains details about the rock
type, such as slope angles, economics, primary minerals, recovery and
cut-off grades. Each folder should contain one rock type model.
Density Model
This model defines the density of the rock represented by the rock type
model stored in the same folder. Although each rock type profile
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specifies a default density, you may wish to control accuracy further,

for example, by linking density to grade. Each folder containing a rock
type model should contain a corresponding density model.
Percent Model
A percent model can represent the portion of a block occupied or
unoccupied by any solid(s) or extruded polygon(s). The standard
percent model, however, represents the portion of the block volume
occupied by the rock type represented in the rock type model in the
same folder. The remaining volume of the block is associated with rock
types found in rock type models stored in other folders.
If you have N types of rock, each in a separate folder, you need N-1
percent models to account for 100% of the deposit.
Grade Models
Up to ten separate grade models can be created. Each grade or assay
element has an individual grade model associated with it.
Elevation Model
Multiple topographic and geological surfaces are represented by
surface elevation grid data contained in this model. SEG cells have the
same locations and dimensions as blocks in the other models and
contain average elevation data.
UserDefined Models
You may create as many additional block model files as you wish to
fully characterize your reserves. Typically, these might be used for
special purpose manipulation, backing up models, or storing results of
IK or MIK kriging runs. Another typical userdefined model is the
percent mined model.
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Variance Models
Up to ten separate variance models can be created if corresponding
grade models are created by block kriging. The variance models
contain the kriging variance calculated for each block.
Percent Mined Model
This model defines the proportion of each block that falls within a
planned excavation solid (or the proportion of each block that remains
after mining). Percent mined models are used in conjunction with rock
type and percent ore models to determine amounts mined.
Economic Model
The economic model is constructed after all other models have been
built. This model contains an economic factor for each block,
calculated from block mining costs and block revenues as follows:
1. Determine a cost penalty for the block volumetric mining cost
which is a function of the block volume, its rock type and its
associated rock type-dependent mining costs.
2. Determine a further cost penalty if the block can be classified as
ore, which is a function of block grades, cut-off grades and primary
minerals. This cost penalty consists of processing costs and
administrative overhead and is calculated per ton of ore.
3. Determine a final cost penalty to take into account variable
haulage distances, This cost is determined as a function of block
location and haulage costs; and.
4. Assign to each block a block revenue which is dependent on grades,
product revenues and recoveries.
The mining cost penalty (a negative value), and the block revenue (a
positive value) combine to form the economic factor. If the result is
positive, then the block is payable; if it is negative, the block is not
economical.
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See Chapter 7: Economic Modelling for more details.
Updating Block Models

Updating a block model is the process by which you selectively write
or overwrite certain values of that model. Models can be updated
automatically using solid, point or polygon data attributes.
The ore reserve modelling procedures described in this section enable
you to build models based on data that falls within block model cells.
To estimate grade values based on sample data found at some distance
from a given cell, you must use interpolation techniques (see Building
Grade Models later in this chapter.)
Updating Features
Gemcom provides an efficient means of updating block models. In a
single step, you can:
Update block models using points, real 3D coordinates and solids,

or 2D planar projections and polygons.
Update from any desired data attribute.
Vary the numerical integration levels for the calculations,

controlling the level of accuracy as required.
Immediately check the results of updating by viewing the block

model.
Choose to update all blocks in the model or only the blocks that are
inside or outside a selected set.
Re-initialize block models to a default value.
When updating with solids or polygons, you can:
Modelling
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Choose to update only the blocks that intersect the selected solids
or polygons. This provides an efficient way of keeping models upto-date without having to perform a complete update each time.
Specify a percentage tolerance below which the blocks will not be

reassigned (for example, a block must be at least 50 percent within
an ore solid or extruded polygon to be updated).
Use overlapping solids.
Types of Models to Update

See Update Procedures below to update these model types:
Rock type.
Density.
Percent.
Grade. Building grade models detailed enough for resource

evaluation requires the use of interpolation techniques. See
Building Grade Models later in this chapter.
User-defined. Special user-defined block models can also be built

during the interpolation process (see Chapter 6: Interpolation and
Kriging), or through block model manipulation (see Chapter 5:
Block Models).
Updating these block model types requires different procedures:
Elevation. See Building Elevation Models later in this chapter.
Economic. See Chapter 7: Economic Modelling.
Update Procedures
To use points, polygons, or solids to update a block model, follow these
steps:
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1. Assign the correct project.

2. Create, load and activate the data elements (solids, polygons or
points) which will contribute to the model update.
3. Create the block model if it does not already exist.
4. If you are creating a new model or if you are redoing the entire
model, then you should initialize the model to some background
value. This ensures that you have enough disk space for the model;
and that every block in the model has a value. Use Block }Create
}Models }Init/Re-Init Block Model.
5. Highlight the model you wish to update in the Project View area.
6. Choose an update command:
Block }Edit }Update Block Model from Points, or
Block }Edit }Update Block Model from Polygon, or
Block }Edit }Models }Update Block Model from Solid.
7. Enter the desired parameters in the dialog box and execute.

8. View the block model and use Block }Edit }Block Model Editor
to check the values at random locations. This command also
conveniently displays the volume and tonnage of each block.
Needling
Updating a block model with solids or polygons requires a numerical
integration technique called "needling" to determine a value to assign
to each cell. Gemcom creates long, horizontal or vertical "needles" to
intersect with block models and any active solids or extruded polygons.
The needles are similar to drillholes, having a starting point, a
direction, and a length.
Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting, describes the various needle
orientations and patterns supported in Gemcom reserves reporting.
Block model updating employs a simpler approach:
Modelling
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Needles are always oriented along the block model columns, rows,
or levels in a regular pattern.
Gemcom generates the needles from a grid plane, the dimensions of

which are taken directly from the block model (the size and number of
levels and rows, and the coordinates of the upper left-hand corner). All
needles have equal weighting. The fixed needle orientation and
regular spacing reduce both the complexity of the application and the
required processing time.
By checking the entrance and exit points of each needle through the
solids, Gemcom calculates what proportion of each block is inside each
geological or excavation solid or extruded polygon (see Figure 3-3). It
then reassigns the block values based both on this amount and the
type of updating (rock code or percentage).
Integration Level
The density of the needles (the integration level) can be varied for
block model updating according to the desired level of accuracy. The
integration levels (1 to 99) determine the number of needles used in
each cell of the block model. The number of needles equals the
integration level squared (that is, level 3 means that 9 needles will
penetrate each cell; level 8 means 64 needles will be used).
The higher the integration level, the more accurate the result.
However, as the integration level increases, so does the time required
for processing. As is the case with virtually all statistical methods, a
larger number of samples (in this case, needles) does not necessarily
give proportionally more accurate results. For example, using level 20
(400 needles per cell) may provide results within .01% of using
Gemcom for Windows
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Needle
entry
point
Needle
exit
point
Single
block
Solid
Shaded regions show

volume estimated by
needles. The
estimated needle
volume gets closer to
the true volume of the
solid when more
needles are used.
Figure 3-3: Three needles penetrating one block of a block model

level 5 (25 needles per cell) and yet the report would take 16 times as
long to generate. In this example, the additional degree of report
accuracy would probably not justify the extra processing time.
Assignment of Rock Codes
When assigning rock codes to blocks from geological solids or polygons,
Gemcom performs these tasks:
Determines the rock codes contained within each block

Determines the predominant rock code
Assigns the corresponding rock code to each block
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Gemcom Rock Codes and Block Model Rock Codes

During the creation process, you assign each geology solid or polygon a
Gemcom rock code. Gemcom rock codes are eight character
alphanumeric strings (all characters and numbers are allowed). Block
modelling requires a four digit numeric value only. Therefore, you
must translate the values for the block model updating process.
Within the rock code editor (accessed through File }Edit Profiles
}Define Rock Codes), you can enter the Block Model Code
equivalent to each standard rock code. In some cases, the standard and
block model rock codes may be identical; in others, different
conventions may be desired.
Historically, Gemcom has recommended the following conventions:
Code
Lithology
1-9
Air or overburden
10-99
Waste
100-999
Marginal or low grade

ore
1000-9999
High grade ore
The block model code must be entered for any rock code to be used to
update block models. The ore/waste/air flag is also accessed when
updating.
Rules for Assignment
During the block model updating process, Gemcom calculates the
proportion of each rock code that is contained within each individual
block (see Figure 3-4). Since only one rock code can be assigned per
block, the program determines the rock code based on these rules:
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Page 3043
Planview showing
geology solids
A and B and resulting
block assignments.
Note that the
predominant rock
code is used in blocks
containing both
A and B.
Solid B
B
Solid A
Y
Planview showing
excavation solid
and results of a
Percent of Block
Inside Solid
calculation.
0%
74%
33%
20%
98%
16%
38%
65%
0%
Figure 3-4: Rock code model update (top) and percent model update
Modelling
Page 3044
The predominant rock code will be assigned to the block (provided

the percentage of that rock code is greater than your specified
minimum percentage). For example, if 26 percent of the block is
rock code 10 and 42 percent is rock code 20, the program will
assign rock code 20 to the block.
In (rare) cases where two or more rock codes have the same
percentage, precedence is determined by the alphanumeric order
of the rock codes. For example, if a single block contains 40 percent
of both rock code 10 and 20, Gemcom will use 10, the higher entry
in the rock code listing.
Overlapping solids are resolved at the needle level to ensure that

the total of all rock code percentages never exceeds 100 percent
(see Updating with Overlapping Solids for more details).
Assignment of Percentages.
When assigning percentages to blocks for percent block models, the
program simply determines the proportion of each block that lies
inside (or outside) the active solid(s) or extruded polygon(s). For a
percent ore model, the program determines the proportion of the block
inside or outside any active ore solids. For a percent mined model, the
program determines the proportion of the block inside or outside any
active excavation solids.
If a block contains more than one solid, the percentage assigned
represents the accumulated percentage of all solids in the block.
Figure 3-4 shows an example percent model update. The proportion of
each block inside an excavation solid has been calculated. A high
integration level of 10 (100 needles per block) would likely have been
required to accurately compute values as high as 98 percent.
There are two ways to update a percent block model: you can assign
the percent of the block that is inside any active solid, or the percent
that is outside (see Figure 3-5). For both methods, Gemcom calculates
the percentage of each block that is inside the solids, and then stores
either that percentage or the result of 100 percent less that
percentage.
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Percent of block inside solids. This method determines the

percentage of each block that falls inside any active solid. If ore
solids are active, the blocks will contain the percent ore. If waste
solids are active, the blocks will contain the percent waste.
Percent of block outside solids. This method determines the

percentage of each block that falls outside any active solid. If ore
solids are active, the blocks will contain the percent waste
(assuming everything outside the ore solids is waste). If waste
solids are active, the blocks will contain the percent ore (assuming
everything outside the waste solids is ore).
15%
85%
Percent of Block Inside Solid
Percent of Block Outside Solid
Figure 3-5: The same block seen with different percentage assignments
Updating Block Models with Solids

Gemcom lets you use solids to update block models in these ways:
Each block can be assigned a value based on one or more geology

class solids and their assigned attributes:
Rock type.
Density.
Grade (from list of defined grade elements.)
Percent of block inside (or outside) solids.
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Each block of a percent ore or waste model can be updated with

percentages using one or more geology class solids.
Each block of a percent mined model (a common user-defined

model) can be updated with percentages using one or more
excavation class solids (either as-mined or planned pits or stopes).
Activating Solids
Varying solid types should be activated depending on the type of
model you wish to update. See Updating with Overlapping Solids
below for special cases where solids overlap.
For this model type
Activate these solids
Standard rock type
All ore solids, All waste solids
Ore rock type, Percent ore
All ore solids
Waste rock type
All waste solids
Percent mined
All excavation solids
Updating with Overlapping Solids

There will be occasions where solids used for the block model updating
procedure will overlap. In some cases the overlap may be the result of
errors made when creating or selecting the solids. However, in other
cases you may produce this overlap intentionally (for example, to
simplify solid creation). In either case, Gemcom has some simple rules
to handle solid overlaps, so areas where solids overlap are never
accumulated twice.
If solids overlap, precedence is determined by the solid precedence.

