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ions sheet for AP Chemistry

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3000-4000

Title:

The Ultimate Guide to Ions for AP Chemistry

General
description:

We would like a comprehensive guide aligned to the current AP Chemistry exam that
includes a few pages of tables of the different ions students can expect to see on the
AP Chemistry exam, as well as sections on how nomenclature rules work, tips and
recommendations for students on how to learn the ions, and a general study plan for
students to use in memorizing the ions. We want to outrank the following resources:
http://www.mpsaz.org/rmhs/staff/dmdawson/class1/aphand/files/ap-ions-and-namingreview.pdf ,
http://www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/APpdfs/AP_Summer_Packet.pdfhttp://www.s
ciencegeek.net/APchemistry/APpdfs/AP_Summer_Packet.pdf ,
http://www.chemmybear.com/stuff.pdf -- Please note--the exam has changed in recent
years--be wary of using old information that is no longer relevant to the exam. You
should consistently refer back to the curriculum guide.

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1.

Introduction
Background Information on Ions
Periodic Table Usage
Writing Formulas
Naming Ionic Compounds
Table of Common Ions to Memorize
Solubility Rules

Introduction

Welcome to the catch all AP Chemistry Ion Sheet! As youve no doubt experienced in
your class or self study thus far, the field of general chemistry has its own building blocks of
language. At the end of the day, all the chemical reactions and phenomena that you learn
throughout the course will ultimately boil down to how molecules interact with each other at the
atomic level, thereby influencing all the cool macro properties that we can see and manipulate.
Now lets get started with an overview of what exactly you need to know about ions according to
College Boards AP Chemistry exam.

http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-chemistry-course-and-examdescription.pdf
College Board is for the most part very thorough in the way they expect you to be able to utilize
critical testable material, as shown in the graphic representation above. The overarching theme
and broad understanding for ions that is expected are the following:
Big Idea 2: Chemical and physical properties of materials can be explained by
the structure and the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules and the forces between
them.
Essential knowledge 2.A.3:
e. Chromatography separates chemical species by taking
advantage of the differential strength of intermolecular interactions between and
among the components.
f. Distillation is used to separate chemical species by taking
advantage of the differential strength of intermolecular interactions between and
among the components and the effects these interactions have on the vapor
pressures of the components in the mixture.
h. Generally, when ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the
component ions are separated and dispersed. The presence of ions in a solution
can be detected by use of conductivity measurements.
i. Solution composition can be expressed in a variety of ways;
molarity is the most common method used in the laboratory. Molarity is defined
as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Essential knowledge: 2.C.1: In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between
the nuclei of two atoms to form a molecule or polyatomic ion. Electronegativity

differences between the two atoms account for the distribution of the shared electrons
and the polarity of the bond.
d. Ionic interactions with dipoles are important in the solubility of
ionic compounds in polar solvents
In other words, in order to have the appropriate essential knowledge to apply the big ideas to
a problem, there will be a fair bit of memorization. Like I said at the beginning, there is a lingo in
chemistry, and you might have gotten the hint that the language of chemistry can be found in
the Periodic Table of Elements, shown below.

.
http://sciencenotes.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/SciNotesPeriodicTable.png
2. Background: Periodic Table of Elements
So there is this all this AP Chemistry buzz about ions, but what exactly are they? In
order to understand what ions are, we have to reference our chemistry alphabet, the Periodic
Table of Elements (from here on out, fondly referred to as, the Table).
The Table is an arrangement of the chemical elements that have been identified, both
naturally and created in labs, in the order of their atomic number. The atomic number is the
number of protons in the element. The way the Table is arranged, elements with similar atomic
structures are in the same group, or vertical column. As you can imagine, this creates certain
trends in the chemical behaviour of groups and families, horizontal rows.
You have most likely learned at some point that the Table is organized by the valence
electron numbers of the elements. As in, all the elements in a particular group (going longways
up and down, i.e. column) have the same number of valence electrons, the outer shell electrons
that are able to interact with other atomic elements to create bonds of all different flavors (ionic,
covalent, dipole-dipole, etc.). Fundamentally, electrons are what are responsible for chemical
reactions and bonds. The most common bonds that you will be addressing in AP Chemistry are
covalent and ionic bonds.
Group I of the Table is referred to as the alkali metals. The elements that make up the
alkali metals start with Li and extends to Fr, shown below outlined in yellow.

