YOUNG TURKS AGAIN

Author(s): KEMAL H. KARPAT

Source: Challenge, Vol. 9, No. 6 (MARCH, 1961), pp. 17-20
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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ments whose market destination is

equipment
is gradually retired. But
finished steel, and exported three
to
four times as much. Since then, howmuch of the European industry has
undetermined- mainly those to ware-

ever, two major factors have inter- had to be completely rebuilt. Convened to even up the balance be- sequently, a much greater proportion
of its equipment than ours is of
which have had an unusual, though tween steel exports and imports.
not decisive, impact on the steel in- One has been the amazingly rapid relatively recent vintage. The averdustry's sales in the past two years. growth of the West European econ- age productivity of European equipThese are inventory movements and omy. While this growth has created ment is therefore higher, giving that
a greater demand for steel products, region a trade advantage in steel.
foreign trade.
Because the demand for steel is
it has also been accompanied by a
According to estimates made for
substantial expansion of steel-pro- tied to the growth of the economy, it
Fortune by Alan Greenspan, a wellknown economic consultant for the
ducing capacity, enabling West Eu- would take a dire pessimist indeed to
steel industry, inventories of finished
rope's steel needs to be met more predict that steel's present troubles
steel in the hands of users and disfully from domestic sources. The re- will long continue. The number of
tributors have fallen by three
gion's
or growth has provided it with new young workers entering the
four million tons since 1958. The
the productive facilities to enter labor force will rise rapidly during
bulk of this reduction occurred, not
more actively into the American the 1960s, from the two-million-a-

houses and distributors. Still to be

discussed, however, are two factors

in the strike-torn year of 1959, but in market.

year rate at present to a rate of three

Second, because this newly in- million a year by the end of the
decade. Either the GNP will grow at
To some extent, cutting back steel stalled capacity, incorporating the
a record pace, or unemployment will.
inventories was a reaction to falling latest technological advances, is so
Assuming the former, consumer inprofit margins during 1960; also, it much more productive than the
vestment in durable goods, such as
represented a retreat from the exces- older American plants, European
sive optimism of early 1960, when in- producers have been getting an in- autos and appliances, will progressively swell.
ventories were built up in expecta- creasing price advantage. Thus,
tion of sharp increases in demand. while steel prices in the U.S. rose by These sales will be in response to
the needs of the mounting wave of
But another important factor is that about one-fourth between 1955 and
newly
two formed families, as well as to
steel users have permanently drifted 1959, in France they rose only
desires excited by rising incomes
1 per
away from holding heavy steel in- per cent and in Germany only 1 the
ventories. This is because there is no
generally. Investment by business
cent- despite general wage increases
will also be stimulated, as growing
of over 30 per cent.
longer any danger that the order
output gradually absorbs the excess
European productivity in steelbooks of the steel companies will get
capacity
that now discourages further
making has risen faster than ours
as
too overloaded to permit prompt
a result of the destruction of steel
investment. Thus, if we avoid ecobilling of new orders. The excess
during World War II. Innomic
the catastrophe, the 1960s should
capacity of the steel companies mills
has
prove,
steel industry, where productive
fa- for steel, to be a decade of
taken the place of large inventories
in the hands of steel users.
steadily accelerating expansion. This
cilities are of such long life, technoIn 1955 the United States imrestore the industry to its former
logical advances can normallywill
only
position
incorporated
very slowly, as
old as a basic growth industry.
ported roughly a million be
tons
of

1960.

is necessary to go back to the establishment of the Republic in 1923. In

that year Mustafa Kemal (later Mustafa Kemal Ataturk) began to trans-

Ankara's new regime

YOUNG TURKS AGAIN

form the country. The downfall of

the Ottoman Empire had left the

economy ruined. The population

was illiterate, immersed in fatalism

and inertia- conditions that had

been perpetuated by lack of freedom

and by traditions of abject obedience

by KEMAL H. KARPAT

and hero worship.

Through the Republican party,

Mustafa Kemal embarked on a mon-

program of economic dehadAdgradually been abolished byumental

the
in turkey the government of

velopment,
governmental organizaDemocratic party government
of
tion and mass education. His aim
Discontent had been
on May 27, 1960. It was sweptMenderes.
aside
was
to becreate a modern country based
mounting for several years,
and
by a coup d'tat engineered by young
thinking,
self-reliant and creative
hind the coup was a social on
and
ecoarmy officers headed by Gen. Cemal

nan Menderes came to a sudden end

Gursel. The revolt aimed at reinstat-

nomic ferment.

