8,

The

Svastika and the

Omkara

By Harit Krishna Deb.

[With Plates II-TV.]

On

two themes there exists a considerable bodry of

literature with very little of which I can claim acquaintance
in any degree.
But, so far as I know, scholars are not yet
unanimous regarding the origin and significance of the sacred
symbol called svaatika and no one seems to have connected the
symbol with the mystic syllable om. I propose to show that
these

there are indications enabling us to identify the symbol with the

syllable
that, in fact, the sign of svastika represents the sound
;

of

omkara.

and
is
part
pranava,
or
udgltha
called
also
syllable om.
parcel of the Vedic religion, and the question of its origin early

The

occupied the minds of the Indo-Aryans. In Aitareya Brahraana V. 32, for example, it is related that Prajapati, after his
meditation had brought into existence the three Vedas, meditated again on them with the result that from the Rgveda arose
bhur, from the Yajurveda bhuvak, from the Samaveda svak.
Upon further meditation on these three products, three letters
Prajapati comwere brought forth, namely, a u, and ma.
bined the letters, and Om was born. The Gopatha Brahmana
(Chap. 1) has much to say regarding the mystic syllable, and,
looking at it more from the viewpoint of meaning than
ap,
from the viewpoint of grammatical form, connects it with
so that the syllable is held to signify attainment of everything

{rupasamanyM-arthasamdnyan'-nedhjas-tasmad-aper-onikar^t
the
Upaimhads,
sarvam-apnoiity -arthah)
One of the earliest
.

Chandogva,

the
that
disquisition
asserts at the outset of its

ot
essence
eighth
the
udgltha is the quintessence (literally,
excellence.
par
worship
the universe and is also the object of
became
devas
the
It is even claimed (Chand. 1. 4. 4.) that
om.
syllable
the
to
immortal and free from fear by resorting
increasing
with
elasyllable
Later Upanishads eulogize the
by
taken
is
Veda
boration.
The place of knowledge of the
to
proclaim
Vedas
"
all the
meditation on that word which
tne
i.e.
pranava,
us" (sarve veda yatpadam-anamanti) the
'

sacred syllable om.' l

goe
likewise
India
The antiquitv of the svastika-mark in
by
thought
now
is
at least to 'the davs of Panini, who
:

DeuBsen, Philosophy

of

the Uranishads,

p. 392.

Bengal.
Society
Asiatic
of
the
of

Journal

232

many
refers

scholars to
in his

[N.S.,

in the 7th century B.C.

(VI. 3. 115) to the practice of

have lived

Grammar

XVII,
Panini

marking

been
has
long
svastika
The
svastika-symbol.*
.attle with the
c
it
represent
traditions
whose
Jains
the
with
emblem
a favourite
3
Tlrthana
Suparsvanatha,
of
sign
special
the
as having been
anterior
to
considerably
flourished
have
to
said
kara who is
the
of
least
One
at
B.C.).*
528
(died
Mahavira
the period of
con
vase
Piprahwa
with
the
associated
ornaments
gold-leaf
with
svastika.
a
embossed
is
Buddha
of
relics
the
taining
that
svastika:
the
forms
of
(1)
principal
two
There are
arms
with
the
that
right,
and
the
to
(2)
turned
arms
with the
find
twojorms
we
these
each
of
Analysing
turned to the left.
it

composed

cross -wise.
is

two

of

Jthe Brahmi
I
or

o which
are at once reminded of
or 7 hi the earliest known Indian inscriptions.

We

J
suggests

written

identical elements,

that the svastika is composed of nothing

It will be recalled
o's crossing each other.
that in pronouncing the pranava in course of recitation of the
Vedic texts, the o-sound is lengthened and there can be little
doubt that Vedic texts, handed down orally with wonderful
textual accuracy through thousands of years, are recited in India
6
of
as
yore
Panini teaches the same
now nearly as exactly
thing in his rule om-abhyadane (VIII. 2. 7.), and the Gopatha
tisromatra abhyadane hi plavate.
Brahmana (1. 17) also says
If, therefore, this long sound of o was required to be represented
alphabetically, the sign for o would need to be repeated.
The repetition might be indicated by writing two o's one
after the other but such a device seems to have been repugnant
to the scriptal scheme of ancient India
for two identical vowels
have never, I think, been found placed side by side in that w ay in
her antique records. Such a mode of representation would,
besides, be cumbersome and in conflict with the requirements
of symbolism.
The other and simpler method of representation
of the long sound of o, which may be called the monogrammatic method, would consist in placing two o's crosswise.

The idea
but two Brahmi

itself

giving rk;e to the forms LJj and

taken to stand for

jy

(according as

or 2. was

which are precise^ the principal forms

of the svastika.
[See Plate II.] To complete this alphabetic
representation of the omkara, pronounced with a nasal at the
end, a ma or some other nasal would have to be added on to
1

o)

V. A. Smith, Oxford History of India (1919), p. 57.

The Swastika, by Thomas Wilson (Report of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, 1894), p. 772.