This can be explicitly set for each solid using the Volumetrics
}Define Solid Precedence command.
If no solid precedence has been explicitly set, the geology solid with
the rock code occurring higher in the alphanumeric rock code list
will take precedence. For example, if one solid with rock code 10
and another with rock code 20 overlap, 10 will be listed first and
will take precedence. Unless you set precedence explicitly, the rock
codes that represent the most recent geological formations should
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3047
be at the top of the list so as to override the older formations. This

list may be edited at any time.
If excavation class solids overlap and no solid precedence has been

explicitly set, precedence is given to the first excavation solid in
the solid listing. You may view (but not edit) the list with the
Solid } Data }Select Solids from List command.
Overlapping solids can be used to greatly simplify the solid creation

process if your goal is to update a rock type block model. For example,
you may have a property where the host rock contains dykes that were
formed more recently. Instead of creating separate solids for all the
parts (which can be quite time consuming), it may be more convenient
to simply create one solid for the host rock type and let the application
handle the overlaps for you. You must activate all the needed solids
and set the Use parameter accordingly:
For this
model type:
Activate these solids:
And use these solids:
Rock type
All ore solids,

All waste solids
All active solids
Ore rock type,

Percent ore
All ore solids,

All waste solids
Ore geology solids
Waste rock type
All ore solids,

All waste solids
Waste geology solids
Percent mined
All excavation solids
All active solids
If there is any chance of overlapping solids, you must activate all

solids so that they may be used during the needling process to resolve
overlaps. For example, even if you are only updating an ore rock type
model, you must select all ore and waste solids.
Having non-overlapping solids is desirable, as it lets you accelerate the
solid creation in cases where time is limited (see Figure 3-6).
Modelling
Page 3048
with seven solids

D2 Planview
containing two rock codes,
"Dyke" (white) and "R"
(shaded). Four individual
solids have been used to
model rock code R.
D1
D3
R2
R3
R4
R1
Y
D2
D1
Rock type R is represented

by only one solid. In this
case, the rock code R has
a higher precedence than
Dyke. Blocks compeletely
within both rock codes will
be assigned to R.
D3
R1
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Page 3049
Y
D2
D1
Rock type R is represented by

only one solid. In this case,
the rock code Dyke has a
higher precedence than R.
Blocks compeletely within
both rock codes will be
assigned to Dyke.
D3
R1
Figure 3-6: Plan view showing correct solids model without

intersecting solids (top), with overlapping solids (centre), and with a
different rock code assignment
Updating Block Models with Polygons

In many cases, creating solids first and using them to update block
models is easier than updating directly from polygons. However,
Gemcom lets you use polygons to update block models in these ways:
Each block can be assigned a value based on one or more extruded

polygons (see Figure 3-7 and Figure 3-8.) The value may be:
Any polygon attribute.

Percent of block occupied (or not occupied) by extruded
polygons.
Each polygon can be extruded from the plane a specified distance

in the towards and away directions. This value can be obtained
from plane attributes or polygon attributes, or explicitly entered.
Modelling
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Be sure to activate all required polygons on all benches or sections

needed to enclose the volume of interest. Make sure extrusion
distances leave neither overlaps or gaps.
Updating from Bench Data
In order to build an entire model from polygons, you need a full set of
geological bench plans. Preferably, you should have one plan for each
bench, although in some instances, one plan may be used to span two
or three benches. These bench plans should be digitized or imported
into Gemcom and then used to construct the model.
A common error is to define a block model with 20 benches and only
create bench plans from bench 2 to 19, leaving the top and bottom
benches undefined. This may cause problems.
Updating from Sectional Data
The procedure for constructing a block model from cross sectional
polygonal data is similar, but it is usually preferable to construct a
model from plans rather than sections. The main reason for this is
that you will usually have two to three times as many rows or columns
in the model as levels. You should ideally have one set of sectional
polygons for each row or column in the model if you are constructing
an accurate geological model.
Updating with Overlapping Polygons
Polygons used for the block model updating procedure should not
overlap. In some cases, an overlap may be the result of errors made
when creating or selecting the polygons. Use Polygon }Create
}Assemble Polygons to resolve these errors.
Gemcom has a simple rule to handle polygon overlaps, so that areas
where polygons overlap are never accumulated twice:
The last polygon in the list takes precedence.
Gemcom for Windows
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COLUMNS
R
O
W
S
10
11
12
13
14
15
400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
50
50
400 400 400 400 400 400 400
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
400 400 400 400 400 400
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
400 400 400 400 400
50
50
50
50
50 3000 3000 50
50
50
400 400 400 400
50
50
50
50 3000 3000 3000 3000
50
50
400
50
50 50
50
50
50 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
50
50
50
50
50
50
3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 50
50
50
50 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 50
10
50
50 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 50
11
50
50 3000 3000 3000 50
12
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Polygon Representing ROCK Code 50

50
50
50
50
Block code Assignments after processing
Figure 3-7: Rock type model created from polygons
Figure 3-8: Waste, ore rock type models, percent ore model created from
polygons
Modelling
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Updating Block Models with Points

You can update block models using point data. Blocks will be assigned
the value of any active point data they contain, subject to two
provisions controlling how the data is handled. You can:
Assign the value in either the real or the integer field of the point
data.
Choose what to do when multiple points fall within a block:
Assign the value of the first point in the list, or
Average the values.
Building Grade Models

You can update simple grade block models in the same manner as rock
type and density models. However, to build detailed grade models
suitable for resource evaluation, you will need an appropriate
extraction file containing point grade data which you can then
interpolate in order to accurately assign a grade to each block.
Successful interpolation requires correct statistical and geostatistical
pre-analysis of the data so that appropriate search radii, anisotropy,
numbers of samples, rock type constraints, etc. may be defined.
Calculated ore reserves may be grossly inaccurate if incorrect input
parameters are used to build a grade model. This manual cannot teach
you geostatistics or ore reserve estimation techniques. You should
have sufficient background knowledge of these subjects to use block
modelling appropriately.
Before You Start

Typically, you will have a drillhole workspace where you have
analyzed the data (preferably taking rock types into account). You will
have also generated appropriate composites for the selected assay
Gemcom for Windows
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types. Before creating a grade model, verify that you have the correct
data in an extraction file using Workspace }Extract a Subset of
Data }View Extraction File.
If the extraction file is very large (more than 15,000 points) or if you
are working with a large block model (more than 50,000 ore blocks)
then try to create the model in a number of stages (see Working with
Large Data Sets below).
Rock type and percent models should be built before grade models.
Filtering by Rock Type
Your composite data should include rock type information. If it does
not, you may wish to filter it as follows:
1. Choose Point }Data }Load from Extraction File to load the
composite data.
2. Choose Point }Select }DeSelect All Points.
3. Choose Solid }Data }Select Solids from List to load the solids
with the desired rock code or codes.
4. Choose Point }Select }Select Points Inside Solid and select
the desired solids.
5. Choose Point }Data }Save Active Data to Extraction File.
You will now have an extraction file containing only those samples
which fall within solids having the desired rock codes.
Interpolation Procedure
Follow the following steps to build a grade model.
1. Use Block }Interpolate }Define Kriging Profiles to set up the
sample search and grade modelling parameters for kriging or
inverse distance modelling. Be sure that you have the following
information:
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The rock codes of the ore types with which you are working.
If you are using rock code filtering, then be sure that for each
ore type which you will be creating, you know which rock codes
should be included.
For example, consider a deposit with low grade ore (rock code
10) and high grade ore (rock code 100). Assume that the
composite samples have rock codes 10, 11, 100 and 110. Then
an example rock code constraint table might look the one
below. You should prepare a similar table.
Block rock codes
Sample rock codes
10
10,11
100
100,110
Search radius for inclusion of samples.
Anisotropy factors (if applicable).
Minimum and maximum number of samples to be used to

estimate a block.
These and other parameters are described in extensive detail in

Chapter 6: Interpolation and Kriging.
2. Choose Block }Interpolate }Kriging/Inverse Distance
Estimation or Kriging/Inverse Distance in Batch Mode.
3. Once you have interpolated a model, check that the results appear
reasonable:
Display grade model data for a selected level. You can filter the
data by rock type using Block }Selection }Create }From
Block Model.
Display part of the extraction file data close to the selected

level. Filter the sample data using Point }Select }Select By
Field Value to restrict the samples to those taken at
elevations near the bench.
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Check of the integrity of the model by comparing the grades in

the blocks with the grades of the surrounding extraction data
points. Remember that the interpolation is fully threedimensional.
Verification
Because grade models are very important, take time to check the
models very carefully. You can check the data in various ways:
We strongly recommended you make use of trace blocks for

efficient and effective block modelling of grades. Experience has
shown that several types of common user errors (as well as some
program bugs) have been efficiently detected by the use of trace
blocks. In particular, you should select from two to six specific
blocks which are always checked every time you perform an
important grade modelling exercise. By keeping track of these
specific blocks, reasons for changing grades (due to new data or
changing input parameters) will usually be much more easily
explained.
Compare sample statistics and block model statistics.
Prepare bench plan plots of each level or prepare sectional plots of

grades to overlay with drillhole cross sections.
Re-run the model with different input parameters to test

sensitivity of results to input parameters.
Issue in-situ reserve reports and compare these with other

preliminary reserve results which you may already have produced.
Importing Grade Models

Gemcom provides powerful and flexible grade modelling tools.
However, certain specialized geostatistical (and kriging) methods are
not implemented in Gemcom. If you wish to use an advanced kriging
method which is not available in Gemcom, grade models created in
Modelling
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other software systems can be imported in most cases using Block

}Data }Import Block Model.
Working with Large Data Sets

It may take a long time to build a large grade model. If you are
working with large data sets, try the following:
Select a small test area of 10 10 10 rows, columns, and levels

spanning a few different geological zones. Work within this area
until you are confident that you have all the correct input
parameters.
Build the model in stages by first initializing the model and then
successfully overwriting parts of the block model. Selection of
blocks and samples by rock code, elevation, Northing and Easting
can all be used to reduce the total time to build a model.
Building Elevation Models

Elevation models are organized differently than other model types in a
block model project. Instead of a 3D array of data values, the elevation
model contains a sequence of named 2D surface elevation grids.
Although the grid cell coordinates correspond with block row and
column locations, the elevations of grid cells are free to vary without
regard to layers (in an orthogonal model). In a seam model, SEGs may
be used to define the layers. Individual grids in an elevation model
may overlap or intersect.
See Chapter 4: Surface Elevation Grids for information on how to
create the SEGs to populate an elevation model.
Seam Modelling
Some orebodies are best modelled using levels that vary in elevation
according to the contours of the deposit. As shown in Figure 3-9 seam
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model geometry does not contain horizontal levels or benches. Rather,

the layers (here called "seams") conform to different SEGs.
Figure 3-9: Seam model geometry (cross section)

Blocks in a seam geometry are orthogonal, but may vary in height.
Rows and columns are identical to those in a orthogonal geometry.
Creating a seam geometry requires SEGs which represent the surface
topography and the base of each layer or seam you wish to model (see
Chapter 4: Surface Elevation Grids.) You define the seam structure by
linking the SEGs to the block model layers. Changes in the SEGs that
make up the seam geometry can later be accommodated.
Defining a Seam Geometry,

The procedure for defining a seam geometry is similar to defining an
orthogonal geometry. Choose Block }Create }Create/Edit Block
Model Project to start a new project and define its geometry. Specify
the following details:
The location of the model axes and their orientation.
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Block dimensions (except height).