To understand modern Turkey

ing the democratic freedoms which

individuals.
it The methods used were harsh and

Challenge March, 1961 17

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the results often fell short of the

eloquence, but also by proposing

Democratic victory would produce it.

farm
credits and modernization as an
goals desired. Nevertheless, by
the
Turkey's progress toward democend of World War II Turkey
had policy to extensive expro-racy, her strong stand against comalternate
established the basis of a modern napriation of land. Although the bill
munism and her strategic position
were sufficient reasons to induce the
tional economy. Though the great
became law, the strength of the
majority of the population was still
opposition prevented extensive exUnited States to grant her generous
comprised of peasants, a relatively
propriation of private estates from
military and economic assistance.
The aid started in 1947 in the form
large intelligentsia had been edutaking place.

cated in modern schools. There was

a middle class with liberal attitudes

When Menderes emerged as a

founder of the Democratic party, he

and enough capital to envisage found
un- behind him a sizable group of

of military assistance and, especially

after 1950, expanded rapidly into

the economic field. At this point in

landowners and businessmen. These

dertaking economic ventures. There
her history Turkey needed a massive
was also a relatively small numberfollowers
of
were unhappy with the
economic program to fulfill her
industrial workers.
Republican statist policies, and they
dreams of economic progress. Ameri-

could provide financial support for

can aid provided an answer to the
the new party. To them was soon
desire for material progress. The
Social differentiation, accompanied
added a conglomerate group of disaid, supplemented by assistance
satisfied individuals from other ecoby diversification of interests and
from other Western nations, inopinions, had come to Turkey. Innomic strata ready to follow any
creased rather than quenched this
dividualistic and progressive conleader and any movement that wouldthirst.

Differentiation and diversification

cepts that emphasized action and recriticize the government and propose Turkey's economy is based on
changes.
agriculture, which still supports the

sourcefulness had undermined the

The haves and the have nots had

old ideas of monolithic society and
majority of her 27 million people.
absolute government. Demandscome
for together under one magic idea
The average per capita income is
adjusting the government to these
-democracy as a panacea for all
low, about $250 a year. Large minnew conditions were heard on every
evils. But the shouts for democracy
eral resources, including coal, iron
side. The decision to adopt a multiexpressed different ideas and differore and petroleum, provide a good
party system provided some answer
basis for industrialization. But in this
ent yearnings. To the diehard conto these demands. It also conformed
servatives and Islamists, democracy
land that is somewhat larger than
meant a return to traditionalism. To
to the long-standing ideal of the
Texas there now exist only the beginRepublic and was pleasing to the
the surviving feudal lords in eastern
nings of modern industry. These

West with which Turkey had cast

Turkey, it meant resumed dominafacilities were largely built and are
tion over the peasants. To the inoperated by the state.

her lot.

Under these conditions the Demo-

tellectuals it meant a new step

toward modernization.
cratic party was established in 1946.

Farm mechanization

Its leaders were Celai Bayar, AdnanThe Democratic party leaders The American economic aid enbrought together these differentabled the Democrats, hard-pressed to
belonged, until a few months earlier,
groups with conflicting views and
reform agriculture, to promote an ex-

Menderes and a few others who had

to the ruling Republican party. Celai

formed one strong organization.
tensive program of farm mechanizaBayar had been Prime Minister They
in
promised that once the Repub-tion. This, supplemented with tax
1938 and 1939, and was rememberedlicans were ousted, all grievances
exemptions for farmers, created an

for his statist economic policy as

would automatically be settled. The
unprecedented economic boom in

well as for his harsh methods of im-

Democrats successfully used their orthe villages. Some relaxation of state

plementing it. Adnan Menderes, a ganization to build public opinioncontrol led to private investment in
rich landowner, was a relatively ob-into the chief political force. Butindustry. The government's own proscure figure until 1945. In that year they did not foresee that, eventually,
gram of road and hydroelectric dehe won national attention as the
this force would turn against them.
velopment also stimulated the econspokesman for the Agricultural ComThe politcial struggle between 1946
omy.
mittee during the debates on and
the1950 cast little light on the sub- When new elections were held in
land reform bill.
tle meanings of democracy, but it
1954 the Democrats swept them with
Menderes, backed by a sizable
made everyone aware of what de-a margin greater than in 1950. Their
number of deputies who supported
mocracy was not, namely suppression
victory convinced them that ecothe interests of the landowners, opof freedom, whatever the pretext. nomic development, whatever the
When elections were held in 1950
posed the extreme expropriatory proprice and consequence, was the cure
visions of the bill. The intense dethe Democrats won by promisingfor all ills. The old promise of conbate taking place on this occasion
liberalization and democracy. These
solidating democracy by means of
between those advocating expropriawere very adroitly contrasted with
constitutional amendments and spetion and those against it cast light
the Republican's strong-handedcial institutions was cast aside, and
on the dire condition of the peasanthe government embarked on ecomethods during the latter's one-party
try and indicated the urgent need for
rule. Obviously, the Republican recnomic plans more grandiose than

measures to alleviate it. In the de-

ord of achievement had not im-

ever.