6

Jagamanderlal Jaini, Outlines

of

Jainism (Cambridge, 1916), table

facing p. 6.
* Traditional date, which I see no reason to doubt.
6 Cf
Kielhorn in I A, V, p. 144.

The Svastika and

1921,]

the

Omkara

233

exactly what we find on some of India's

oldest coins upon which the svastika appears with a Brahml
ma (hitherto supposed to denote the taurine symbol ')
attached to each arm.' Ma is also associated with the svastikasign in the Jaugada version of the two Separate Edicts of
Asoka wherein are inscribed three svastikas with three ma's as
in the following diagram *

the svastika.

This

is

'

'

&

95

Inscription

Coming down

to the first century B.C.,

figuring in the records of

we

find the svastika

the
and
SatakarnJ,
and
Ushavadata

(D),
India,
101
Ancient
p.
See Plate IT,1, 2 Cunningham, Coins of
interspersed
PI. XI, 20: other instances of svastika in company with ma
also
(I).
Of.
clxxv
etc.,
p.
passim. Cf. Rapson, Coins of Andhr-as,
coin
a
to
made
is
reference
D'Alviella, Migration of symbols, p. 71, where
svastika
a
showing
Rhyndacum
supposed to belong to Apollonius ad
ivento
candra-bmdu.
Indian
flanked by four crescents which recall the
candra
a
svastika
the
above
this day, the usual Jaina practice is to place
' enU y*
a
aPP
corresponding,
bindu along with three bindus (dots)
J
the
with
candrabtndu
four ma's of ancient coins. Association of the
Jaina
mediaeval
a
to
svastika is to be met with in sculpture belonging
a
forming
panels
five
seen
cave-temple at Khandagiri wherein may be
on
success
in
figures
<
group and depicting in relievo the following
*
1

r
"*
ca
svastika
(5)
mayura, (2) hamsa! (3) padma, (4)
figures
su
ma
pad
and
harhsa
combination reminds us of the fact that
v tor
Ptoto
1
vases

conjunction with the svastika on early Grecian

in
involved
ideas
illustrations, also discussion infra on the TTpamshadic

*f?

^rn^am,
work

*^"5t?23

Inscriptions of AsoKa, PL
svastaka
the
of
possibility
first suggested to my mind the
with orn. When I com

of this

and the Brahml ma being together identifiable

municated the idea to Sir John Woodroffe, he seemed
attitude, I
in

some

am

detail.

glad to acknowledge, encouraged

me

to like it and his

to study the subject

Journal of

234

the Asiatic Society of

Bengal.

[N.S.,

XVII.

same auspicious mark occurs at the beginning of many an

epigraph belonging to a period not much later, sometimes in conjunction with the expression siddham signifying attainment.'
In Kushan epigraphy, the svastika is rarely met with, inscriptions now generally commencing with the expression siddham
which reminds us of the Gopatha Bra hm ana explanation of om
as sarvam-apnoti.
During the Gupta period, and through some subsequent
centuries, inscriptions often begin with a symbol which would
appear to have been related in form to the svastika. Leaving
aside forms which may be regarded as variants, slightly
abridged or elaborated, the mediaeval symbol exhibits shapes
closely resembling the Brahml o's which go to make up the
svastikas found in the Jaugada inscription of Asoka
the
one noticeable difference being the additional spiral attached
'

The mediaeval symbol has been

interpreted as an expression of omkara by modern scholars
who, as my friend Mr. N. G. Majumdar informs me, infer this
to a terminus in each case. 1

identity from

the substitution, in later analogous records,

of the syllabic om in place of the mediaeval symbol.
This
ground for the inference is strong enough
it is
made
stronger still by a statement in Alberuni's India (I. 173)
that the figure cO was used by the Hindus for om (about
:

'

'

1030 A.D).

Alberuni remarks that the Indian people use the

sign, 'believing that it will bring them a blessing.'
Tt seems
that, even so late as Alberuni's time, the Hindus had not
forgotten the relation of the figure for om to the sign called
svastika which literally means that which signifies
,**. 1XS well-being
" ^ " */^lH & \
that w hich brings blessings.
We may note
and later inscriptions often use the expression svasti just after
om, and sometimes only svasti or only om. The interchangeable
character of tlese expressions argues their identity in meaning.
The fact that the svastika-sign of the earlier records gave
place, in the mediaeval age, to a symbol which in
form was
often little else but the svastika dichotomized, followed
optionally by the expression svasti, and which in later times
'

'

'

'

'

bloomed forth into a

name

syllabic omkara, justifies at once the

svastika applied to the sign and the view that it signified

nothing but the omkara.

Sometimes, more often than not, the svastika-symbol
appears without an accompanying ma or anything denoting
the final nasal. This at first sight seems to go
against its identification with the syllabic om.
But if we recognize brevity to
be the basis of symbolism, the difficulty
vanishes.
By way of
illustration we may refer to the case of the
sacred monogram

Sometimes the symbol

psint the Supplementary Note
J

is little

post.]

more than a

spiral.