Number of rows and columns.
Number of layers (seams).
Labels for seams.
The SEG record numbers which will define the surface topography
(earth's surface) and the bottom of each seam.
You need to assign record numbers to SEGs which you may not yet
have created. Just make a guess initially (e.g., record number 1 for
surface topography, record number 2 for the base of the first layer
etc.) and change these definitions later if required. The table below
shows a 5 layer example for two coal seams.
Seam number
record
number
SEG
Name
Surface topo
Overburden
Top seam
Middling
Seam 2
Bedrock
Later, if the SEG defining the bottom of the overburden is not

record number 2, for example, this can easily be changed.
Working with Seams

This section describes some of the special procedures to use when
working with seams.
Seam Definition
The easiest way to create SEGs is by modelling elevations directly.
However, sometime it is more accurate to work with one set of
elevations and several sets of layer or seam thickness. This can be
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done using surface topography modelling and block model

manipulation.
The various SEGs representing the seams may be created using a
number of methods. These techniques are discussed in Chapter 4:
Surface Elevation Grids.
Validation
Once you have defined a seam and layer structure and have created
the relevant SEGs making up the base of each layer, it is useful to
check that there are no overlapping (i.e. negative thickness) layers.
You may be able to do this visually. If not, you can:
1. Create surfaces from the SEGS using Block }Utils }Create
Surface from SEG.
2. Load the surfaces.
3. For each adjacent pair of surfaces, choose Surface }Intersect
}Create Intersection Polyline Between 2 Surfaces.
4. Verify that no polylines are created.
Building Models
Construction of rock type, density, and grade models is described
elsewhere in this chapter. This section contains hints on building
models when using a seam geometry.
Rock Type Model
For the case of a seam geometry, you have the advantage that each
layer of the model is, by definition, a different rock type. In this case,
rock types can easily be assigned using Block }Create }Models
}Initialize/ReInitialize Block Model for each layer.
If you have different rock types within one layer, you will need to use
the methods described in this chapter under Updating Block Models.
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Density Model
Given a valid rock type block model, you can then construct a density
model. This is a simple and quick process unless densities vary within
given seams or layers. In this latter case, see Manipulating Block
Models in Chapter 5: Block Models.
Grade Model
Construct grade models according to the procedures under Building
Grade Models earlier in this chapter.
Note that if you use block variance in kriging, you should not employ
the block variance by level option, since no default block height is
defined for each seam.
Elevation Model
If you use scaled variables when modelling narrow seams or subseams, the scale factor should be 100 or more. (The usual default is 10
when you create a new project.)
Seam Thickness Model
In most seam applications, the thickness of each layer is a useful
parameter. You can define a block model to contain seam thicknesses
by writing a script to subtract elevations of adjacent SEGs using Block
}Edit }Simple Manipulation.
When using scaled variables to model thick seams (where

thickness exceeds 30 distance units (feet or metres), you should
change the default scale factor of 1000 to 100 or less.
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Chapter 4
Surface Elevation Grids

In This Chapter
Introduction
Using Surface Elevation Grids (SEGs)
Creating SEGs
Editing SEGs
Grid Selection
Grid Display
Creating a Surface from a SEG
Introduction
A surface elevation grid (or SEG) is a two-dimensional matrix of data
used to model any one of several different types of surfaces, such as
pre-mining topography, as-mined topography, or geological surfaces.
Figure 4-1 shows a SEG.
Multiple SEGs are stored in a single elevation model. Each grid in the
model has the same size and location, but represents a different
surface. Grids cover the same area (in terms of columns and rows) as
the block models within the same project. Each grid cell contains an
average elevation.
SEGs are fundamental for open pit or seam modelling, and are also
used in underground applications.
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Chapter 4: Surface Elevation Grids
Page 3062
Figure 4-1: A surface elevation grid
Using Surface Elevation Grids

A SEG can be displayed either individually or with others, in groups,
using a number of different display modes. You can colour the grids in
several ways, and select individual or multiple columns or rows to
display. You can:
Check grids visually against other data types, such as drillholes,

sample points or polylines, for completeness, accuracy and
appropriateness.
Use SEGs as a visual reference for pit or cut design, or any other
mine design or planning purpose.
View grids with spatial filtering on plans or sections.
Convert SEGs into surfaces for reserves reporting.
Use SEGs as boundaries for block selection.
Import SEGs from pit optimization software and use SEGs for pit
surface clipping.
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Colour each SEG a single colour, or use a colour profile that

specifies different colours for different elevation ranges within the
SEG.
Creating SEGs
There are several ways to create surface elevation grids:
From an extraction file (see Volume II: Exploration)
Using Surface }Create }Create Surface by Laplace

Gridding.
Using Tools }Create Plane Plots.
From a surface, using Block }Utils }Create SEG from Surface.
Through mathematical manipulation of existing SEGs, using Block

}Edit }Simple Manipulation or Advanced Manipulation.
As input from Whittle pit optimization software (see Chapter 7:

Economic Modelling.)
Editing SEGs
Using Block }Edit }SEG Description Editor, you can change the
names of SEGs or delete them from your elevation model.
Grid Selection
Using Block }Display }Select SEG Data for Display, you can
display either single or multiple grids at once (see Figure 4-2). If you
display multiple SEGs, each can be displayed in an alternating colour
for clarity.
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Figure 4-2: A single column from multiple SEGs
Grid Display
The Block }Display submenu offers great flexibility in ways of
viewing SEGs. You can display data from one or multiple grids, and
you can define these display parameters:
Grid colour using a standard colour profile or by assigning

individual colours to alternating grids.
Display type, either displaying grid elevation values as numbers,

grids as polylines, or grids as 2D outlines with or without values.
Text height when elevation values are displayed.
Number of decimal places when elevation values are displayed.
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Colour Profiles
Colour profiles are used to assign colours to each grid cell based on the
elevation value of the cell. For information on colour profiles, see
Volume I: Core. Colour profiles are defined using File }Edit Profiles
}Define Colour Profiles.
Display Modes
There are four ways to display grids:
Polylines
Outlines
Values
Values and Outlines
Polylines
This method displays a polyline along each row and column that links
the elevation values at each cell centroid (see Figure 4-3). In 3D mode,
or 2D plan view, the display looks like a fishnet. Using a 2D view
plane, such as a section aligned along a row or column, you can display
a SEG as a polyline (the line of intersection of the SEG with the plane).
Outlines
This method displays each grid cell as a horizontally-oriented
rectangle with dimensions slightly reduced from the actual
dimensions of the cell (see Figure 4-3). Each grid cell rectangle is
positioned at its respective elevation.
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Figure 4-3: Outlines (top) values (centre) and polylines display
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Values
This method displays the elevation value of the grid cell, to a specified
number of decimal places (see Figure 4-3). The value is justified
around the cell centroid, and is located at the elevation value of the
grid cell.
Values and Outlines
This method combines the Outlines method and Values method.
Text Height
You can define the height of the text when displaying cell elevation
values. Text height is defined in scaleable units using the project
measurement units.
Decimal Places
You can specify how many decimal places will appear when the cell
values are displayed. For example, if you set this parameter to 2, the
value 100 will be shown as 100.00.
Colour SEGs in Sequence

This command automatically assigns a single colour to each SEG if
several are selected. This is most useful when viewing sections
through many grids at once. If you use this command, Gemcom does
not use the assigned colour profile to colour the grids.
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Creating a Surface from a SEG

You can convert a SEG into a surface. This is useful when calculating
volumes/grades between surfaces. Within a block model project, choose
Block }Utils }Create Surface from SEG.
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Chapter 5
Block Models
In This Chapter
Introduction
Using Block Models
Editing Block Models
Manipulating Block Models
Block Selection
Block Display
Introduction
Block models are three-dimensional matrices of regular rectangular or
cube-shaped blocks used to model orebodies and other sub-surface
structures (see Figure 5-1). Each cell in a block model is used to
represent a homogeneous volume of material, and each cell is assigned
a series of attributes (such as rock code, density and grade) that
describe the characteristics of the material in the block. Since blocks
often contain more than one type of lithology, an associated percentage
model can be used to weight the contribution of each homogenous
model to the true composition of the block.
Block model attributes are stored in individual block models that have
the same number of columns, rows and levels. A typical project will
consist of a set of block models organized in folders. Block models are
used for estimating reserves and for mine planning.
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Figure 5-1: Block model data displayed as cubes
Using Block Models

In Gemcom, you can:
Update values in blocks using solids, polygons and points. See

Chapter 3: Block Model Projects.
View block model level plans and sections against other data types
such as drillholes, sample points or polylines for completeness,
accuracy and appropriateness.
Use block models as a visual reference for pit, cut or stope design,
or any other mine design or planning purpose.
Modify the values contained within block model cells by hand or

through mathematical procedures.
Interpolate sample data within block models. See Chapter 6:

Interpolation and Kriging.
Use block model data to calculate reserves. See Chapter 10:

Reserves Reporting.
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Page 3071
Build economic models and interface with pit optimization

software. See Chapter 7: Economic Modelling.
This chapter describes how to select block model cells and how to edit,
manipulate, and display them using commands on the Block menu.
Editing Block Models

The Block }Edit }Block Editor command lets you view data values
on a block by block basis and edit these values if desired. You can
select a block to edit either graphically or explicitly by indices.
Editing Elevation Models

The Block }Edit }SEG Description Editor command lets you view
the names of grids in the elevation model and edit them as desired.
Manipulating Block Models

Simply creating and evaluating block models of grades, rock types,
and densities is often not enough for detailed reserve evaluations.
Users may need to:
Create equivalent grade models for multi-metallic deposits, or

equivalent grades for cut-off grade determination (usually more for
user convenience than as a constraint).
Find ratios of different elements (for example, Ca/Mg ratios) for

various quarrying operations.
Build a sophisticated rock type model, where rock type codes

depend on the grades in one or more grade block models.
Create a complex density model (either where density is assumed

as some function of rock types and grades or where partial
Modelling
Page 3072
underground extraction has reduced the effective density of

certain blocks).
Create a complex economic block model (for example, by summing

the economic values contained in various folders.)
Determine seam or layer thicknesses, strip ratios, trigonometric

manipulation of dip or dip direction.
Convert a block model from one set of units to another. (You can
also do this by simply changing model product factors in some
instances.)
The Block }Edit }Simple Manipulation and Advanced

Manipulation commands give you the power and flexibility to handle
these situations. Manipulation allows you to perform global edits to
alter entire block models. You can create entire new models as
complex combinations of existing models or selectively change model
data using conditional logic.
Block model manipulation is a powerful tool but must be used
correctly. Mistakes can damage your data.
General Procedures
Use the following procedure to manipulate block models.
1. Define what you wish to do and understand the meaning of the
resultant model. For example, you may want to create a Zn
equivalent model by combining a Pb and a Zn model. You will need
to know the weighting factor by which to multiply the Pb grade
before adding it to the Zn grade.
2. Check that the block model which you will be creating or updating
as a result of the manipulation has been correctly set up.
3. Check that any block models to be used in the manipulation
contain the proper data. Errors such as zero divides can be avoided
by properly initializing the component models.
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4. Back up your data before manipulating an existing model to

prevent inadvertent destruction of your data. You can use Block
}Data }Export Block Model to save copies of your models.
5. If you wish to constrain the manipulation to selected blocks, such
as those with a particular rock code or above a given cutoff grade,
use the Block }Selection commands to create the selection. (You
can add simple constraints, such as column, row, or level ranges,
within the Simple Manipulation command.)
6. Choose Block }Edit }Simple Manipulation or Advanced
Manipulation.
7. Enter the manipulation instructions in the form of a script (see
Scripts below.)
8. Execute the manipulation.
9. Verify the resultant model using Block }Edit }Block Editor.
Simple vs. Advanced Manipulation

Simple manipulation is designed for instances when you wish to apply
a set of instructions to a selected set of cells. Although you can
perform operations based on cell indices within simple manipulation,
it will often be advantageous to choose advanced manipulation when
you need to loop through the cell indices within the manipulation
instructions.
Scripts
A script is essentially a macro containing manipulation instructions in
the form of mathematical and logical operations to be performed on
specified block models. Scripts may be short and simple or quite
lengthy and involved, depending on your needs.
You write scripts using the GSI Script language. GSI Script command
descriptions can be found in the on-line reference, which is accessed by
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Page 3074
choosing the Script help command button in the Block Model

Manipulation dialog box.
You can save scripts for later execution. You can also load scripts
written in any text editor.
A sample script can be found in Appendix B: Sample Script.
Script Editing for Simple Manipulation
Type your script in the text entry box in the Block Model
Manipulation dialog box. Right-click in the box or on highlighted
script text to bring up the Script Editing Menu, offering these familiar
Windows text editing commands:
Undo.
Cut.
Copy.
Paste.
Delete.
Select all.
Note that you can paste text from other applications into your script.
Insert Model Button
Use the Insert model command button to insert model names into your
script. They appear as follows:
Model("Folder name","Model name")
Script Editing for Advanced Manipulation

Type your script in the GSI Edit text editor. Many familiar Windows
text editing commands are available in the utility.
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Block Selection
The Block }Selection submenu offers several ways to select blocks
for processing or display:
Individual level, column, and/or row.

Multiple level, column, and/or row.
Filtered by minimum/maximum level, column, and/or row limits.
Based on cell values.
Based on location relative to polygons, solids, surfaces, or SEGs.
Based on point data values contained.
Along the view plane.
Selections can add to, subtract from, or replace previous selections.

You can save selection sets and reload them later.
Selection Criteria
When creating a selection based on block location relative to polygons,
solids, surfaces, or SEGs, you have several choices which will affect
whether or not a block which straddles the boundary of the data
element will be selected:
Minimum percent of block meeting criteria to select.