http://sciencenotes.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/SciNotesPeriodicTable.png
Group II is referred to as alkaline earth metals. Characteristically, the elements in Group II have
high melting points and when combined with Oxygen, referred to as oxides, the solutions are
basic, high PH. Group III through Group XII include what is often referred to as transition
elements, which are metals that have a partially filled electron subshell. When these transition
metals form metallic bonds they create a nebulous state of electrons, referred to as a sea of
electrons. As you can imagine, a sea of electrons refers to delocalized electrons which instead
of orbiting their respective metal ions, these electrons surround the positively charged atomic
nuclei of the interacting metallic ions. Ultimately, this sea of electrons is a very delocalized form
of covalent bonding, which will be discussed later in this guide. Group XVI is known as the nonmetals, which includes Hydrogen. The subsequent Group XVII is known as the halogens, which
are a sub-group of non-metals. These elements are highly reactive and exist in nature only as
compounds. Group XVIII is called the noble gases and they are known for being colorless,
odorless, and most importantly, chemically stable. Noble gases are content not reacting with
other gases due to their full outer electron shell.
3. Valency and Electrons
In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885 - 1962) proposed an early model of the atom, which showed
the nucleus of the atom as containing the protons and neutrons with electrons in shells orbiting
the nucleus. The shells were clearly distinguished and in order for an electron to move between
shells, specific quantities of energy were required to do so. In other words, the difference in
energy levels between shells was well established. According to Bohr, when an electron
becomes excited by absorbing energy from a photon, it can move to a higher-energy shell if the
energy is sufficient. In relation, when an electron drops back down to a lower-energy shell, it will
release the energy usually as heat.
Since most things governed by the laws of physics prefer to be at the bottom of the
potential energy well, atoms populate their electrons from the lowest energy (shell closest to the
nucleus) outwards. The shell closest to the nucleus can hold 2 electrons (called the 1n shell).
The subsequent shells can each hold 8 electrons each. The outermost electron shell is called
the valence shell. The electrons in the valence shell are rightfully called valence electrons. For

the most part, the least reactive elements have a full outer electron shell, fulfilling what is
commonly called the octet rule, having 8 electrons. Knowing this, we can explain some of the
characteristics of the different groups of the Table discussed above.
Group I: Highly reactive elements because they only have one valence electron.
Therefore, in order to be stable these elements need to lose their electron or share it
with another atom. If the valence electron is completely given up to another atom, then a
positively charged ion is formed. For example, Li becomes Li+.
Group II: Highly reactive elements because they only have two valence electron.
Therefore, in order to be stable these elements need to lose their electrons or share
them with another atom. If the valence electrons are completely given up to another
atom, then a positively charged ion is formed. For example, Mg becomes Mg2+.
Group XVII: Highly reactive because they have 7 valence electrons. In order to
achieve stability, these elements strive to fill the octet rule, taking an electron from other
atoms. This creates a negatively charged ion. For example, F become F-.
Group XVIII: Also known as the noble gases, these elements are very stable and
generally considered unreactive since they contain 8 valence electrons, fulfilling the
octet rule.
4. Orbitals and Electrons
We discussed the Bohr model of the atom in the previous section, but that model alone
doesnt give insight into how the electrons are actually spatially distributed about the electron
shells. Through advances in imaging technology, it was discovered that electrons do not circle
the nucleus as Bohr postulated, but instead the electrons reside in specified regions around the
nucleus in electron orbitals. Although through Heisenbergs principle we do not know the exact
location of an electron at a specific instant, we can know the volume of space in which the
electron is most likely to be found. An orbital is therefore a high probability area of space where
an electron can potentially reside. Each orbital can hold up to two electrons.
We can modify Bohrs model to contain subshells, or in other words, orbitals. Subshells,
or orbitals, exist in a couple of flavors: s, p, d, and f. The different letters designate the shape of
the orbital, as shown below.

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/8855/=Single_electron_orbitals.jpg?revision=1
5. Chemical Bonds
Since this review is targeted for ions, Ill only briefly touch on covalent bonds. Covalent
bonds are chemical interactions where atoms share electrons, not always equally. If equal
sharing is not the case, then there are other descriptive words (such as polar) attached to the
front. Common covalently bonded molecules include: H2O, NH3, and O2. In fact, covalent bonds
are one major way that atoms go about completing their valence shells. Covalent bonds are
common in living systems due to their strength. Our DNA and proteins contain covalent bonds
which are responsible for maintaining the structure of these molecules. There can be up to three
pairs of electrons that are shared. It is safe to draw the conclusion that the more number of
covalent bonds, the stronger the bond between the atoms.
Ionic bonds on the other hand happen when electrons are lost or gained between atoms
(no sharing, just taking). Keep in mind that the space that the valence electrons occupy can
therefore change pretty dramatically depending on if valence electrons are gained or lost. When
an atom or molecule loses or gains an electron and becomes respectively charged, it is called
an ion. Usually the loss of an electron by one atom and the gain of an electron by another atom
must happen in conjunction. That is, for every anion formed, there is usually a cation formed
and vice versa. Ionic bonds by formal definition are electrostatic attractions formed between
ions of opposite charges. The resultant bonded molecule is termed an ionic compound, and are
present in nature as crystals. There are some specific types of ions that are necessary to know:
Cations - Positively charged ions, usually metals since they tend
to lose electrons and thereby become positively charged. For example, the
Group I elements can all lose their one valence electron to be +1. Group 2
elements can lose their two electrons to become +2, and so on and so forth for
Groups 13 and 14 as well.
Anions - Negatively charged ions, usually nonmetal elements
since they can gain electrons and thereby become negatively charged. For
example, Group 15 elements can gain three electrons to fill octet and become
charged to -3. Group 16 can gain two electrons to get a charge of -2, and Group
17 can gain one electron to fill out its last electron shell and get a charge of -1.
Group 18 contains the noble gases, octet already filled, so those elements
wouldnt become ionized under normal circumstances.
Polyatomic ions - These are charged entities of a couple of atoms
that act as one unit. Examples are MnO42- and HS-.
3. Periodic Table Usage
As long as you remember that ions are formed by gaining or losing valence electrons,
you can easily predict the charge from looking at the Table. The caveat to this is that polyatomic
ions are not quite that straightforward and you should definitely memorize the polyatomic ions
(see table at the end of this guide).