TSee on this

^
235

The Svastika and-the Omlara.

1921.]

coins
Christian
early
on
That monogram, found
Chi Rho ( )^ ).
is well
as
represents,
standard,
his
on
and figured by Constantine
the
;
Xpun-o
word
Greek
the
known, the first two letters of
by
inmd
the
to
supplied
be
other letters being left out to
be
thus
could
seven
of
total
If five letters out of a
suggestion.
final
the
of
omission
the
omitted from the Christian symbol,
of a
shape
the
in
representation
ma of om from its symbolic
alphabetical
the
From
strange.
svastika will not appear
symbolibut,
o;
simply
was
standpoint, the Indian symbol
cally, it represented the oriikara.
very
a
on
dispersed
found
Outside India, the svastika is
the
England,
In
large scale, almost throughout the world.
the
by
taken
word
:,
a
svastika has been known as the fylfot
-footed.
many
or
'four-footed'
earlier etymologists to mean
derivathis
challenges
Although' the New English Dictionary
the
that
fact
the
of
tion, I am inclined to accept it in view
catuspadaov
as
literature
omkara is described in Upanishadic
'

the
of
occurrence
'four-footed.' 1
The earliest undoubted
city
lhird
the
with
svastika is said to be in connexion
it
iroy.
ancient
with
identified
Hissarlik,
on the site of
same
the
on
Cities
is common also in the Fourth and Fifth
its
whorls,
spindle
site, and is principally found there on
Grecian
on
with
met
be
most luxuriant expression, however, is to
B.C.
centuries
seventh
vases of the fifth, sixth and
those
in
already
svastika
There were manv varieties of the
and
them
of
all
with
deal
to
-equipped
remote ages. I am ill
points
some
But
with the associated emblems and figures
my
to
relevant
deserve special notice here as being particularly
under
ed
classifi
be
may
svastika-types
present thesis. The
an
right-handed,
two broad divisions (1) the plain svastika,
or
*j*
svastika,
'left handed.' and (2) the 'ogee'
lett
and
right-handed
also
spirals attached to the arms,
*e
on
*
feature
handed.' A most remarkable
he
to
appeal
would
what
of
is the occurrence of a number
Thl
*
svastika.*
Greek 'M'sbv the side of the
v
ancient
on
svastika
the Greek <M's with the
n
vastika
the*
th
wi
ma
recalls the association of the Brahmi
******
and
India
lithic and numismatic records of ancient
-

>

\^\ ^u*

X'fTase

^^^J^^Uy
*

bear confirmatory testimony to

dote
The
combination
t fl^lr be
menu 111 tilt? mystic
mentmthe
ho
IllVSblU UUlUuiiiau^w
he
ink,
th
j
I
should,
svastika
appear in conjunction with the
of
bmdu
nasal
the
to
corresponding
likewise interpreted as
Indian alphabet.
.

Mr.

j"^ *S*wL

of the Imperial Library

the mind.
to
satisfactory
more
is
it
that
admits
IV.
and
III
Plates
also

Van Manen,

the older etymology,

Wilson, TheSw-astika.

Ibid., Figs. 27,

I4'>.

176.

See

236

Journal

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Figures of hamsa and

are frequently depicted on

a large svastika with two hamsas

times a conventional

XVII,

padma

Sometimes it is
on two sides accompanied by two rows of
these vases.

[N.S.,

M '-like signs.

'

Some-

padma

occupies the centre of the field., with

two hamsas on two sides and a number of svastikas dispersed in
the field.
Arrow-heads placed in echelon, obviously indicating
an arrow in motion, also figure on some of these vases, sometimes in conjunction with the hamsa and occasionally in company with the padma. On a Cyprus vase is represented an
arrow-head, stemmed, barbed and suspended by its points
between the svastika.' 2 Other animals besides the hamsa are
also depicted on the vases, such as the ram, the antelope, the
horse, the lion, just as on some old Indian coins 3
and these
mimals are considered by some authorities to point to the solar
significance of the svastika,* an interpretation which has
found
eminent advocates armed with a goodly array of arguments.
I think it is possible and proper to
explain some of these
features with reference to ideas formulated
in the Upanishads.
Hamsa stands there for the Brahman-Atman. The padma
reminds us of the Upanishadic notion, that the
heart is shaped
like the lotus (a comparison
found also in the Atharvaveda)
ami is the abode of Brahman or even
6
Brahman

Mundaka.

himself.

II. 2. 4,

In

the pranava is described as the bow off

winch the soul as the arrow flies to
Brahman ', and Maitr. VI.
-4.. represents it as
the arrow which is shot from the body as
bow in order to pierce the darkness.'
Perhaps, too, the horse
has reference to the asvamedha or
horse-sacrifice with which the
'

'

tfrhadaranyaka Upanishad begins, in

order to recognize in the
steed the universe into which
Prajapati is transformed with the
<

object of again
r

3L
that

*if
tney

offering himself in sacrifice.'?