Integration level.
Needle orientation.
These concepts are discussed under Updating Block Models in Chapter

3: Block Model Projects.
Threshold Values
When selecting cells based on point or block values contained, selected
cells will be those containing values at or above the lower threshold
and below the upper threshold.
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Clearing Selection
Choose Block }Selection }Clear to remove all selection settings.
Display settings will not be affected, but no blocks will be visible
because no selection will be defined.
Block Display
The Block }Display submenu offers great flexibility in ways of
viewing your block models. You can display data from multiple block
models by associating each desired block model with a cell display
profile, wherein you can define these display parameters:
Block colour using a standard colour profile.

Display type
Text height for block value display.
Number of decimal places for block value display.
Block scale factor, so you can shrink blocks (either uniformly or in
proportion to the values they contain) to clarify their display .
Blocks can be displayed in conjunction with associated SEGs.

Selecting different view modes (such as 2D or 3D) or view planes
(vertical sections, inclined sections, or plan views) gives you further
flexibility in displaying block models.
Choosing Block Models for Display

There are two ways to choose block models for display.
Highlight the desired block model in the Project View area and
choose Display on the Project View Context Menu. A check mark
will appear alongside a displayed model.
Define a multiblock loading profile, then load it using Block

}Display }Select Block Model Data for Display.
You may display data from multiple block models in 2D mode.

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Block Model Display as Cubes in 3D

In 3D mode, at most one model can be displayed as cubes. This will be
the first model assigned a cubes display mode in the currently loaded
multiblock profile list. If no multiblock profile is loaded, then the
first model assigned a cubes display mode that you choose to Display
on the Project View Context Menu will be shown.
Hiding Block Models
You can inhibit display of block models in three ways.
Globally suppress display by toggling Block }Display }Hide

Block Model Data On.
Terminate display of an individual model by highlighting the

model in the Project View area and choosing Hide on the Project
View Context Menu.
Clear display by choosing a new multi-block loading profile.
Selecting Blocks for Display

In order to see blocks displayed, you must load, create, or define a
selection. See Block Selection above.
Display Modes
There are four methods for displaying block models:
Block outlines
Block values
Block outlines and block values
Cubes
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Block Outlines
This method displays 2D outlines of the block model (see Figure 5-2).
No data values are displayed when you select this option.
Block Values
This method displays the numerical data values of the block model see
Figure 5-2). You will be required to define the text height and the
number of decimal places.
Block Outlines and Block Values
This display method combines the above two methods.
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Page 3079
Figure 5-2: Block model outlines display, shown in 2D (top), and values
display, shown in 2D
Cubes
This method displays blocks as 3D cubes or rectangular prisms (see
Figure 5-3). This display method is generally preferred when viewing
in 3D mode, as it provides superior visualization of solid blocks in
relation to drillholes and solids.
Modelling
Page 3080
Figure 5-3: Block model cubes display (rendered in 3D)
Text Height
You can define the height of the text when displaying block values.
Text height is defined in scaleable units using the project
measurement system.
Decimal Places for Value String

You can specify how many decimal places will appear when block
values are displayed. For example, if you set this parameter to 2, the
value 100 will be shown as 100.00.
Scaling
When blocks are displayed as cubes or outlines, the blocks are drawn
with dimensions obtained from the block model definition. You can
reduce the displayed size of the blocks by specifying a shrinkage factor
less than one. For example, if the blocks are actually cubes with edges
20 feet long, setting the shrink factor to 0.5 will result in the blocks
being displayed as cubes with edges 10 feet long.
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You may specify a default shrink factor, or scale blocks so a block's

size represents the value it contains. Scaling can be turned on or off.
Blocks with values outside the scaling limits can be shown or hidden.
Block Display in 2D
Outlines displayed in 2D will occupy a scaled portion of a share of the
cell(for example, if outlines of two block model quantities being
displayed, neither can occupy more than 50% of the cell.) There are,
however, two ways to draw the outline of the entire cell, as shown in
Figure 5-4:
Figure 5-4: First outline drawn as block outline (left) and outline grid
Draw first outline as block outline. You can expand the first
value outline to encompass the entire cell. Remaining outlines will
be scaled as defined in the cell display profile.
Draw outline grid. You can draw a grid to show cell boundaries.
This is most useful when not drawing the first outline as block
outline. If you draw the outline grid, you can pick a colour in which
to draw it.
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Colour Profiles
Colour profiles are used to assign colours to graphical output of data
based on the data values themselves. For information on colour
profiles, see Volume I: Core. Colour profiles are defined using File
}Edit Profiles }Define Colour Profiles. Before assigning a colour
profile, you may wish to view block models values to get an idea of the
appropriate colour ranges.
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Chapter 6
Interpolation and Kriging

In this Chapter
Introduction
General Procedures
Kriging Profiles
Parameter Limits
Execution
Anisotropy
Introduction
Kriging and other interpolation methods allow you to assign grade
information to blocks based on geostatistical formulae involving semivariogram distribution curves and effective distances from samples of
known grade. This chapter describes the use of interpolation
techniques in Gemcom for Windows block modelling. It is not intended
as a textbook on geostatistics. Users should already have a sound
understanding of kriging and interpolation principles.
Features
A list of kriging features appears in the table below:
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Chapter 6: Interpolation and Kriging
Page 3084
Function
Features
Can work with any number of input samples per rock type
General
Graphical display of each block as it is kriged with colour
coding for grades and block scaling for probability.
Flexible definition of a search volume
Search
Ellipsoidal, rectangular and octant search options
Option to limit number of samples per drillhole
Sample data is displayed graphically on the screen
Reduced search radius option for a high grade population
Automatic cutting of high grade samples at runtime to a userInput
defined threshold
Filtering
Filtering of input by rock codes to expedite handling of large
files
Filtering of input samples by coordinate limits
Each model may have an independent orientation
SemiVariogram Multiple semi-variograms in a single run (either for multiple
rock codes or for multiple indicator kriging)
Models
Up to eight levels of nesting of semi-variogram models
Rock Code Internal processing by rock code, so that separate rock code
statistics can be obtained at runtime.
Modelling
Each rock code can have its own semi-variogram model
Graphical display of the search volume around each trace block
Trace
Complete breakdown of samples used for each indicator level in
Blocks
indicator kriging
Different levels of trace block output
Optional correction of negative weights (conversion to zero with
Single
re-scaling of other weights)
Indicator
Selective Mining Units (SMU) adjustment (for advanced users)
Kriging
Optional selection as to which block model will be output
(grades, variance or probability model)
With or without nesting
Multiple
Output to a single or multiple models
Indicator
Single or multiple semi-variograms
Kriging
Single or multiple matrix solution for each indicator cut-off
Using true distance or anisotropic distance
Inverse
Included within the kriging profile editor for expediency
Distance
Modelling
Cross
Validation
Cross validation (or jackknifing) of point data sets available

Also provides correlation coefficient and brief statistics for
estimates and actual point data.
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Page 3085
General Procedures
Use the following procedure to build a detailed grade block model:
1. Be sure that all block models with which you will be working have
been correctly initialized (usually to zero.)
2. Prepare several extraction files of appropriate sample data.
3. Carry out semivariogram analysis of these data sets. This will
yield the model semivariogram which best fits the experimental
data. See Volume II: Exploration for procedures.
4. Be sure that the appropriate lithological domains for rock type
controls have been created and the rock type block model is valid.
5. Use Block }Interpolate }Define Kriging Profile to insert all
appropriate input data: search radius information, semivariograms, trace blocks, etc. One or several profiles can be
created.
6. Advanced users may wish to edit the kriging control file by hand.
See Appendix A: Kriging Control File Format for reference.
7. Use Block }Interpolate }Kriging/Inverse Distance
Estimation or Kriging/Inverse Distance in Batch Mode to
execute kriging. You may prefer to do a check run first.
8. Check the trace block and crossvalidation results to verify that
input and results obtained are correct.
9. Use block model manipulation for subsequent processing of the
kriged results.
Kriging Profiles
The various user-specified kriging parameters are entered on nine
separate tabs in the Kriging Profile Editor, which is accessed using the
Block }Interpolate }Define Kriging Profile command. The
contents of these tabs are described in the subsections below:
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General Parameters
On this tab, you specify the name of the *.KRG kriging control file to be
written for use in the kriging process.
You must choose a colour profile to be used at kriging runtime to
display sample and block grade values in different colours. The Edit
profile button brings up the standard colour profile editor. Be sure to
define a Values type colour profile.
If you set the runtime mode to Check mode, no grades will be
computed. The usual setting is Normal.
Sample Search Parameters

This tab defines which samples are eligible to be used to krige a block,
based upon their location relative to the block in question. A separate
high grade search radius may be specified.
An understanding of anisotropy definitions is required to use
anisotropy for more effective searches. See Anisotropy later in this
chapter.
Sample Search Parameters
When creating a grid or block model using extraction data points as
input, the interpolation routine (kriging or inverse distance) will use
only a subset of all the extraction file data points to estimate each grid
cell or block. This selection of data points is based on distance of the
samples from the block (or grid cell) centre. You need to set the
following:
A maximum search radius within which eligible samples may be

used. This usually ranges from one block width to up to 1000m.
Values of 5 to 200m are typical. Although guessing this value is
quite common, it is not recommended. Semi-variogram analysis of
the extraction data file (or of the ore body being modelled) can
provide better information as to appropriate search radii.
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You should generally have the search radius big enough to ensure
that the maximum number of samples will be found for most
blocks and the minimum number of samples will be found in those
blocks for which you wish to estimate values. (Minimum and
Maximum are specified on the Kriging Methods / IK
parameters tab.) Execution times increase substantially if the
search radius is too large. Ranges cannot be zero.
Remember that the search radius is not the same as the range
parameter for semivariograms.
For most common runs, set Maximum per hole to 0, and High
grade transition to 9999.000. Setting Maximum per hole to 0
is quicker than setting it to a large value (999), since this will
bypass the maximum per hole check altogether.
Verification of Search Parameters

On the Output destination tab, you may create special block models
useful for checking the chosen search volume parameters. You may
create a block model of distances to the nearest sample or record the
actual number of samples used to estimate each block.
Using trace blocks is also quite useful, because they report the
distances to each sample used to estimate the block.
Simplest Search
For a simple run:
Set all search distances to be equal,

Set all anisotropy angles to zero
Set the type of anisotropy to no anisotropy.
Search Parameter Definition Strategies

Defining appropriate search parameters for small data sets is usually
fairly simple. However, the definition of search parameters for large
data sets can have quite an impact on execution speed (as well as
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Page 3088
results) in some cases. The following are some comments and tips
about setting up search parameters.
No rule states that the search radius must be the same as the
variogram range. Variogram parameters are set up to model
variograms. Search radii are set up to collect appropriate data to
use in the kriging (or inverse distance) estimates. While the search
radius and variogram range will sometimes be the same, the
search range will often exceed the variogram range for projects
with small datasets and the search range will often be less than
the variogram range for large datasets. Multiple bench blasthole
data is a good example of this latter case.
The search radius should be large enough that the maximum

number of samples to krige a block are found for all but the most
remote blocks. The search radius should also be large enough so
that the minimum number of samples to krige a block is found at
blocks where you wish to estimate the grade.
If the search radius far exceeds the variogram range, then it is

likely that many blocks will be estimated, but with a relatively low
confidence or high kriging variance.
Accelerating the Search

Long execution times (on the order of several days) are possible when
working with very large data sets. In these cases, some of the
comments below should be considered:
The smaller the search radius, the faster the program execution.
If the sample data is quite clustered (as in the case with surface
exploration samples mixed with underground in fill drilling), then
it may be quicker to krige a large block model in two passes:
In the first pass, set the search radius quite short and set the
Minimum number of samples to krige a block equal or nearly
equal to the Maximum number of samples to krige a block on
the Kriging Methods / IK parameters tab.
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In the second pass, set the Minimum number of samples to

krige a block back to its required value, increase the search
radius and set the Block model access mode to Partial update.
on the Target and sample (rock) codes tab
Blocks estimated in the first pass will not be processed in the

second pass. Variations of this type of approach can also be used to
delineate proven and probable resources.
For very large block models or models with more than about 100
levels, filtering by elevation on the Filtering parameters tab and
making several passes might help speed things up.
Filtering Parameters
On this tab, you enter geometric and value limits to control which
samples contribute to the total population of samples eligible for all
blocks in a given run.
Usually, the geometric limits will lie well outside the property limits.
Be careful if your data or block model has negative coordinate values.
If so, set the Minimum easting and northing appropriately.
Value limits are generally used to exclude obviously unwanted
samples, such as samples with negative grade (denoted "unsampled",
for example). Sometimes, value limits may be used to select a
particular sub-population. You can also cut very high grade samples
down to a desired threshold.
SemiVariogram Definitions
This tab is the heart of the kriging profile. One or several semivariograms may be entered, each consisting of up to eight nested
models. For example, one semi-variogram may have a nugget effect
model plus two spherical models. Each model may have its own spatial
orientation and anisotropy parameters.
The top half of the tab is where you name semi-variogram curves and
choose the model components to be used. These selections will likely be
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Page 3090
influenced by the shapes of experimental semi-variograms you have

generated from your sample data.
On the bottom half of the tab, you can edit specific information about a
particular model component. You will be asked to define:
Anisotropy method and rotation angles. Specification of

anisotropy can easily become complex. If you are not familiar with
anisotropy, choose the No rotation or Same as for Search
anisotropy options.
Range of influence components along each anisotropy axis.