bates, Menderes distinguished himpressed the voters who wanted deThe pulse of life in the country
self not only by his brilliance and
mocracy and were convinced that
a
quickened
as the new economic ac18 Challenge March, 1961

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tivity created more employment op-

portunities and as the rural areas

were connected to large centers by
a good road system. Adnan Menderes' economic policy, presented to
the public with the artifices of a
rather captivating personality and
a well-displayed patriotism, secured
him a large and faithful following,
especially in rural areas. (A few

to lead their lives in the tradigreat majority to produce. The free

comtional
munications system was based on
mo-way. But discontent began to

spread among the small farmers as

tor vehicles, and Turkey neither
well. They were no longer satisfied
with
tracts enough oil domestically
to the trifling benefits of tax exrun them.
emption. Tales of economic developThe social effects of unplanned ment and fast enrichment reached
economic development were even them and sharpened their desire for
a better life. They demanded more
worse. The growth of industry

manufactures such vehicles nor ex-

swelled the number of industrial

aid and more welfare.

workers from about 400,000 in 1950

This was, indeed, a strange shift.

The government, which the villagers
to over a million in 1960. Wages reers was prepared, like Abraham in mained low and living conditions had feared and obeyed like a divine
the Old Testament, to sacrifice one
were unsatisfactory. Trade unionscreature for centuries in the past,
were formed and demanded rightsnow begged them for their votes and
of his sons for Menderes' glory.)
for labor, including the right to offered them many benefits in re-

months before the revolution, when

he visited Tarsus, one of his follow-

Something basic

strike. The government tried to pla- turn. This odd deal carried the name
Under the Democrats, Turkey had cate labor by providing some ma- of democracy and the emboldened
villagers were all for it.
made enormous progress. Yet, despite terial benefits and to lull discontent
all this material progress, people be- with paternalistic advice. When all
Dire circumstances
gan to turn away from that party. In this proved unavailing the governThe demands became so great that
the 1957 elections the government ment abruptly suppresed the more
trailed behind the combined votes
daring trade unions. Discussiononly
of a huge assistance program could
have met them. The rural front,
of the opposition parties. Neverthelabor problems became taboo, for
which had supported the Democrats,
suchin
discussion was regarded as conless, it won a comfortable majority
ducive
to leftism.
the Assembly (424 to 186 seats)
beThe worst effects of the Democause the vote against it was split
among the opposition parties.cratic
Sig- policies were found

became dissatisfied and began to

crack wide open. This front had

brought
in
the the rich and the poor farmersprotogether in a union of interest at
countryside.
The 40,000 tractors
nificantly enough, the Democrats
sufexpense of the white-collar workwent
fered their defeats primarily incured
the to mechanize agriculture the
ers and
into the hands of a small group
ofthe industries that paid taxes
overwhelmingly rural eastern provinces.
and supported the public services. As
upper-income farmers. These favored
a result,
Something very basic was wrong;
persons built fortunes rapidly
and the white-collar workers,

squeezed
in fact, so wrong that it could
spent
not them lavishly on luxuries
and by inflation and the high
cost of living, found themselves in
dire circumstances.

The city and the village had had

divergent interests. Now they began

to come together in discontent- the

former because it had paid too much,

the latter because it had not received

enough.
The Democratic party's strength

was concentrated in small rural

towns. These centers are generally

conservative, intensely religious and

definitely antimodernist in cultural

matters. But they are progressive as
regards the use of machinery and

economic advancement. In order to

hold their allegiance, the Democratic

party made extensive concessions on

religious matters and adopted an

housing. The machines replaced
be corrected by superficial measures.
farm tenants and sharecroppers who increasingly conservative attitude.
Economic development was based
were
forced to seek employment inLarge funds were allotted for buildon heavy capital investments and
forcities. Crowded into unsanitary shack ing new mosques. Anti-intellectualeign loans. Industry was not founded
towns, they became foci of discon-ism increased. Progressive publicaon the country's prime resourcestent.
tions were suppressed. Universities
agricultural products; instead,
it
were accused of becoming leftist cenThe poorer farmers, and Turkey
tried to provide many products that

served the needs of the urban con-

The narrow cultural outlook of

is predominantly a country of ters.
small

the small town became fashionable,

continued to work their
sumer. In reality, the economyfarmers,
was
and piety was regarded as the greatest
land by old methods. They had,
geared to meet the needs of a small
is true, no taxes to pay and were human virtue.
minority rather than stimulateit the
Challenge March, 1961 19