The prese
an,mals 1S wel1 acc ounted for bv the
supposition

counterparts of the Upanishadic conception

pnat
all living
creatures are Brahman,'
Brahman.' 88 fln
H nf
and
of th*^W
the idea,
broached even in the Aitareya
Brahmana V. that the pranava
th6 Sun; the ChSnd
(ISgoes
as
g.
so
far
1)
Zlr
;
t-V represent the aditya
pranava as making the sound om in

Z
i

ts

ar.-

motion

these explanations

presuppose an earlv existence, in

the Grecian world of a
system of philosophv,"cent.ering round
-he svastika, which was
closely akin to the svstem of nhilosocen
n 8 round the mkara, as expounded
in the Upani*f"
su PP s tion has ">uch to support
it.
That
ancient
vi
i
<*reek philosophy
offers many points of resemblance
to anci-

iS

rw
l

frid.^patrim.
'

iinmngham, C.A.I.

PI.

Ibid

p. S5U.

in, Nos.

Hilson.op. cj7..
pp 784-5.
Deussen, op. cit p. 287.

and

2.

Ibid p.m.
Ibid ,p. 100.

Ibid.,

p
r

122.

The Svastika and

1921.J

237

Oinkara.

the

the
and
recognized
been
long
has
philosophy
ent Indian
is
las
He
o
philsophers
early
the
of
temperament
receptive
P
travel
the
of
lor
attnbu
traditional
the
born e witness to by
ythagoras.
and
1
Thalee
l*e
philosophers
ing tendency to Greek
notes
Megasthenes
Stfabo, quoting from
on
Greeto
the
of
those
^th
'coincide
philosophers
Indian
ongm^>.
the
sou
the
of
nature
the
many points/ such as
universe.
the
through
Deity
the
of
diffusion
the world, the
the
acknowledged
Modern scholars have

para
lei
close
singularly
the
of
speaks
Barnett
L. D.
earh
of
doctrines
Upanishadic thought and the
n
e
ha*
**
*ell
may
who
Parmenides
_
sophers, and especiaUy
most
the
of
some
of
authors
contemporary with the
B
of
vie
his
in
v
Except
Upanishads
port ant
Vedan
the
with
accord
perfect
in
sphere. Parmenides is
known.
well
is
doctrines
The similarity of Plato's
of
further
step
a
go
would
Garbe
a^nfeval
*orld
the
of
Thales regarding the genesis
the
rf
3
equ'vaie
The
notion.
edic
\
similar
the
water with
an
es
analog
these
to
add
will
svastika to the omkara
appeal to be particulary
to
alluae
;

^^P^*

^^"^J^

Jf

'

\^J
emg

ff

J>^
-m
^frot

^P^^^^Sed

Megasthenes
from
reference to Strata's quotation
above.

the signio^

"
^

What
To the question
paintings 1 She
lue
Waiteis,

f
an answer. According to Mr
important
imp
some
and
tombs,
in
found
these vases have been
tei
ot
sites
the
on
made
[,
been
discoveries have
h nofc
that
observes
.' *
part
The same scholar
tuaries
playea
have
necessarily painted ones) must
Oree*
,
Mm
of
in the religious ceremonies
their pre8er
tnat,
and
use,
that their most important
aX ce remown
connexion
vation ismainh due, was in
n fehe
k
nies." It will seem reasonable,
possessing a
**
a
a
8VW
vase-paintings exhibiting the
latter,
the
iaUy
more
urns
religious and a spiritual significance,
rary
cme
urns
hut
ancient
.
In
-a view confirmed by the
gvmbol
th
bear
often
which
and
of central Italy
colour
in
Vl?fn7
realisat,on
other words, these paintings are
q{
;
?
to
pertaining
outline, of notions
nt could not
e
l
*
stages
notions
Greeks which, in its earlier
tual
,
piri
d f
f an
r
religious
rengii'

ry
have been divorced from their
centu
cen tury
flounsnea
who
inasmuch as even Plato
:

**.*

'

?3Z
%?

^
j
^^^J
^^ ^
.

JJ**V
M
^

238

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

[NJS.,

XVII,

admitted by modern authorities to have fused together

logic and physics, psychology, theory of knowledge and metaphysics, in a semi-religious synthesis.
We have merely to
recall Colebrooke's remark that
the philosophy of India may
be employed for a commentary on that of Greece' in order
to perceive the entire propriety of viewing the Grecian vasepaintings in the light of the Upanishads
Of the svastika in
particular, as part of these paintings, we cannot urge that
it
is a mere design, ornamental and
meaningless: its position
on many of the vase-paintings violates the principle of symmetry which is otherwise discernible as being predominant
in these compositions and appears to
have been determined
in many cases in relation to different
portions of the body of
the animal in association with which the sign
occurs.
No doubt has been entertained in regard" to the point that
e
rlier U P anishads Preceded the
Buddha (died
B.C.,

is

'

^
f;'i ^

S?

Tjn

atte 8t

therefore,

the existence, in India

I

t
,
2
about
660 B.C., of omkara worship in a highly mature
form.
SI)e k
arly f a svasti ka-cult at its
climax
about
ion
fu
000 B.C. in the Hellenic world, to judge from
the evidence of
'

Tn

vases.