All range components must be greater than zero except when
using a nugget effect model.
and, for some models,
Sill value.
or
Slope.
You can define (and name) several variograms in a profile even if they
are not all being used for a particular run.
When using inverse distance options, semi-variograms are not used.
However, you must still have at least one valid variogram defined on
the Variograms tab. An example of an invalid variogram is a
spherical model with zero range. A simple example of a valid
variogram which you can define for inverse distance modelling runs is
a nugget effect model with sill = 0.01. (This anomaly arises because
Gemcom checks the variogram input before it has read in the method
to be used. So when Gemcom checks variograms, it does not yet know
whether it will be doing kriging or inverse distance modelling.)
SemiVariogram Models
The model semi-variogram is an idealized curve illustrating the
theoretical relationship between sample pairs as a function of the
distance between them (see Figure 6-1.) The graph's horizontal axis
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3091
shows the separation distance between pairs of samples, while the

graph's vertical axis shows the variance of the differences in values for
specific separation distances. Generally, sample pairs are grouped
together into ranges of distance separation, as samples usually are
never regular distances apart. These ranges of distances are called the
lag distances. For convenience, the vertical axis usually shows half the
variance value, hence the term semi-variogram.
Figure 6-1: Spherical model semi-variogram

The curve begins at or near the origin, as samples that have
coincidental locations should be the same and thus have no variance.
The semi-variance increases to the right, as the distance between the
samples increases. The curve gradually flattens and the semi-variance
value becomes constant. At this separation, there is no longer any
relationship between sample pairs and they can be considered
independent of each other. The distance at which this happens is
called the range of influence, and the variance at this point is called
the sill.
This ideal semi-variogram is called a spherical model. In practice, the
curve may start with a small variance (as there are generally
variances between two samples taken at the same location, often
caused by sampling techniques). This is termed the nugget effect and
Modelling
Page 3092
can be present in all semi-variograms. Also, more than one sill value
can be present, in which case the model semi-variogram has a nested
structure.
In addition to the spherical model, you can choose among several other
types of model semi-variograms. For more information, see Volume II:
Exploration, Chapters 1314.
SemiVariogram Formulae
The table below lists the input parameters and mathematical
definitions for the various semi-variogram curves.
Model
Formulae
Spherical
gi
= s (1.5 f - 0.5 (f3))

= s if f > 1
Exponential
gi
= s (1 - exp(-f))
Logarithmic
gi
= m log(f R)
= 0 if f R < 1.0
Linear
=mfR
Nugget
gi
gi
Gaussian
gi
= s (1 - exp(-r f))
Hole effect
gi
= s (1 - sin(f)/f)
Transitive
gi
= s f if f <= 1.0
= s if f > 1.0
=s
where:
gi= Gamma, the variance to be computed for component i of the total
semi-variogram.
r= The true distance between the two points between which the
variance is sought.
R= The range of the semi-variogram model. This is dependent upon
direction if anisotropic models are being used.
f= The fraction describing how far two points are apart relative to the
semi-variogram range (i.e., f is a fraction of the range).
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f=0 if r=0
f=1 if the distance between the two points = R
m= The slope constant (for linear or logarithmic models).
s= The sill for the model.
Target and Sample Rock Codes

This tab specifies the look up table which defines which samples may
be used to estimate a block based upon the geological matching
between both the block rock type code and that of each sample.
Reference is made to target and restricting rock codes. The target
rock code refers to that of the block to be kriged. The restricting rock
code refers to that of each sample (assay or composite). Restricting
rock code is taken from the integer component in the extraction file.
More than one extraction file may be used and a different semi
variogram may be assigned to each one.
You are expected to enter a table of target rock codes for blocks and
their corresponding samples.
For example, consider blocks coded with two rock type codes 10 and
100. Also assume that the sample values (contained in an extraction
file) are coded with lithological or rock type codes 20, 21, 30, 40, 41.
Then if samples coded 20, 21 or 30 are to be used to estimate blocks
coded 10 and samples coded 30, 40 or 41 are to be used to estimate
blocks of rock type code 100, then the following look up table would be
set up.
Target
Restricting rock codes
10
20
21
30
100
30
40
41
Target rock codes must be defined; otherwise, no blocks will be

processed. Specification of restricting rock codes is optional. If all
Modelling
Page 3094
restricting rock codes are left as 0, all samples in the extraction file
will be eligible for use.
A rock code of 0 is not allowed. Avoid using a rock code of 0. (If you
do, then use it for waste or air blocks.)
In addition to the rock code selections, you are also required to specify
how the block model will be updated.
There are three Block model access options:
Overwrite completely. With this option, grade and probability models

will be pre-initialized to zero over all blocks selected on the Target
block domain tab. This initialization is independent of rock
codes.
Update selected rock codes. This option will only process or change
Partial update (0 grades only). This is similar to the previous option,

except that only blocks which have a zero grade value will be
considered. Use this option with care.
grade/probability values for blocks with a lithology code matching

one of the specified target rock codes.
Target Block Domain

This tab is used to limit the blocks to be estimated. The limit may be
geometric (in terms of rows, columns and levels) or based on the
values contained in a selected block model. You may also use a
combination of the two limit methods.
Alternatively, you may limit kriging to the set of blocks you have
selected using options on the Block }Selection submenu.
If you are not processing all blocks, be sure that all block models
you are processing have been pre-initialized (usually to 0) before
you begin.
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Page 3095
Trace Blocks and Cross Validation

On this tab, you can select one or more trace blocks. These are
important, since two things happen at each trace block when kriging:
The search volume (ellipsoid) will be graphically displayed on the

screen.
Details about the sample weights, kriging results and other related
information will be reported for each trace block.
It is strongly recommended that you use at least one to three trace

blocks for any run. Place these blocks at points of interest. Printed
results for these blocks should always be checked.
You may also select samples for cross validation (jackknifing) on this
tab.
Ellipsoid Files
The anisotropy ellipsoids produced at trace blocks are written to an
ASCII file ANISOPLT.DAT. You can load this file and view or work with
the ellipsoids three-dimensionally. In addition, a second file,
ANISOPLT.TIE, contains the tie lines necessary to create a surface or
solid of the ellipsoid, if needed.
Kriging Method / IK Parameters

The kriging method and related parameters are selected on this tab.
You are required to specify whether you will be doing Ordinary
Kriging (OK), Single IK (Indicator Kriging) or Multiple IK.
Inverse distance (ID) modelling options also appear here. While this
may be offensive to some geostatistics purists, it does have many
practical benefits from both the users and programmers points of
view. For example, users can more easily compare grade models
created by kriging or inverse distance techniques.
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Users new to kriging should likely start by using the Ordinary Kriging
or inverse distance options, until they are familiar with the use of
trace blocks, variogram input, search parameters, etc.
Generic Kriging Parameters
You must set the following parameters if you are using any of the
kriging methods.
At present, block kriging (as opposed to panel kriging or point

kriging) is the only method available. You are required to specify
the level of Block subdivision in the X, Y and Z local block
directions into which each block will be subdivided for block
variance calculations.
The Minimum specifies the number of samples needed before a

block or grid cell can be estimated. If there are not at least this
minimum number of samples within the defined search volume,
then the default or background value will be assigned to that
block.
The Maximum defines the number of samples used to estimate a

block. If more than the maximum number of samples lie within the
defined search volume, then the samples are sorted by distance
and only the closest ones are used.
If kriging for the first time or not entirely sure about these
parameters, then select the minimum number of samples as 2, the
maximum as 10 and the X, Y and Z sub-divisions as 4 each.
Negative Weights
The occurrence of negative weights is entirely permissible in terms of
the usual specification for the kriging equations. However, their
occurrence can yield negative grades and is particularly disruptive
when working with indicator kriging models. You can convert negative
weights to 0 (and re-scale other weights so the overall sum of weights
remains 1).
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Page 3097
If using an indicator kriging method, set Negative weight to

zero.
Ordinary Kriging
This is standard kriging in which a number of weights summing to 1
are computed and then applied to the samples selected for kriging.
Output from this process consists of a single grade and a single
kriging variance. The computed grade value may be stored in the
selected grade block model.
Minimum samples to use. Usually between 2 and 10, depending

on drilling density and required degree of confidence of results.
Maximum samples to use. Usually between 8 and 35. Note that

a kriging matrix for 35 samples takes about five times longer to
compute than one for 20 samples.
Negative weights. Usually not critical. If working with skewed

distributions of data, setting negative weights to 0 is advisable.
Internal block subdivision. 3 x 3 x 3 is a good default selection.

For large block models (or models with very small blocks) try 2 x 2
x 2. The difference between these settings can easily be compared
and assessed using trace block printouts. Using 1 x 1 x 1 is not
recommended.
IK Methods
If Indicator Kriging has been selected, then indicator class limits and
semi-variogram names to be used will be entered under Indicator
kriging parameters at the bottom of the tab.
The presentation of indicator values here differs slightly from that of
most textbooks. The user is asked to enter class intervals instead of
indicator cutoffs. The From value is essentially the same as the
indicator cutoff.
Be careful to set the From value for the next class as equal to the To
value from the preceding class.
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The following table contains some BAD examples:

Class
From
To
0.00
0.49
0.51
1.0
1.0
2.0
4.0
5.0
4.9
10.00
Make sure that the range of indicator classes (Froms and Tos) cover
the range of samples grades with which you are working. Your last
indicator class should contain all of your high grade information. For
example, a highest class from 6.00 to 100.00 would not be suitable if
grades greater than 100.00 were present.
Single IK
Single IK is similar in many respects to ordinary kriging. If the lower
cut-off value is set to zero, then the IK grade will be the same as the
OK grade. If the lower cut-off value is greater than zero, then the IK
method will compute a probability or fraction of material above the
cut-off grade as well as the grade of that material. There is an option
to create a block model of the grade of material below cut-off grade.
Minimum samples to use. Same as OK above.
Maximum samples to use. Same as OK above.
Negative weights. Set to convert to zero.
Number of SMUs per block. Enter the number of SMUs

(selective mining units) per block. Choosing a value of 0 or a large
value such as 5000 effectively disables this option. Using a more
realistic value between 1 and 10 will result in the SMU correction
formula being applied.
If other than 0, then dilution is added to the computed
probability so that the new probability does not represent a volume
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3099
smaller than 1 SMU. The amount of dilution added is most if the

computed probability is low and least if the computed probability is
high. The high grade component is then diluted with material
from the low grade material below the cut-off grade for that
block.
Example:
Cut-off grade = 1.0
15% of the block above cut-off, estimated grade = 2.0
85% of the block below cut-off, estimated grade = 0.4.
Number of SMUs per block = 10
Trying to mine 15% of a block is not readily achievable with
the level of mining selectivity specified. Gemcom will then
compute a dilution component using the formula
dilution
= (1 - prob) / SMUs
= .085 (or 8.5%)
New grade =15% of block @ 2.0 and 8.5% of block @ 0.4

Diluted grade = (.15 2.0 + .085 0.4) / (.15 + .085) = 1.42
New probability = .235.
Multiple IK to Single Model
There are several different ways to apply this method. They are
summarized below:
Use of grades. You may work with:
Actual grade (not recommended)

Bin mean grades for the indicator bins which you have defined
Bin mean grades and the median of the high grade bin.
Nesting. Yes or No.
Solve matrix option: After first cut-off only or after each cut-off
The choice of single or multiple variograms.
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Page 3100
The choice of cut off grades or indicator cut-offs. This determines

whether a whole block grade or partial block grade will be
computed.
There are 3 2 2 2 2 = 48 different combinations of the above

options. Many of these are of little use for everyday purposes, while
some of them are functionally similar. The more important
combinations are summarized in the table below:
Use of Nesting
grades
Solve
Matrix
Variograms Lower
cutoff
Samples
Mean
Comments
Not recommended
(Special option)
Y/N
Once or
many
1 or many
0 or > 0 Usual MIK option
Mean + Y/N
Median
Once or
many
1 or many
0 or > 0 Usual MIK options
Median N
Once
Many
Quickest and easiest

0
Whole block grade

Probability = 1.0
>0
Partial block grade +

probability
Many
Suggested if low grade

and high grade
variograms very
different
Many
Once
Much slower than solve

matrix once
Many
Impossible option
>0
Do NOT do this if you

want whole block grades
In the table above, reference is made to whole or partial block grades.

