Manora Caldera

Electrical Systems
(ELEN1000)

DC Analysis - 1
Lecture 2
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Contents
Background
Ohms Law
Electrical Power and Energy
Series Circuits
Parallel Circuits
Series and Parallel Combination Circuits
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Hydraulic Analogy
Electricity might be compared to water:

Fig. 1 Electrical

Fig. 2 Water
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Battery can be compared to the water pump

voltage

and water pressure

Current is similar to the flow rate of water

Coulombs per second (Ampers) and m3/second

Wire is similar to the water pipe

Small diameter wire is like a small diameter water pipe

An open switch is like a closed valve

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Basic Elements of anElectric Circuit

A source that delivers electricity, e.g., generators,
batteries, alternators etc.
A load that consumes the supplied electricity, e.g., light
bulbs, motors, relays etc.
A switch that controls the on
and off of the load
Connecting conductors

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Circuit Symbols
Sources: Independent sources

dc voltage
source

ac voltage
source

battery

current
source

Sources: Dependent sources

Dependent voltage source

Dependent current source

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Definitions and units

Current
Electric current (i) is defined as the rate at which charge (q) flows
through a surface (for example, the cross section of a wire) i.e.,
Unit of current is Ampere (A)
Current is always measured through an element

Voltage
Voltage (v), also called electromotive force, is the potential
difference in charge between two points in an electrical field
Unit of voltage is Volt (V)
Voltage is always measured across an element
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Resistance
The resistance (R) of a material is the property to resist the flow of charges
when an external electric field is applied
Unit of resistance is Ohm ()
Resistance of a material depends on its length (l), cross sectional area (A)
and the resistivity of the material (as
()
Symbol of a resistor

Fixed resistor

Variable resistor

Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of a resistor, G = 1/R, the unit is Siemen

(S) or Mho
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Colour Coding of Resistors

In the above resistor, Band 1 = Orange (3), Band 2 = White (9), Band 3 = Yellow (4),
Band 4 = Gold (5% tolerance) and Band 5 = Red (0.1% reliability)

From the table,

The resistance R of the one given = 39x104 5% = 390 k 1.95 kwith a reliability
of 0.1%
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Ohms Law
At a given temperature, the current through a conductor (I) between

two points is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)

between those two points. The proportionality constant depends on
the resistance (R) between the two points
V=IR

Here, V is in Volts, I is in Amperes, and R is in Ohms

Knowing any two values of V, I, or R, the third unknown can be

obtained
Ohms Law triangle:
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Direction of Conventional Current and Electron Flow

Conventional current flow direction is same as the direction of

positive charges

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Electrical Power and Energy

Electrical Power
Rate of energy absorbed or produced within the circuit
A source of energy such as a voltage source will produce or deliver power while the
connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb power and
convert it into heat or light and the higher their value or rating in watts the more power
they will consume

P
(Watt)

VI
(Volt) (A)

Power also be given in hp, i.e., 1 hp = 746 W and

1 W = 1 Joules/sec
Using Ohms law,V = I R,

P = I2R =V2/R
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Electrical Energy

Electrical power within a circuit consumed over a period of time

W=Pt =
The unit of Energy is Watt-hours (Wh), kWh, MWh or
Energy (Wh) = Power (W) * Time (h)
1 kWh = 1000 Wh
1 MWh = 1000 kWh
1 GWh = 1000 MWh
In WA, we pay for electricity on the basis of kWh consumed in a specific period at approximately
24 cents per kWh

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Series Circuits
Any electric circuit having all elements joined in a sequence such

that the same current flows through them all. Voltage across the
circuit is the sum of the voltages across each element

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Parallel Circuits

In a parallel circuit both terminals of an element are respectively connected

to each terminal of the other element or elements. Voltage across each
element is the same and the total current is the sum of the currents through
each element

I1

I2

I3

R1

R2

R3

I = I1 + I2 + I3

and
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Series and Parallel Combination