The

earlier Greek vases represent

classical' phase of the svastika-cult

figures

what may be called the

for the' svastika often

there as

the motif of the compositions

which are
s
simple and
stic
Later
j
begms to figure less prominently, i
but not less suggestively
the composition becomes more
complex,

E3?te1ri

>

thett4a
;

kmg

what

,
phase.*
Phase"'
Dorf
Decadence has

1
the

,
a
read v
already

and perhLs more

be termed the de'cad'n
<

'

um
itself
Co^spondg XsesTf

A*oUr.
aA
declared
,

to the sixth century B.C.

omkara-cult

may

be seen in the Upanishads

In
the
Chandogya for instance, the cult
appeal to have pas ed
through a distinct stage of
evolution and must already
have
had a long history behind it.
But the MfinHffk
k f
*
pronounced development in the direct
of 'decadence.'

^
^fe,^
^SSd bSTftT r^Vt

The

decadent' stage niost have

Buddh sm and Jainism, since many
of the philosophical notion
th
k a w
,,ip are found to
oud oi
T wt:h
which these
thet two religions are made.

:r

ss&3

T
tWad^enjoining^e
f

" 01131

In fart if the
worship of on.kara. represent
a revolt

Dr
V
-cent S m it7n7his Oxford
^^
^
History.^
before Buddha's death
AnJLrti^!^^^'?
Rapson,
me ^lars
1

dates.

ad pted

L
UtLft.J^

The

ideas systema^a
have existed long before the

lvnut

sc

f*'

incline to earlier

the

U P a hads

^^Hi^yN^^^^a^^^P"--.

It
e.<7.

g8 * 7 28 140; cf - fi g- 185, 186.

-S' f-fi ga 147. 162,
ibid.,
170, 171? 172.
.

'

'

of.

must

Pointed out

1921

The Svastika and

the

Omkara.

23!)

against the Vedic religion of rituals, Jainism and Buddhism

should be looked upon as rebel offshoots of a religion which
had, in its pursuit of knowledge and in its anxiety to maintain
imporexaggerated
attached
religion,
older
with
the
connexion
word,
mere
a
as
regarded
be
reason
with
tance to what might
of
utility
practical
the
purposes,
and
intents
ignoring, to all
omkara-cult
the
of
period
flourishing
The
system.
an ethical
period
flourishing
the
way
with
this
in
in India synchronizes
synchronism
The
world.
Grecian
in
the
of the svastika-cult
to
relation
in
its
overlooked
be
cannot
is highly suggestive and
the identity of the svastika with the omkara.
character
sacred
supposed
the
But a "serious objection to
been
has
man
pre-historic
of the svastika as employed bv
careful
most
a
after
who,
enunciated by Mr. Thomas Wilson
to
come
has
subject,
examination of the vast literature on the
small
on
used
Swastika
the
the conclusion that, since we find
use.
common
in
those
and comparatively insignificant objects,
good?
household
tools,
such as vases, pots, jugs, implements,
<

and

utensils,

objects

of

the

ornaments,

toilet,

etc.,

and

ot the
pretense
infrequently on statues, altars and the
up,
given
be
should
holy or sacred character of the Swastika
a
as
considered
and it should (still with these exceptions) b'e
an
as
or
fortune
charm, amulet, token of good luck or good
ases
the
that
\
above
I have shown
ornament or decoration.'
tne
on
but,
objects,
like,'

'

all

>

were not

comparatively insignificant

spiritual associations,

contrary, had definite religious and

the
spindle-whorls
regards' tools, implements and the Trojan
is\*
n
India
In
them.
worshipped
actually
ancients may have
the
worship
to
common practice with artisans
ne
m
La
work
their
in
them
instruments which help
,?
f^'J
that
them
of
those
etc
ornaments,
toilet,
case of objects of the
cerethe
of
part
bear the svastika-mark may have formed
buried
be
to
used
times
olden
in
which
monial
treasures
ndo
the
in
<
with the dead,-a custom alluded to
i
Asura,
the
characterizing
shad (VIII. 8. 5) as
^gical
aic
since
offerings,
them may have been votive
w
vhat
by
affected
people
research lias proved that, amongst
dedi
to
thing
common
a
was
it
known as Aegean civilisation,
use
personal
of
cate to a deity articles
\aht
rnc
a< might
m
svasbka,
that
however,
denied,

L^f^J*

'

>

^^^
^t

'

It

need not be

object
on
appearance
their
make
times,
even in ancient
the
of
adoption
the
temples,
~w
or
i/umuo oi
jrwiiu tombs
unconnected
uiiccmuecieu with
j-i-c^r^rl_by a halthal
conditioned
^
conceivably
quite
device having been
modem
actuates
as
such
impulse
reverential, half-aesthetic
Manj
brooches.
and
buttons
on
it
men and women to adopt

fam' ZeUetto my

for suggesting the parallel.

friend

Kumar

'

Sudhindrachandra Sinhasarma

240

Journal of

the Asiatic Society of

Bengal.