If the lower cutoff is set to 0.0 and the upper cutoff of the highest
grade bin is greater than the highest sample grade, then whole block
grades will be estimated. If the lower cutoff is greater than the
minimum sample value, then partial block grades will be estimated.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3101
!
Use care in choosing these options, or you might estimate partial block
grades which will generally be higher than the whole block grades. If
the partial block grades are then used in a block model without
considering the partial block fractions or probabilities, you will get the
wrong answers.
An example demonstrates this point.
Example: Consider samples ranging from 0 to 10 in value. Consider
the following class From and To intervals:
Class
From
To
0.00
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
10.00
In this case, all samples must belong to one or other of the class
intervals, so the whole block grade will be computed (with a
probability of 1.0) for every block.
However, if we remove class 1 above to give:
Class
From
To
0.5
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
Modelling
Page 3102
5.0
10.00
Then in areas where there are samples between 0.0 and 0.5, a partial
block grade and probability will be computed. A general rule of thumb
may help you :
If you want
Define this number of classes

(where N = number of indicator
values)
Whole block grades
N+1
Partial block grades
The option to solve the matrix equations at every cut-off or only at

the first cut-off for a MIK run only applies if the same semivariogram has been selected for all cut-offs. In this case, solving
the equations at each cut-off should yield slightly better answers,
but could take much longer to run.
The fastest MIK run is obtained by setting the semi-variogram

model for each indicator as Void, thus using the rock type semivariograms. Set the matrix solve option for the first cut-off only.
Set the model output option to produce a single model only.
When using MIK, be careful selecting the grade to use option.

For MIK to a single grade model, you must use bin grades.
The SMU correction applies to this MIK option
Multiple IK to Multiple Models

This is a special purpose application in which multiple block models
are produced from a single run. This allows individual grades and
probabilities from each indicator to computed and stored, permitting
the user to construct a grade tonnage curve for EACH block. By then
using various block model manipulation methods, various resulting
block models or economic models can be constructed.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3103
For MIK to multiple models, you will be creating multiple models of

grade and probability. The grade selection does not affect the
probability models.
Inverse Distance Methods
When using an inverse distance method, you must set the ID power
to specify the rate at which influence falls off with distance (1/D, 1/D2,
etc.).
The distance (true or anisotropic) from sample to block is used twice.
The first instance is during the search for eligible samples. The second
is for the actual computation of sample weights. The distances used for
sample searching and selection are anisotropic if an anisotropic search
volume is defined.
Inverse Distance (True)
If you select this method, true distances from block to sample will be
used for computation of sample weights.
Inverse Distance (Anisotropic)
If you select this method, anisotropic distances will be used for
computation of sample weights.
Output Destination
Depending upon the kriging method selected, you will choose models
on this tab which will be used to store the kriged results. In addition,
you may create special models and write data to text files.
Scale factors for models are displayed but cannot be altered here.
Normally, you must choose an output destination grade model. If not,
Gemcom will do all the computations, but not store any results! In
some circumstances, however, you might only want to produce a
Modelling
Page 3104
special block model or ASCII file, but not overwrite the grade block
model.
Special Models
There are several possible special block models which can be created.
Options include:
Number of points used for estimate.

Number of points inside search volume.
Number of octants containing sample data (within search volume).
Grade below IK cutoff.
Dilution (only when using the SMU correction).
Actual distance to closest point.
Anisotropic distance to closest point.
The applications for these special options are quite varied, ranging
from helping to delineate areas of proven, probable and possible
reserves to computing haulage costs for more accurate economic
modelling. However, if you plan to create or use special models, they
should be correctly initialized before use. Where applicable, specify an
appropriate scale factor.
Text Files
Refer to Appendix A: Kriging Control File Format for details on the
following topics:
If output of Kriged blocks is being directed to an ASCII file, the

format can be switched between I,J,K and X,Y,Z format
If output of Kriged samples (from the crossvalidation process) is

being directed to an ASCII file, the format can be switched between
sample number and X,Y,Z format.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3105
Parameter Limits
Gemcom imposes maximum limits on some interpolation parameters.
These are listed in the following table:
Parameter
Processing limit
Points within search radius
5000
Samples to krige a block
200
Subdivisions per block for block variance

calculations
1000 (ie., 10 10
10)
Limitations imposed by the Kriging Profile Editor are listed in the

following table. Expert users can override these limits, if necessary, by
editing the Kriging Control File (see Appendix A: Kriging Control File
Format.)
Parameter
Editor limit
Target rock codes
20
Restricting rock codes per rock type
10
Indicator classes
20
Semivariogram curves
20
Trace blocks
20
Execution
When the profile is complete, execution is initiated using the Block
}Interpolate }Kriging / Inverse Distance Estimation or Kriging
/ Inverse Distance in Batch Mode commands.
Kriging / Inverse Distance Estimation executes one kriging

control file. You can select a subset of blocks to krige, and can
execute a check run or a live run.
Kriging / Inverse Distance in Batch Mode executes a batch of

kriging control files. For each file, you can select a subset of blocks
to krige and can execute a check run or a live run.
Modelling
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Afterwards, you can view trace blocks and results. Remember to

inspect the report generated from each run to check that the correct
sample statistics have been produced. If a filtering, rock type
selections, or high grade cutting or exclusion are used, then the
statistics of the reduced data set should be different from that of the
complete extraction file.
Processing Sequence
The following general processing sequence occurs during kriging:
1. For the current target rock code, the extraction file is read in,
filtered, sorted and then displayed on the screen. Summary
statistics for the loaded data are written to the report file.
2. For the current target rock code, Gemcom then processes each of
the selected levels or benches sequentially.
3. For ordinary kriging or inverse distance options, each block with
the target rock code is displayed on the screen in grey.
4. If sufficient data is found inside the search volume for that block, a
value for the block is estimated and the block replotted in a colour
determined by the colour profile. (If insufficient data is found, the
colour of the block remains grey. This is useful in assessing areas
where the specified range/anisotropy might be too short or the data
too sparse.)
5. If a trace block is encountered, the search volume is plotted for
that block. The lower hemisphere is plotted in brown and the
upper hemisphere in white. This helps you assess the direction of
the dip of the search ellipsoid.
6. Results are written to various block models on a row by row basis.
If block models have not been correctly initialized or created,
kriging will unexpectedly terminate at this stage.
7. Continue with all levels for current target rock code.
8. Repeat for all other target rock codes.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3107
9. Issue summary information and terminate.
Anisotropy
You can modify the effective distance between samples and block
centre to take into account the geostatistical trends of your orebody
using anisotropy.
Anisotropy requires an understanding of the spatial relationship
between a global coordinate system (eastings and northings and
elevations), a block model coordinate system and an anisotropy
coordinate system. You must specify three angles which define the
location of the anisotropy coordinate system in space relative to the
other two systems. Thereafter, you will enter three ranges which are
distances along the anisotropy coordinate axes defining a search
volume or semi-variogram range.
Making a Set of Model Axes

Experience has shown that the best way to work out the various
angles and ranges is to construct a small physical model of a set of
coordinate axes, as shown in Figure 6-2. You need three axes pencils or toothpicks for example. You also need something to hold
them together, such as a small rubber ball or eraser. Insert the sticks
into the rubber ball so that each of the axes is at right angles to the
other two (orthogonal). Position the coordinate system so that one axis
points East, one North and one up (positive elevation direction). Label
the one pointing East as Ax (anisotropy X axis), the one pointing
North as Ay (anisotropy Y axis) and the one pointing up as Az
(anisotropy Z axis).
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Page 3108
AZ
Ay
Ax
Figure 6-2: Coordinate axes model
You also need a box to represent the block model (particularly if this is
rotated with respect to the easting and northings of your global
coordinate system).
Rotations
You are now ready to define anisotropy information:
1. Position the box representing the block model in its correct spatial
orientation relative to your global coordinate system (usually true
north and east).
2. Now position the anisotropy coordinate system so that it is aligned
with the block model, as shown in Figure 6-3. The Ax axis points in
the direction of increasing block model columns and the Az axis
points up. This is the default orientation if no anisotropy angles
are specified.
Gemcom for Windows
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Figure 6-3: Orientation of Anisotropy Axes Before Rotation

Rotations about Anisotropy Axes
Usually, the objective of using anisotropy in the first place is to allow
selection of samples (or semi-variogram variance computations) along
geologically preferred directions. If this is required, then the question
arises as to how to rotate the anisotropy axis system from its current
alignment with the block model so that it coincides with the
geologically preferred orientation. To do this, you will carry out up to
three rotations about the anisotropy axes.
Modelling
Page 3110
Figure 6-4: Final Orientation of Anisotropy Axes - General Case

For example, a rotation about the Az axis is achieved by holding that
axis (stick) and rotating the system so that the Ax axis moves towards
the Ay axis (positive movement) or away from the Ay axis (negative
movement). Once a rotation about the Z axis has been done, you can
hold either the (new) Ax or Ay axes, and repeat the process. A third
rotation about the (new) Az axis should allow you to achieve any final
orientation required, as shown in Figure 6-4.
Gemcom allows you to specify rotations about the anisotropy axes in
two ways. Either a ZXZ type rotation or a ZYZ rotation. The ZXZ
rotation refers to a first rotation about the Az axis, followed by the
(newly created) Ax direction, followed by the (newly created) Az
direction. The ZYZ rotation is similar, with the Ax rotation being
replaced by a Ay axis rotation.
When carrying out these rotations, it is very important to know which
way is positive and which negative. The table below indicates the
positive directions.
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About
Positive rotation
X towards Y
Y towards Z
Z towards X
Azimuth-Dip-Azimuth Rotations
In the special case in which none of the anisotropy axes is horizontal,
an alternative method for specifying the orientation of the anisotropy
coordinate system is available. This method relies upon the fact that
the three axes must be orthogonal. In this case, you may specify the
true azimuth and dip of the Ax axis and the azimuth of the Ay axis. As
long as the dip angle you enter is non-zero, this method yields a
unique orientation for the resulting anisotropy axes. Dip angles are
negative downwards.
If using the azimuth dip azimuth option, your input should be
independent of the block model orientation. Input for the ZXZ and ZYZ
options are dependent upon the block model orientation.
Examples of Anisotropy
Several examples for setting up the input parameters for anisotropy
follow. They get progressively more complex. They also demonstrate
that different methods for defining anisotropy are each better or best
suited to different types of geometry.
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Example One
Figure 6-5: Example One geometry in plan (top) and section
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3113
Method
Note
Angle 1 Angle 2 Angle 3 Range 1 Range 2 Range 3
ADA
90.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
50.0
45.0
ZXZ*
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
50.0
45.0
ZYZ*
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
50.0
45.0
No Rotation*
100.0
50.0
45.0
* Denotes preferred method

Notes
1. In this example, the orientations of the second and third
anisotropy axes are not uniquely defined, since the first anisotropy
axis is exactly horizontal. Gemcom will internally set the dip of the
first anisotropy axis to a small non-zero value, thus forcing the dip
of the second axis to be also approximately equal to zero. Because
of this ambiguity, the ADA method is not recommended when axes
are exactly horizontal and vertical.
Example Two
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Page 3114
Figure 6-6: Example Two geometry in plan

Method Note
ADA
50.0
0.0
320.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
ZXZ*
40.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
ZYZ*
40.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0

Notes
1. See the previous example.
Example Three
Figure 6-7: Example Three geometry in plan

Method
Note Angle 1 Angle 2 Angle 3 Range 1 Range 2 Range 3
ADA
50.0
0.0
320.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
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Page 3115
ZXZ*
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
ZYZ*
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
No
Rotation
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0

Notes
2. Use of the ADA method is independent of the block model
orientation.
Example Four
Figure 6-8: Example Four geometry in plan

Method Note
ADA
50.0
Modelling
0.0
320.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
Page 3116
ZXZ
ZYZ
82.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
82.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
30.0
45.0
Notes
3. See Notes 1 and 2 for previous examples.
4. The 82 angle is measured anticlockwise from the block models
local X axis to the anisotropy X axis.
Figure 6-9: Orebody orientation for examples Five through Eight