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It seemed as if cultural regression

was deliberately promoted to prevent
an intellectual reaction to economic

social and cultural backwardness of

tablishment of a multiparty democracy, the initial aim with which the
the social groups from which they

military came to power, seemedhad

to sprung. Had these intellectuals
and social changes. The need for
fade away. Instead, an over-all drive
been educated in the days of the
for social and economic modernizaelectoral support pushed the DemoEmpire, in the aristocratic tradition,
crats to the extreme right. This tion
vio- seemed to become the junta's
they might have struggled to identify
lated the principles on which goal.
the There were weeks of strife
themselves with the ruling circles.
Republic had been built.
within the junta until the moderate But, in a democratic era, their scienThese principles included secularwing prevailed and the extremists tific training turned them back to
ism and populism. The formerwere
callsousted and assigned to overseas their own people and their problems.
for the separation of religion and
the
posts.
The Democratic party has been
state and preaches the deliverance All
of this was carried out without

dissolved. But the chain reaction of

social
the mind from the hold of dogmaany violence or any restrictions
on and economic forces that it

tism and traditionalism. The latter

set in motion will continue to affect

the press or public. A strong popular
Turkish life. The Turks will conimplies the emancipation of allcoalition
citiin favor of democracy,
zens through education.
made up of intellectuals, press, busitinue to demand a larger share of
material welfare and freedom. These
This new Democratic policy comnessmen and peasants, thwarted and
pletely alienated the intellectuals.
discouraged all attempts to estabare legitimate demands and nobody
The political struggle became lish
oncean authoritarian government.
can ignore them. Whatever political
more a fight between the old and the
party comes to power in the future
new. But, as we have seen, many
must satisfy these demands.

others besides the intellectuals were

dissatisfied. Rumors of corruption

and mismanagement in the ranks of

the ruling party added fuel to the

discontent. Criticism of the govern-

ment became so intense that the

Democratic leaders could either let

the people choose a new government

or suppress the opposition. They

took the second course and thereby

sealed their doom.

In the spring of 1960 a committee

with dictatorial powers was set up

to investigate the opposition. This

was considered the Democrats' final

drive to assume absolute control.

Protest meetings by students and

military cadets followed. Menderes

Under the military junta, eco-

nomic problems loom large. A national planning board has been es-

tablished to devise a program of

development in accordance with the

country's needs and resources. Commissions on education, land and
health reforms are active. The government, though basically adverse to
additional indebtedness abroad, has
been forced to seek new loans to

stabilize the economy and cover the

trade deficit.

On the politcial front the junta

continues to support NATO and

CENTO. Internally, the National

Unity Committee, which now wields

power alone, has become the upper

turned to the army to curb the
Theopdemand for social progress, howhouse of a Constituent Assembly. It
position and repress the students.
ever, remained as strong as ever. shares power with a lower house

The army's noninvolvement in poliThus, the new intelligentsia,

composed of nominated civilians unwhose
tics was a basic principle adopted
byinfluence has been on the
til a popularly elected assembly is
riseunfor the last two decades, had
won
convened.
The national elections
Ataturk and rigorously observed
til last April. Ismet Inonu, the
a great
head victory. These intellectuals
seem scheduled for sometime in 1961,
from the grass roots of Turkish
of the opposition Republicancame
party,
and the ban on political activities
sternly warned the government
that and represented a new socialsociety
has ended. New political parties (Soif it used the army for political
democratic
purspirit. They hadcial
been
Democratic) are being established.
poses, it would find its orders
dis- at government expense
trained
for

A new constitution is to come into

obeyed. The government did so
and,
teaching
and professional jobs. Most

of army
them were from lower middleas a result, was toppled by an
operation as soon as ratified by the
class and peasant families. In fact,
Constituent Assembly. There is noththe overwhelming majority of Turing to prevent Gen. Gursel from
Urgent need
key's 35,000 teachers and an equal
handing over power to a civilian adOnly a few weeks after it came to number in other professions, includministration once the proper legal
power, the military junta, especially ing army officers, come from these
foundations for a stable democracy

coup.

the younger members, began discuss- social groups.

ing the urgent need for social re-

have been established. Thus, the

The ideas of democracy and freerevolution of May 27, 1960, while it

forms such as land distribution, gen-dom found wide acceptance among
did not solve many of the outstanderal education, socialized medicine
many of these intellectuals. Democing social and economic problems of
and a thorough secularization. The
racy for them meant not only equalTurkey, did, at least, establish the
talk about social reforms became so
on which such solutions
ity of opportunity and status, foundations
but
intense at one point that the re-esalso a method for overcoming may
the be built.
20 Challenge March, 1961

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