[N.S.,

XVIJ,

emblems have degenerated into mere ornamental designs. The sanctity of the svastika was liable to be
forgotten soon in areas far away from the locality of its origin.
It is a significant fact that the symbol has retained its holy
originally sacred

association longer in India than elsewhere, except perhaps in

Lapland and Finland.

The proposition that the svastika is composed

Brahml o's involves the assumption that the Brahml

of

two

o could
exist prior even to the 13th or 14th century B.C. to which date,

approximately, the Trojan spindle-whoris bearing developed

forms of the svastika-mark have been assigned. 1 This assumption goes against the theory, advocated by Biihler, that the
Brahml script was derived about 800 B.C. from a Semitic
source. 2
Biihler has. no doubt, succeeded in tracing a remarkable resemblance between certain letters of the ancient Semitic
alphabet and old Brahml letters of corresponding phonetic
values, e.g. in the cases of ga and iha.
In many cases, however,
the analogies emphasized bv him seem to be" too far-fetched,
e.g. in ca. ma and ya.
We must, therefore, as a recent writer
remarks. 3 consider Buhler's theory unconvincing. Cunningham's theory of a hieroglyphic native origin* was rather
summarily dismissed by Biihler on the ground that no trace
has been found of the use of hieroglyphs in ancient India,
and much stress was laid by Biihler on the circumstance that,
id ancient times Brahml used to be written,
like Semitic, from
right to left. Professor D. R. Bhandarkar 6 has recently
claimed
a pre-historic origin for the Brahml alphabet
on the* strength
of marks, very similar to Brahml
lett-rs, found on an object
assigned to the neolithic
age, and the arguments he has
advanced are by no means easy to challenge. Mr. Bhandarkar,
however, has not attempted to explain the few resemblances
between the Brahml and the Semitic scripts.
Perhaps, for
that attempt time is not yet.
But it does not seem impossible
that som
Brahml letters are of earlv indigenous origin, while
other letters of the alphabet may have
been adopted or
adapted from foreign, perhaps Semitic, originals.
A tradition
preserved by Alberuni 6 relates that, during the dark ages
preceding the Great Civil War. the
Hindus had become
U iterate and Vyiisa, the son of Parasara,
rediscovered the
aksaras by divine inspiration. The
alleged rediscovery points
to a deliberate attempt having
been made in early times to
reconstruct the lost or nearlv lost script
in India; and it
;

'

,' \ am n aware if this dating has

a
archaeological
researches.
fc

been confirmed by the latest

Indian Studies, III, and Indian Palaeography.

Encycl. Britt., I, p. 732.

Imcrs. of Asoka, PI. XXVI [.

Calcutta Review, J an 1920,
pp.
India (Sachau), /.
pp 171-2.
l

21-3!).

192

The Svastika and

.]

the

241

Omkara.

models
foreign
contemporary
that
case
may well have been the
Brahml
The
reconstruction.
of
work
were consulted in this
elaboration
its
in
bears
B.C.,
500
about
it
script, as we find
admitfact
hand,
academician's
a
the
an evident impress of
been
have
may
1
much
how
know
We do not
ted by Bidder.
script.
the
of
framing
the
s
in
Brahman
due to the learned
equal
quite
intellectually
were
But it seems to me that they
independently
letters
some
rate,
to the task of devising, at any
a
ot
theory
the
that
manifest
It is in any case
themselves.
itself
with
carries
script
Brahml
late and Semitic origin of the
from
far
yet
as
is
burden
its own burden of proof, and that
against
therefore
evidence,
We have no
being discharged.
o
Brahmi
the
to
origin
antique
sufficiently
a
of
assignment
the
symbol
svastika
the
of
which. I claim, was made the basis
explanaproposed
the
that
be
would
objection
weightier
A
its
retain
could
o
Brahml
the
that
granted
tion takes it for
150U(c.
years
thousand
a
than
more
during
shape unchanged
fad
we
period
post-Asokan
the
in
Ordinarily,
500 B.C.).
J
8
d
in
P*
change
palaeographic
progressive
Jhas changed consideiitself
o
letter
The
successive centuries
'

'

Mn
^.

*^r

much
remained
have
it
Could
Asoka.
of
ablv since the days
te
qu
is
submit
I
This,
B.C.?
1500
the" same 500 B.C. as
Prof.,
As
possibility.
of
within the limits
found
symbols
-Some of the pre-historic
to
and
fo
beem
have
B.C.
5000
to
anterior
referred to a period

f^L"2fl
JJfg*
alphabetical
the
of
some
be identical with
^^*^SSL
^howmg
B
900
Circa
to
assigned
been
which have
cians,
e.a.

to this co untry

Coding
milleniums.
thus an interval of four
n
msc
the
of
e.g.
letter
g,
do we not find that the
o
ascribed
be
may
which
Stupa
relic-casket of the Piprahwa
da
this
to
form
^ct
that
in
about 500 B.C. has survived
The
I"
script
the modern Kanarese
ahno.Mdenti
are
^C.
century
first
Cevlon inscriptions in the
hundred
three
or
with those prevailing two
e
coxm
dis
again, we do not

P^ ^/^

B^^fgS
,

Kharosthi geography,
change
radical
few
any
a
letter!