Example Five
Block model rotation angle = 0.
The following range parameters are set:
Range along strike of orebody = 100
Range down dip = 50
Range perpendicular to orebody = 25
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3117
Method Note Angle 1 Angle 2 Angle 3 Range 1 Range 2 Range 3

ADA
123.0
-71.0
33.0
50.0
100.0
25.0
ZXZ
-123.0
-71.0
100.0
50.0
25.0
ZYZ*
-33.0
71.0
0.0
50.0
100.0
25.0

Notes
5. Anisotropy X axis points down (-71) dip, anisotropy Y axis points
North 33 East. Because the difference between the azimuth of
anisotropy X and Y axes is 90 in this example, the anisotropy Y
axis must be horizontal.
6. This leaves the anisotropy X axis pointing along the strike South
33 West.
7. This leaves the anisotropy X axis pointing down dip.
Modelling
Page 3118
Example Six
Figure 6-10: Example Six geometry

Range along strike of orebody = 100
Range down dip = 50
Method Note
ADA
123.0
-71.0
33.0
50.0
100.0
25.0
ZXZ
0.0
71.0
0.0
100.0
50.0
25.0
ZYZ*
-90.0
71.0
0.0
50.0
100.0
25.0
*Denotes preferred method

Notes
8. This is the same as the previous example, except that the block
model has been aligned with the strike direction of the orebody.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3119
The input for the ADA angles is (as mentioned earlier)

independent of the block model orientation.
Example Seven
Figure 6-11: Example Seven geometry

Preferred orientation with longest range assumed to lie in plane of
orebody, but at an angle 28 from the strike direction towards the dip
direction.
Range along preferred direction = 100
Range in plane of orebody at 90 to preferred direction = 50
ADA**
ZXZ
Modelling
222.821 26.353
181.521 100.0
50.0
25.0
-123.000 -71.000
-28.000
50.0
25.0
100.0
Page 3120
ZYZ*
10
-33.000
71.000
ADA**
11
181.521 -56.600
-28.000
50.0
100.0
25.0
42.821
50.0
100.0
25.0

**Difficult!
Notes
9. Clearly, using this method to enter the anisotropy information is
not intuitive and the calculations are quite difficult to carry out by
hand. Note that the dip of the long axis is 26.35 which is different
from the in plane rotation angle of 28.
10. This is the natural method for use here. However, be careful about
the sign convention for the rotation angles.
11. This is the second of three possible combinations for the ADA
method (also not intuitive).
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3121
Example Eight
Figure 6-12: Example Eight geometry

This is the same as Example Seven except the block model rotation
angle is -33 instead of 0.
Method Note
ADA**
222.821
26.353
181.521
100.0
50.0
25.0
ZXZ
-90.000
-71.000
-28.000
100.0
50.0
25.0
ZYZ*
0.000
71.000
-28.000
50.0
100.0
25.0

**Difficult
Modelling
Page 3122
Example Nine
Assume there is no special orebody orientation.
Assume there is no block model rotation.
Choose three directions and ranges which are not orthogonal.
Desire a reasonable approximation in which ranges and directions

are similar to those measured, but are also orthogonal.
Range 1 = 100
Azimuth 30,
Dip -17
Range 2 = 50
Azimuth 135,
Dip -45
Range 3 = 25
Azimuth 280,
Dip -50

ADA*
30.0
-17.0
135.0
100.0
50.0
25.0
ZXZ**
ZYZ**

**Difficult
In this case, input of azimuth, dip and second azimuth (ADA) as above,
results in orthogonal axes with the following directions:
Direction 1
Azimuth 30, Dip -17
Direction 2
Azimuth 135,
Direction 3
Azimuth 282.306,
Dip -40.25
Dip -44.831
The ADA method is very useful in this case. It easily allows the user
to get a good approximation to orthogonal coordinate orientations
which would otherwise be difficult to compute by hand.
Remember that with the ADA method the first angle is the azimuth of
the anisotropy X axis. The second angle is the dip of this axis, while
the third angle is the azimuth of the anisotropy Y (not Z) axis.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3123
Use Caution
If unsure about rotation angles for anisotropy and variogram
definitions, then try one or more of the following:
Select the No rotation option
Make the variogram anisotropy the Same as for search.
If you need rotation angles, the ZYZ option is most likely the one
most useful for you.
Build a model set of axes to help you.
Modelling
Page 3125
Chapter 7
Economic Modelling
In This Chapter
Introduction
Cost and Revenue Parameters
Building an Economic Block Model
Interfacing with Pit Optimization Programs
Introduction
Economic modelling calculates a monetary value for each cell in the
block model. The calculation depends on the mining and ore
processing costs for that block and depends on the revenue which can
be earned if the block is mined and processed.
The economic prospects of a property are one of the key results of a
resource evaluation study. When all grade block models have been
created and cost data relating to specific rock types has been captured,
economic modelling can help you evaluate the economy of mining the
property under various cost scenarios (for example, 60c Copper vs. 70c
Copper; 1998 costs vs. 1999 costs; etc.).
You can assign different cost/revenue structures to different types of
rock. For example, it may be that OXIDE and SULPHIDE rock codes have
different revenue curves or processing costs. These may be defined in
different cost profiles and processed separately when constructing the
economic block model.
You should build economic models only after all contributing block
models (rock type, density, grade, etc.) have been built and validated.
Modelling
Page 3126
If you are mining a pit, you can export economic data to a pit
optimization software package such as Whittle 3D or 4D/4X, and then
import surface elevation grids representing optimal pit designs.
Cost and Revenue Parameters

Use File }Edit Profiles }Define Rock Code Profiles and Block
}Edit }Define Cost Profiles to define the cost and revenue
parameters for different rock codes and grade elements. For accurate
economic modelling, you should have estimates of all these
parameters, or at least estimates for groups of costs.
Make sure you use correct units when entering the parameters. The
tables in the following subsections summarize the units (in metric) for
the various cost and revenue parameters. If you are using imperial
units, then replace metres with feet or yards as appropriate.
Economic Parameters in the Rock Type Profile

Use File }Edit Profiles }Define Rock Code Profiles to enter this
data on the Economic tab of the Rock Code Profile Editor.
Rock Type Dependent Mining Costs
Enter these volumetric costs for each rock code profile.
Rock type dependent mining cost (volumetric)
Units *
Rock type drilling cost
$/m3
Rock type blasting cost
$/m3
Rock type loading cost
$/m3
Rock type fixed services cost
$/m3
Rock type fixed haulage cost
$/m3
*or ft3 if using imperial system
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3127
Primary Mineral
Choose the primary mineral for each rock code and the cutoff grades
for this mineral. The material type of any block will be determined
using these thresholds, in conjunction with further data entered on
the cost/revenue profile. See CutOff Grades below. For multi-metallic
deposits, you may wish to use an equivalent grade element (such as
ZnEq for a leadzinc deposit) as the primary mineral.
Recovery Factors
For each grade element, enter a recovery factor expressing the amount
of element recoverable as a percentage of the element present in this
type of rock.
Economic Parameters in the Cost/Revenue Profile

Use Block }Edit }Define Cost Profiles to enter these parameters in
the Cost/Revenue Profile Editor.
Variable Haulage Parameters
Calculating the input numbers for the haulage cost information can be
quite complicated. A frequently used but less effective way is to use
only the volumetric fixed haulage cost on the rock code profile, setting
the variable haulage costs on the cost/revenue profile to zero.
Variable haulage parameter
Units *
Pit exit elevation
metres
Average in pit haulage distance
metres
Average surface haulage distance
metres
Horizontal haulage cost
$/unit volume/100m
Vertical haulage costs (upwards and downwards)
$/unit volume/10m
*or feet if using imperial system
Modelling
Page 3128
General OreBased Costs

Use Block }Edit }Define Cost Profiles to enter these cost
parameters (charged per unit weight of ore or stockpile material) on
the General tab of the Cost/Revenue Profile Editor.
General ore-based cost
Units
Ore processing cost
$/ton
Mine administration cost
$/ton
Head office administration cost
$/ton
Ore Costs 1 and 2

Additional ore processing costs per unit weight may be applied to ore
blocks or ore material (not stockpile material.) They provide a
mechanism to allocate different processing costs for those operations
employing both heap leach and mill processing methods .
Example 1: Heap leach processing costs $1.20 per ton and mill
processing costs $4.50 per ton. Enter the following:
Ore processing cost
Ore cost 1
Ore cost 2
=
=
=
$1.20
($4.50 - $1.20) =$3.30
$0.
Usually Ore cost 2 will be zero, but sometimes it may be useful to split
costs into separate additive components for user convenience in
checking results.
Example 2: It can be confusing to see numbers such as $3.30 (as

in Example 1) when the mill cost is $4.50 and the heap leach cost
is $1.20. Another way to achieve this effect would be as follows:
Ore processing cost
Ore cost 1
Ore cost 2
=
=
=
$1.20
$4.50
$-1.20.
The $-1.20 would cancel the $1.20 ore processing cost. This method
may be easier to explain and maintain over a period of time, since the
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3129
numeric values relate directly to actual cost items ($1.20 for heap
leach processing and $4.50 for mill processing.)
Make use of trace blocks to check your input.
Mine Call Factor
Enter a general recovery percentage to apply to all revenue
calculations independent of rock type or grade element.
CutOff Grades
Economic modelling deals with three basic types of material: Ore,
Stockpile and Waste. However, you can model a second ore type
(rather than stockpile material) within a single cost profile.
The conditions in the table below determine whether the material in a
block or portion of a block is classified as Ore, Stockpile or Waste:
Class
Ore
Rock
type
Ore
Stockpil Ore
e
Waste
Grade for primary mineral

Ore/stockpile and Ore/stockpile
cut-off grade in
cut-off grade in
rock code profile
cost/revenue
profile
and Stockpile/waste
Stockpile/waste
cut-off grade in
cut-off grade in
cost/revenue
rock code profile
profile
and Fails one or

more Ore
conditions
Fails one or more Stockpile conditions
You have the flexibility to set cutoffs grades in the rock code profile,
in the cost/revenue profile, or in both. Simply enter zeroes where you
do not wish to specify a cutoff.
Modelling
Page 3130
Revenue Curves
Use Block }Edit }Define Cost Profiles to define, on the Revenue
tab, linear or non-linear revenue vs. head grade curves for each grade
element by entering from 2 to 10 data points.
Revenue curve data points must cover the full range of grades which
may be present. An error will be reported when economic modelling
encounters a grade outside the range.
Figure 7-1 andFigure 7-2 show linear and nonlinear revenue curves
for copper based on a price of $1.10/pound and 2200 pounds/metric ton.
Head
grade
(%Cu)
Revenue
($ / ton)
0.00
0.00
100.00
2200.00
Revenue Curve for Copper for 100% Linear Recovery
Figure 7-1: Linear revenue curve
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3131
Head
grade
(%Cu)
Revenue
($ / ton)
0.00
0.00
1.00
10.00
2.00
23.00
3.00
58.00
4.00
82.00
5.00
100.00
6.00
118.00
7.00
130.00
8.00
142.00
10.00
170.00
Revenue Curve for Copper for NonLinear Recovery
Figure 7-2: NonLinear revenue curve
Cost and Revenue Formulation

Economic block value equals revenue cost, where cost and revenue
are calculated for each block type. Different cost and revenue formulae
are used for Waste, Stockpile and Ore material. In addition, the units
of the various input numbers vary.
Cost Items
Cost calculation components are summarized in the table below:
Modelling
Page 3132
Cost item
Ore
Stockpile
Waste
Drilling cost
Blasting cost
Loading cost
Fixed haulage cost
Mining services cost
Surface haulage cost
In pit horizontal haulage cost
In pit vertical haulage cost (up)
In pit vertical haulage cost

(down)
Ore processing cost
Mine administration cost
Head office administration cost
Ore cost # 1
Ore cost #2
Revenue Formula
Revenue is derived, for each grade label, from the product of the
following factors:
Revenue
Tons of ore
Ore
4
Stockpile
Waste
Revenue per ton (from user

defined revenue curve)
Mine call factor
Rock type recovery factor
Total block revenue for Ore and Stockpile blocks is the sum of the
revenues for each grade label. Waste block revenue is zero.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3133
Building an Economic Block Model