Youll notice that the cation and anion prediction using the Table was limited to nontransition metals. So transition metals are different from the outer groups on the Table because
they have what is called a sea of electrons. Their electrons arent as orderly and can move
around more than the other groups that were discussed. In short, it is a bit difficult to predict
ionic charges for the transition metals because some of the metals have multiple oxidation
states. Iron can be Fe2+ or Fe3+. Whereas there are some transition metals with only one
oxidation state. Ionized Zinc will always be Zn2+ and ionized Silver will be Ag+.
4. Writing Formulas
The rules for writing ionic compounds are as follows:
1. Write the formula for the cation and its charge
2. Write the formula for the anion and its charge
3. See if the charges are balanced as is
4. If the charges arent balanced, use whole number subscripts as multipliers to
balance the charge. If you have a polyatomic ion, then put parenthesis around the ion
before using subscripts.
5. Naming Ionic Compounds
1. Write the cation
a. Monoatomic cation = element name
i.
Ca2+ = Calcium
2. Then write the anion
a. Monoatomic anion = root of element + ide
i.
Cl- = chloride
Example: CaCl2 = Calcium Chloride
3. If metals have more than one cation (oxidation) state:
a. Use Roman Numeral to indicate the oxidation state
PbCl2 = Lead (II) Chloride
6. Table of Common Polyatomic Ions to Memorize
Courtesy of various different sources and teachers, the following list contains the
monatomic and polyatomic ions you must memorize in order to be successful on the exam.
http://www2.pvc.maricopa.edu/tutor/chem/chem130/nomenclature/polyatomicion.html
ion

name

ion

name

ion

NH4+

ammoniu
m

H2PO3-

dihydrogen
phosphite

HPO32-

hydrogen
phosphite PO33-

phosphite

H3O+ hydronium H2PO4-

dihydrogen
phosphate

HPO42-

hydrogen
phosphate PO43-

phosphate

Hg22
+
mercury(I)

HCO3-

hydrogen
carbonate

CO32-

HSO3-

hydrogen

SO32-

name

ion

name

hypophosphit
carbonate PO23e
sulfite

AsO33

arsenite

ion

name

P2O74 pyrophosphat
e

sulfite

HSO4-

hydrogen
sulfate

SO42-

sulfate

NO2-

nitrite

S2O32-

thiosulfate

NO3-

nitrate

SiO32-

silicate

OH-

hydroxide

C22-

carbide

CH3COO
-

acetate

C2O42-

oxalate

CrO2-

chromite

CrO42-

chromate

CN-

cyanide

Cr2O72-

dichromat
e

CNO-

cyanate

C4H4O62
-

tartrate

CNS-

thiocyanate

O2-

superoxide

O22-

peroxide

MnO4-

permanganat
e

S22-

disulfide

ClO-

hypochlorite

ClO2-

chlorite

ClO3-

chlorate

ClO4-

perchlorate

BrO-

hypobromite

BrO2-

bromite

BrO3-

bromate

BrO4-

perbromate

IO-

hypoiodite

IO2-

iodite

IO3-

iodate

IO4-

periodate

AlO2-

aluminate

N3-

azide

AsO43
-

arsenate

MoO42- molybdate

7. Solubility Rules
In the previous sections throughout this guide we learned about ionic bonds and polarity.
Many chemical reactions involve placing compounds into a liquid solution in order to create a
specific reaction or byproduct. A solvent is the material that is being added to the solution. A
solvent is the material that is doing the dissolving. A very common illustration is that of table salt,
NaCl, being dissolved in water. Water is a polar molecule containing polar covalent bonds
between its atoms. NaCl is a compound whose atoms are connected via an ionic bond. We