*%*
^P

"^fi^Stad

d^

Tibetan
*>*l
the
that
It is well known, too.
*ith
century
xtionary since the eighth
stat
of
instances
latter
these
changes/ Possibly,
ch

AD

tratothe inability

of

scripts

grow and

to

*^f
d exelop

j.

ht

f
hen
to

they
but
sod
foreign
m<r s"
~
to
bodily
transplanted
sometimes.
J
resist
n
to
resi^
fonnsto
alphabetical
provJ the capacity of
fc
change.
for
\make
the forces that
been slower

^J^jSTfa

in
than
ages
in those remote
earlier
the
extensivelypra^tiseo^^
writing was presumably less

,IT.

Ind. Palaeog. (Eng.), p.

44
pCeylon,
Parker, Ancient

'2

On
*

cit,

V- 35.

rf

p 2?l

'

242

Journal

period.

It cannot, therefore,

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

[N.S.,

XVII,

be asserted that the form of the

Brahmi o 1500 B.C must have been decidedly different from
its form 500 B.C.
In fact, it was precisely in centuries prior
to 500 B.C. that omkara-Avorship enjoyed a vigorous life, so
that the letter o would, during those centuries, be looked upon
more as a sacred emblem than as a letter and would consequently suffer little change.
That the svastika was foreign to Troy, having been introduced there about the middle of the second millenium B.C.,
follows directly from the circumstance that the sign is not
found in the First and Second Cities on the Hissarlik site, but
suddenly emerges in a variety of forms in the Third or burnt
'

The question, therefore, arises What is the link connecting Troy of such an early age with the Vedic religion
and its concomitant, the omkara ? Fortunately, Professor
Wmckler's discoveries at Boghaz Kuei have alreadv supplied
the link. It is now positively known that
about 1400 B.C. kings
with lndo-Aryan names and worshipping
Vedic gods were ruling in the region of Mitanni. 2 The
names Sutarna. Dushratta,
etc. have a distinctly lndo-Aryan
appearance and it is instructive to compare the name Gilukhipa,
borne' bv a daughter
r
W was also ^ ueen of Amenophis III of Egypt

i<nn
4
,C ), Wlth the name Qvruhepa*
borne,
according
i
i
o
to thev?
Visnu Purana, by the third successor
of Brhadbala of
Kosala who had fallen in the Bharata war
not very many years
before Amenophis.* Ample evidence
has been secured which
goes to show that there was intimate
intercommunication at
a m0n the dU * e ent e les inhabiting
Asia
P
P
Minor,
F
?
Egypt and ,the Aegean islands, so
that the Vedic religion
ng
mai
r Unities for circulation
J?'PP
ab oad
abroad.
F?,H
^Tn
J??
Earlier still, Mitanni had been
the centre of an extensive empire, and the migration
of the svastika symbol to Trov
in those days is intelligible
enough. The in61tmtion of Ved%
and ther C UntdeS C U,d not

b-n long
Pr ,C S appearS t0 haVe been "fofawed
later
bv a rtrUm of fh
r
ht
represented by the earlier Upanfehads.
8
The fifZ th 1
thuS
assumes
like
the
7
six
h
*
centurv B C
I Cml ,m
P
P rtance
tbe standpoint
City.

'

t^l

t%T$FZ

Erv

^m

'

?^

'Wilson,

of world-

paper Was writ ten, the July

(1920) number of
has reached Calcutta.
The mi

op.

mber chains

cit., p.

810.

^^:;t^z:^

-ho waTerowned*
413 B.C.

'

Supplementary Note.

th J.R.A.S.
t
the

*"

'

tlVwT

m2)

i6ge
'

>

p 54

,015 or 1050 ye before

Mahr.padm.
accord,n S to
y calculations based on Puranic
1

data.

'

The Svaslika and

1921.]

the

243

Omkara.

an article by Prof. Sayceon the origin of the Semitic Alphabet.

According to the learned writer, the problem of the Semitic
The use of the
alphabet has been in a large measure solved.
Egyptian hieroglyphs as alphabetic letters suggested to some
'