After you have defined the cost parameters, choose Block }Edit
}Economic Modelling to build the economic model.
You will have the opportunity to select the following parameters:
Rock codes to be used. You can restrict economic modelling to a

subset of the rock codes defined.
Cost/Revenue profile to be used. Choose one of the profiles

defined using Block }Edit }Define Cost Profiles.
Selection Range. You may process all blocks, or restrict

processing to blocks within or outside the current selection..
If you are not processing all blocks, be sure that the economic
model has been pre-initialized (usually to 0) before you begin. This
option is available as a process control.
Process Controls. Several options are available to control the

input and output of the economic modelling process.
Check run. You can verify the economic modelling process

without actually altering the data in the model.
Update all data. You can reset all blocks in the economic
model to zero before updating the model.
Convert to waste. You can flag blocks as waste if their

processing cost exceeds their revenue.
Warning for duplicated rock code. You can identify any

block model rock codes that have been assigned to more than
one Gemcom rock code.
Trace blocks. You may select one or more trace blocks. Details
about cost/revenue parameters, ore/stockpile/waste classification,
and other economic data will be reported for each trace block.
It is strongly recommended that you use at least one to three trace
blocks for any run. Place these blocks at points of interest.
Reported results for these blocks should always be checked.
Modelling
Page 3134
You may save economic modelling control file parameters in an .ECS

file for later retrieval.
Interfacing with Pit Optimization Programs

Determining the most economical pit design for a complex orebody can
be a very complicated task. Pit design tools will help to quickly
generate pit envelopes if you know where you want to mine. But if you
want to know where the most economical mining areas are, your best
bet is a pit optimization package.
Gemcom provides a convenient interface to Whittle pit optimization
software. Using commands found on the Block }Utils submenu, you
can convert an economic block model into a format which can be
processed by Whittle, or load an optimum pit or pits from Whittle into
Gemcom as a surface elevation grids.
Whittle Conventions
Whittle rows, columns and levels differ from the Gemcom rows,
columns and levels as shown in the table below.
Item
Whittle
Gemcom
Rows increase
North
South
Columns increase
East
East
Levels increase
Upwards
Downwards
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3135
Partial vs. Whole Block Extraction

Most of the pit design work in Gemcom is based on the partial
extraction of blocks. The extent to which any block is mined out is
determined by the elevation value at that location as stored in the SEG.
The ability to mine out partial blocks means that slope angles can be
accurately modelled by comparing the elevation of a block with its
immediate neighbours.
With the Whittle 3D and 4D/4X packages, only whole blocks can be
mined out. Since slope angle management is more complex, these
optimizing packages use 'structures' to check several levels of blocks to
provide accurate overall slope angles.
Reblocking
Reblocking can be performed within the Whittle programs. Refer to
Whittle documentation for details.
Modelling
Page 3136
General Procedure
Before you run a Whittle optimizer, you need to prepare the correct
data in Gemcom. The optimizer will yield a mathematically optimal pit
design in which whole blocks are mined out. This design needs to be
loaded back into Gemcom so that you can further smooth the pit using
other Gemcom commands.
1. Use Block }Edit }Economic Modelling to construct an
appropriate economic block model. If you plan to run Whittle 3D,
then this economic block model should contain the NPV total dollar
value for each block (i.e., Block revenue mining and processing
costs). Be careful when deciding which overhead costs to include.
Refer to the Whittle documentation for further details.
2. Export data to Whittle 3D or 4D/4X using Block }Utils }Export to
Whittle 3D or Export to Whittle 4D/4X. With Whittle, summary
totals are displayed and printed. Use these to check the numbers of
blocks transferred and the dollar totals. The commands will create
both Economic and Model Parameters files.
If you are using Whittle 4D/4X, you will still need to prepare the
Parameters file using the Whittle editor program FDED.
3. Run the pit optimization program.
4. Optimization results are written to fixed format text files. Use
Block }Utils }Import from Whittle 3D or Import from
Whittle 4D/4X to read these files and convert them to SEGs.
5. At this stage it is useful to evaluate the SEG you just created using
the reserves reporting tools on the Volumetrics menu. In
particular, check the dollar values obtained by Gemcom against
those obtained by the Whittle programs. If they are close, then all
is well. However, if there are any discrepancies, then there may be
reblocking problems. Display the SEGs in various views to check
the pit. If you see problems, try an alternative reblocking policy.
6. Because the Whittle pits are restricted to whole block extraction
and because you may have used reblocking, you may find that
contour plots of these pits are very irregular and unappealing.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3137
Licensed users can produce design quality pits from Whittle output
using Tools }Pit/Ramp Design.
Export to Whittle 3D
To export data to Whittle 3D, you need:
A valid economic block model.

A valid surface elevation grid defining the surface topography.
Whittle 3D optimizes regular block models only. Seam models and

models with irregularly spaced levels will not yield accurate results.
You also need to understand how Whittle 3D works. See the Whittle 3D
User Manual for explanations of the input parameters required. These
include:
Row, column, and bench information.

Information on which Whittle 3D modelling options to use.
Destination file names for the economic and parameter data to be
input into Whittle 3D.
Flags indicating how air blocks will be treated.
Default unit volumetric mining costs for waste blocks.
The number of sub-regions you plan to use. The default is 1.
Row, column and level limits for each sub-region.
Slope angle and slope angle direction information for each subregion.
Mining phase information.
Import from Whittle 3D

To load an optimum pit from Whittle 3D into Gemcom as a SEG, you
will need to enter the following data:
The name of the results file from the Whittle 3D run.

The name of the Whittle 3D model parameters file.
A description of the SEG to be created.
During processing, information showing the conversion of Whittle

rows, columns, and levels to Gemcom format will be displayed.
Modelling
Page 3138
Validation
Be sure to check the dollar value produced by Gemcom of the newly
loaded SEG against the dollar value produced by Whittle 3D for the
same pit. Both sets of values should be nearly the same. If Gemcom
produces a lower value than Whittle 3D, there may be problems in
deciphering the reblocked Whittle model into a Gemcom model. If this
occurs, use plan and section viewing tools to locate the problem.
Whittle interface is not compatible with all of the latest 3D options.
One such option which is not supported is the use of comment lines.
Example
The table below shows results from several Whittle 3D runs based on
exported Gemcom block model data. It compares the runs with a
previous manual pit design.
Run
Tons (million) Grade
$ Value (millions)
Whittle 3D (1x1x1)
81.5
425.5
After import
74.3
0.314
425.5
Whittle 3D (2x2x1)
85.8
415.73
After import
77.7
0.306
415.73
Whittle 3D (2x3x2)
94.0
410.51
After import
74.8
0.308
410.51
Whittle 3D (4x4x1)
92
403.6
After import
83.3
0.294
403.6
Previous manual design

(includes ramps)
64.8
0.286
292.7
Big pit + Waste contraction 152.4
0.220
308.9
Bench plan pit + Waste

contraction
0.266
353.01
93.1
The advantages of running Whittle 3D for this example are evident.

Note that all levels of reblocking in this example produce essentially
the same pit.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3139
A useful check is to see if the pit generated by Whittle 3D produces

the same dollar value before and after loading back into Gemcom.
In this example, the Whittle tonnages are based only on the

number of blocks extracted multiplied by the average density.
Obviously, there are many blocks along the original surface
topography which are partial, therefore the tonnage calculated for
the Whittle pits is not accurate, but is included for reference. This
again demonstrates the importance of using the dollar value for
cross checking.
You can also produce an extraction file of average (re-blocked)

elevation values. These extraction files may be used to generate
smoother looking pit outlines than would normally be obtained simply
by contouring an unsmoothed Whittle pit.
Export to Whittle 4D/4X
To export data to Whittle 4D/4X, you need:
A valid grade model or models.

A valid surface elevation grid defining the surface topography.
Whittle 4D/4X requires other input files which you create using
Whittle editors as described in the 4D/4X manual.
In addition, you will be asked for the following information:
A surface elevation grid to be used as the surface topography.
A lower grade threshold which is used to reduce the size of the

model file. (Note that this is not the same as the cut-off grade used
for mining. It should be less than the lowest cut-off grade used for
any economic analysis.)
Row, column and bench/level limits.
Mining cost adjustment factors (CAFs) for each rock type.
A multiplier which may be applied to each metal unit before it is

output.
Modelling
Page 3140
Ore Parcels
Whittle 4D/4X is designed to handle multiple ore parcels. However,
successful export of data requires that your project first be properly
organized into folders which represent separate ore parcels. See
Chapter 3: Block Model Projects for a discussion of folders.
Metal Units
As a user, you need to create grade models in the usual way. The
export command will convert grades to metal units as required by
Whittle 4D/4X.
Validation
Be sure to manually check a few blocks before proceeding with an
actual 4D/4X run. To do this, elect to export trace blocks only. Print out
the economic input file and then compare the values with data
contained in the blocks using the Block Model Editor. Check each item
in the printout to ensure that you understand its value and that these
items are consistent with the Whittle 4D/4X manual.
Gemcom for Windows
Page 3141
File Format
For each waste block, there will be one line of output consisting of:
ROW
COL
LEVEL
NORE
CMINE
CPROC
TONS
Row number
Column number
Level number
Number of ore packets = 0 for waste
Cost of mining adjustment factor
Cost of processing adjustment factor
Total tons in the block
For each block which contains some ore (above your defined
thresholds), there will be two lines of output consisting of:
LINE 1:
ROW
COL
LEVEL
NORE
CMINE
CPROC
TONS
Row number
Column number
Level number
Number of ore packets = 1 for ore
Cost of mining adjustment factor
Cost of processing adjustment factor
Total tons in the block
LINE 2
ROW
COL
LEVEL
CORE
TONSO
UNITS
Modelling
Row number
Column number
Level number
Ore code identifier = `ORE'
Tons of ore in the block
METAL UNITS in the block
Page 3142
Input from Whittle 4D/4X

This procedure is similar to that described above under Input from
Whittle 3D. However, since 4D/4X produces many pit designs, you can
select which pit designs from 4D/4X to load into Gemcom to quickly
produce a set of nested pit designs.
Validation
Dollar value checking between Whittle 4D/4X and Gemcom is not as
simple as it is for 3D. The methods of calculating dollar values are
different for 4D/4X and Gemcom. Therefore, use common sense and
engineering judgement to check if the pits which are loaded into
Gemcom reflect the pits generated by 4D/4X. To simplify the checking
processes, you should produce several cross sections of pit designs and
grade block models.
If possible, cross check against 3D as well.
Gemcom is not compatible with all of the latest 4D/4X options. One
such option which is not supported is the use of comment lines.
Gemcom for Windows

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Page 3001

About This Volume

Gemcom block modelling, solids modelling and resource evaluation

Step-by-step procedures for using Gemcom modelling menu

Organization of This Volume

Chapter 1: About This Volume

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling outlines the Modelling

Section II: Block Modelling

Gemcom for Windows

Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation

Section IV: Modelling Menus

Chapter 1: About This Volume

Gemcom for Windows

Geological modelling.. You can interactively query drillhole

Block modelling. You can create numerical models to

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Underground mine layouts. You can use the flexible polyline

Gemcom for Windows

Block Model Updating

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Manipulation and Editing

Single, multiple or filtered rows, columns or levels.

Gemcom for Windows

Figure 2-1: Block model data displayed as cubes

Display type, either displaying blocks as numerical values, 3D

Block colour using a standard colour profile.

Shrinkage factor, so you can shrink blocks either globally or

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Surface elevation grids can be displayed as fishnets in 3D. When you

Gemcom for Windows

Create surfaces from combinations of active drillhole intersects,

Figure 2-3: A selection of surfaces, cut away to show detail

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Figure 2-4: A surface created in the XY plane (top), and an

Gemcom for Windows

Surfaces can also be created by the Laplace gridding procedure.

As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Figure 2-5: Contours created on a set of plan views

Create the polyline of intersection between two surfaces.

Gemcom for Windows

Figure 2-6: Intersecting surfaces, cut away to show detail (top),

Create the minimum, or the maximum, of two intersecting

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Figure 2-7: A set of geological and excavation solids,

Create solids from polylines, points and 3D rings.

Gemcom for Windows

Figure 2-8: Two intersecting solids

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

operations refer to the sample solids in Figure 2-8. You can

Create the polyline of intersection between two solids.

Figure 2-9: Solid A clipped by solid B

Intersect a solid with another solid (see Figure 2-10).

Figure 2-10: Solid A intersected with solid B

Gemcom for Windows

Figure 2-11: Union of solid A and solid B

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling

Figure 2-12: Contours from a solid using plan views (top)

As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations

Gemcom for Windows

Using all active vertical sections.

Constructing Block Models

Chapter 2: Introduction to Modelling