Resistive Circuits
These circuits contain elements of both series and parallel. In

analysing such circuits, identify the series sections and parallel

sections of the circuit and can apply the series and parallel rules to
those selectively

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Series and Parallel Combination

Resistive Circuits - Example
Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel
Resistors R3 and R4 are connected in parallel

, it gives
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 becomes
(100)(250)/(100+250) = 71.43
The equivalent resistance of R3 and R4 becomes
(200)(350)/(200+350) = 127.27
These two equivalent resistances are now in series. Thus the total resistance
of the circuit, RT = 71.43 + 127.27 = 198.7

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Electrical Systems
(ELEN 1000)

DC Analysis - II
Lecture 3

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Contents

Voltage Divider Rule

Current Divider Rule
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
Measurement of Voltage and Current
Concept of Open Circuit and Short Circuit
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Voltage Divider Rule

In a series circuit, the voltage across resistances divide according to

the magnitude of the resistances

Using Ohms Law to the circuit below

,
Similarly,
,
and
,
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Current Divider Rule

The current in a circuit with parallel elements divide in ratios

according to the inverse of the resistance values

Considering the circuit below:

Using Ohms Law,

1
1

1 2
1

and

1 2
1

2
1

1
1

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Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

The sum of the currents entering a junction of a network is equal

to the sum of the currents leaving the same junction

or

=
For example,
if I1 = 5A, I2 = 2A, and I3 =7A,
Taking the current entering the node as reference,
5

Taking the current leaving the node as reference,

7

0
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KCL at Node a gives,

I1 + I2 I3 = 0 and
KCL at Node b gives
I4 + I5 I6 = 0
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of the voltage differences across all the

elements in a closed loop network is equal to zero

0 for a closed loop

In this circuit, the current is assumed to be in the
clockwise direction. Then the voltage polarities
across each resistor will be as shown. The current
entering end of a resistor will have a positive (+)
polarity and the leaving end will have a negative
(-) polarity
Applying KVL to the closed loop will give
0
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Example:
Applying KVL to the closed loop will give

Substituting the values,

-2 + 4 - 4 +3.5 +1.5 - 3 = 0

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Commonly Used Voltage Notations (double subscript)

If a current I flows through a resistor R as shown above from A to B,

The voltage drop between A and B is given by VAB
It is the voltage at point A with respect to point B. i.e.
VAB = VA - VB and
Similarly, the voltage at point B with respect to point A is given by
VBA = VB VA
And we can see that
VAB = - VBA
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Commonly Used Voltage Notations (single subscript)

Here, VA is the voltage at point A with respect to ground

VAG = VA VG
As
VG = 0,
VAG = VA
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Measurement of Voltage

A voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across any

element
They can be either analog (AVO) or digital (DMM)
Voltmeters are always connected across (parallel) to the
element
They have very high internal resistance
Hence the current that goes through the voltmeter when it
is connected in parallel is negligible and that
measurement will not affect the operation of the circuit
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Voltmeter Connection
Red lead should be connected to the
+ve end and the Black lead should be
connected to the ve end of the voltage
to get a +ve reading
(Figure in the left)

Otherwise, the voltmeter will give a

ve reading as shown in the figure
in the right.
This agrees with VAB = - VBA
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Measurement of Current

An Ammeter is used to measure the current through any

element
They also can be either analog or digital
Ammeters are always connected in series so that the
current to be measured should go through it
They have a negligible internal resistance
Hence the magnitude of the current will not change due to
the insertion of an ammeter when it is connected in series

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Ammeter Connection

Current should enter the Red lead and leave through the Black
lead
Otherwise, a negative reading will be shown in the ammeter
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Open Circuit

No current will go through the open circuit between a and b

Resistance across a and b is very high (infinity)
Voltage across a and b depends on the other elements in the circuit
and it will not be zero

a
b

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Short Circuit

Voltage across a and b is zero, Vab = 0

There will be a current going through the short circuit between a
and b
Resistance across a and b is zero

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