Semitic genius the employment of them to represent the

initial sounds of the Semitic words with which they corresOnce the alphabet bad been formed its developponded
ment varied in different parts of the Semitic world
Semitic alphabet was inspired by the Egyptian,
Iff the
the theory of a similar inspiration for the Brahmi script comes
as
for,
enquiry
scientific
practical
domain
of
at once into the
remarka
letters,
certain
of
respect
in
there
is
observed,
already
both
Could
Semitic.
and
Briihmi
able resemblance between
affirmAn
Egyptian
?
the
source,
same
sprung
from
the
have
supporting
point
but
a
be
once
ftiven
ative answer cannot at
the
of
beginning
the
At
noticed.
bel
such an answer may
;

the
in
assertion
an
to
made
was
present paper, reference
being
of
desirous
PrajSpati
that
Aitareya Brahmana (V, 32)
the
in
resulting
meditation
of
born as many began a course
produced
combined
which
ma,
and
creation of three letters, a, u
early
an
of
evidence
assertion,
thepranava. We have, in this
the
were
ma
and
u
a.
letters
the
Indo-Aryan tradition that
constiwould
letters
three
Naturally, the
first to be evolved.
later
and
other
from
apart
tute a group by itself, standing
alphaEgyptian
the
of
Now. this is exactly a feature
letters.
'

out,
points
Library,
Imperial
bet.
As Mr. Van Manen. of the
three
alphabet
Egyptian
out of the twenty four signs in the
the
to
correspond
and only three; are pictures of birds and
cirthis
from
infer
to
It is allowable
three letters a, u and m.
in
group
distinct
a
formed
letters
three
these
that
cumstance
cons.der
scholars
Certain
the Egyptian alphabetical scheme.
Egypt,
outside
conceived
the germ of that scheme to have been
seem
not
doss
It
Asia.
somewhere in north-east or Central
alphabets
Egyptian
so-called
the
that
impossible, therefore,
Indothe
of
alphabets
the
to
measure
some
were related in
Central
in
settled
period,
early
very
at
a
Aryans who were
Agio

regard
in
point
another
consider
to
us
leads
This finding
the
With
m.
and
u

group
alphabetical
to the Egyptian
Kingdoms
New
and
Middle
introduction of homophones in the
.

namely
u,
of
form
(^
alternative
new
a
across
we come
has
spiral-ornament
The
represent?
spiral
What could this
which
flower
lotus
the
to
Goodyear
Professor
been traced by
about
as
early
as
architecture
occurs as a motif in Egyptian
think
I
also
applies
explanation
That
the 14th century B.C.
spindleTrojan
on
occurs
Tie" spiral

^EKi

ifce

That^these forms

and

the
of
basis
the
constitute

g
'

[see plate II]

ogee

'

svastika

244

>/

the Asiatic Soc. of

[N.S.,

XVII,

Wilson
xne
The ogee

proto-Brahml oo's.
s.
svastika was probably the
earliest form of the svastika: a simplification of the spiral
endings gave the forms employed in the Jaugada version of
Asoka's inscriptions.
The mediaeval Indian symbol, which
fc

replaces the svastika of the earlier records and is itself replaced later by the syllabic omkara, should be explained in the
same way. The symbol is often identical in shape with the
Egyptian ^-spiral which, to one initiated in sacred symbolism,
could well recall the whole group a, u and m.

JOURN.

AS. SOC. BENG.,

VOL. XVII,

1921

I.

THE SVASTIKA AM) THE OMKARA.

PLATE

II

The Svastika and

1921.]

the

Omkara.

KEY TO PLATE
1.

Brahnri

o,

one variety.

2.

Brahmi

o,

another variety,

3.

Svastika,

'

left-handed.'

4.

Svastika,

'

right-handed.'

5.

Variant of

3.

6.

Variant of

4.

7.

Symbol

for

II

omkara usually found

,

records.
8.

Variant of 7, given

245

by Alberuni.

in

mediaeval Indian

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

246

KEY TO PLATE
1.

N.S.,

XVII,

III.

Indian Coin, Eran reproduced

fromcrayon copy (bv
Kumar S. 0. Sinhasarma) of Fig. 20 PI. XI
in
Cunningham s Corns of Ancient India.
Indian Coin, Uja in; reproduced from
cayon copv (bv
Kumar S C. Sinhasarma) of Fig. 7, PI. X, in
Cunningham s Coins of Ancient India.
;

2.

3.

Biconical Spindle-whorl of
Trov
(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig. 59).*

4.

Spindle-whorl of Troy with

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig

'

<

'

'

'

ogee

'

svastikas.

63).

Smi t

rePr0dUCedby tiDd

re

irtmttfo n

l' "

of

JOURN.

AS. SOC. BENG.,

VOL. XVII.

1921.

PLATE

2.

3.

OMKARA
THE
AND
SVASTIKA
THE

III.

JOURN.

AS. SOC. BENG.,

VOL. XVH,

PLATE

1921.

a.

6.

4.

5.

THE SVASTIKA AND THE OMKARA.

IV

The Svastika and

1921.]

the

Omkara

KEY TO PLATE
1

Greek

'

Geometric

'

247

IV.

Vase (Smyrna).

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig. 140).

2.

Cinerary Urn (Cervetri-Italv).

(Wilson The Swastika, Fig/l86).

3.

Greek Vase, oinoehoe.

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig.

155).

4.

Detail of Greek 'Geometric Vase (Thera).

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig. 153).

5.

Detail of Rhodian Vase.

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig. 171).

6.

Detail of Greek Vase (Naukratis).

(Wilson, The Swastika, Fig. 130a).

'

are reproduced by kind permission

All these figures

Smithsonian Institution.

of the