learned that ionic compounds are found in crystalline structure in nature. This means that the
Na+ and the Cl- are systematically organized. When placed in water, the more negative oxygen
of the water molecules will interact with the Na+. Now, keep in mind that there are a whole bunch
of water molecules, so the water molecules will end up pulling off the sodium ion. The chloride
anions will in turn also be interacting with the slightly positively charged H of the water molecule.
So in the case of NaCl in water, we get an end result where the salt is completely dissolved in
the water, meaning that it is completely hydrated and in solution. Not all ionic compounds
dissolve in solution. There are some ions that when combined with other ions precipitate out of
solution, or solidify out of solution.
For an example that results in precipitation, consider two beakers, one with aqueous
NaCl and the other with aqueous AgNO3. Note that to start off both compounds are completely
dissolved in solution. If we pour the beaker containing the AgNO3 into the beaker with NaCl,
what will we see? We end up with a solid precipitate at the bottom of our mixed solution. The
reason for why this precipitation occurs is that initially the ions of both compounds are stabilized
by the hydration forces of water. When combined, the electrostatic force of attraction between
Cl- and Ag+ are greater than that of each respective to a polar water molecule. If we look at the
solubility rules below, rule number 2 tells us that AgCl is insoluble. Therefore the white
precipitate that we see at the bottom of the beaker is AgCl with the NaNO3 in solution, since rule
number 3 tells us that all nitrates are soluble.
Because ions have charges, when they are reacted with water there can be many
different observations that can be made, one of which is solubility/insolubility. The following rules
govern the most common behavior of the ions focused on in the AP Chemistry Exam.
1. Salts of ammonium (NH4 + ) and Group IA are always soluble.
2.

a. All chlorides (Cl- ) are soluble except AgCl, Hg2 Cl2 , and PbCl2 which are insoluble.
b. All bromides (Br- ) are soluble except AgBr, Hg2 Br2 , HgBr2 , and PbBr2 which are
insoluble.
c. All iodides (I- ) are soluble except AgI, Hg2 I 2 , HgI2 , and PbI2 which are insoluble.

3. Chlorates (ClO3 - ), nitrates (NO3 - ), and acetates (CH3 COO- ) are soluble.
4. Sulfates (SO4 -2) are soluble except CaSO4 , SrSO4 , BaSO4 , Hg2 SO4 , HgSO4 , PbSO4 , and
Ag2 SO4 which are insoluble.
5. Phosphates (PO4 -3), and carbonates (CO3 -2) are insoluble except NH4 + and Group IA
compounds.
6. All metallic oxides (O-2) are insoluble except NH4 + and Group IA compounds.
7. All metallic hydroxides (OH- ) are insoluble except NH4 + and Group IA and Group IIA from
calcium down.
8. All sulfides (S-2) are insoluble except NH4 + and Groups IA and IIA.

The general form of a precipitation reaction is as follows:

AB + C --> A (s) + CB or AB + C --> A + CB (s) (single displacement)
AB + CD --> AD + BC (s) or AB + CD --> AD (s) + BC (double displacement)
https://www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/science/chemistry/general_chemistry_info
In both the AP Chemistry class and the exam, there will be questions referring specifically to the
solubility rules applied to laboratory situations. For example, there could be questions asking about
the initial ionic compound present in solution if the resultant precipitation were a particular color, or
vice versa. The following facts should be memorized in order to thoroughly prepare for the exam. If
copper ions in solution are mixed with a sodium hydroxide solution, the precipitate that forms will be
copper hydroxide. The color of this precipitate is a distinct light blue. If iron ions in solution are mixed
with sodium hydroxide, the resultant precipitate will be iron (II) hydroxide. The color of the precipitate
will be green. If the ion were iron (III) instead of iron (II), the precipitate would be a reddish brown in
color. In order to test for the presence of chloride ions, a common lab test is to add silver nitrate
solution to form silver chloride, which is a white precipitate. Bromine ions are tested by adding silver
nitrate solution as well. The resultant precipitate is silver bromide and it is cream colored. Iodine ions
mixed with silver nitrate solution will create a yellow precipitate. Sulfate ions can be tested for by
adding a barium chloride solution, which would result in a barium sulfate precipitate with a white
color.
As you can see from this guide, ions are an important proponent of chemical reactions. Driven by the
interactions between valence electrons and predicted by the Periodic Table, ions are responsible for
many of the compounds we observe naturally in nature.

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To Do
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in the introduction, body of the article, and
the conclusion
Subheadings or numbered lists are inserted
where appropriate for clarity with the reader
Related keywords are included 3-5 (if
applicable)
Plagiarism Checker is above 80%
Appropriate external links are embedded
when linking to AP Central, CollegeBoard, or
teacher websites
Featured Image included in the folder and in
the document?
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90?
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issues?

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