Classifying Steam Turbines

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
CLASSIFYING STEAM TURBINES
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Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-213.01
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Steam Turbines
Classifying Steam Turbines
Section
Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 3
STEAM TURBINE STAGE DESIGNS ............................................................................ 4
Fixed Nozzle ............................................................................................................. 4
Rotating Blades ................................................................................................... 8
STEAM TURBINE STAGING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................ 14
Impulse (Rateau Stage) .......................................................................................... 15
Impulse (Curtis Stage) ............................................................................................ 18
Reaction.................................................................................................................. 20
Multi-Staging ........................................................................................................... 23
Stage Efficiencies ................................................................................................... 30
Impulse Stages.................................................................................................. 30
Reaction Stages ................................................................................................ 34
STEAM TURBINE TYPES, ARRANGEMENTS, AND APPLICATIONS ....................... 38
General Purpose (API 611)..................................................................................... 39
Special Purpose (API 612)...................................................................................... 41
Arrangements ......................................................................................................... 47
Condensing ....................................................................................................... 47
Backpressure..................................................................................................... 49
Extraction........................................................................................................... 51
Induction ............................................................................................................ 54
Applications............................................................................................................. 55
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 56
Steam Turbines
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Convergent Nozzle......................................................................................... 6

Figure 2. Convergent-Divergent Nozzle ........................................................................ 7
Figure 3. Nozzle Diaphragm (Impulse Type)................................................................. 8
Figure 4. Elementary Impulse Turbine .......................................................................... 9
Figure 5. Curved Impulse Blade .................................................................................. 10
Figure 6. Impulse Turbine Nozzle Position.................................................................. 11
Figure 7. Impulse Turbine Wheel Section ................................................................... 12
Figure 8. Reaction Turbine Stationary and Rotating Blade Arrangement.................... 13
Figure 9. Rateau Stage Impulse Turbine..................................................................... 17
Figure 10. Curtis Stage Impulse Turbine..................................................................... 19
Figure 11. Reaction Turbine........................................................................................ 20
Figure 12. Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine.................................................... 25
Figure 13. Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine ...................................... 27
Figure 14. Combination Turbine Reaction Turbine with One Impulse Stage............... 29
Figure 15. Vector Diagram for a Single Stage Impulse Stage (Rateau) ...................... 30
Figure 16. Vector Diagrams Illustrating Optimum Velocity Ratio................................. 31
Figure 17. Vector Diagram for a Curtis Stage ............................................................. 33
Figure 18. Vector Diagram for a Reaction Stage......................................................... 35
Figure 19. Efficiency Versus Stage Type .................................................................... 37
Figure 20. Comparison of General-Purpose to Special-Purpose Steam
Turbines.................................................................................................. 43
Figure 21. Multi-Stage Condensing Turbine................................................................ 48
Figure 22. Multi-Stage Backpressure Turbine ............................................................. 50
Figure 23. Single, Automatic-Extraction, Condensing Turbine .................................... 53
ii
Steam Turbines
INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a relatively simple type of prime mover. A
steam turbine has only one major moving part: the rotor.
Turbine blades are attached to the rotor. When these rotating
turbine blades are combined with stationary nozzles or blades,
they form the steam path through a turbine. The rotor is
supported on journal bearings and is axially positioned by a
thrust bearing. A housing or casing with steam inlet and outlet
connections surrounds the rotating parts and serves as a frame
for the turbine.
Steam turbines are utilized by Saudi Aramco to drive electric
generators, boiler fans, gas compressors, and boiler feedwater
pumps. Although a steam turbine is a relatively simple type of
prime mover, many factors enter into the design of a modern
steam turbine. Modern steam turbines are the result of many
years of research and development. A steam turbine converts
the heat energy of steam into mechanical work. The heat
energy is first converted to velocity energy, or kinetic energy,
and then the velocity energy is converted into mechanical work.
Because steam is a gas, all of the principles that are described
in this module apply equally to the expansion turbine section of
a gas turbine.
The Mechanical Engineer must understand the principles of
steam turbines because these principles apply to Saudi Aramco.
The Mechanical Engineer must understand how turbine stage
designs, turbine staging arrangements, and turbine types and
arrangements affect the operation of steam turbines and their
related components. This Module provides information for the
following topics:
Steam Turbine Stage Designs
Steam Turbine Staging Arrangements
Steam Turbine Types, Arrangements, and Applications
Steam Turbines
STEAM TURBINE STAGE DESIGNS

A stage of a steam turbine is defined as the rows of fixed
nozzles and rotating blades in a steam turbine in which a single
pressure decrease occurs. Steam turbines use two main types
of blading to convert the heat energy of the steam into
mechanical work: impulse blading and reaction blading. An
impulse-type-bladed turbine stage consists of one row of fixed
nozzles in which the steam expands to transform heat energy
into velocity energy, or kinetic energy, and one or more rows of
rotating blades that transform the kinetic energy of the steam
into the power that is delivered by the shaft. Impulse stages
that contain more than one row of rotating blades have a row of
stationary blades that are placed between each row of rotating
blades. In a true impulse stage, all of the expansion of the
steam takes place in the fixed nozzles. Hence, no pressure
decrease occurs while the steam passes through the rotating
and/or stationary blades.
A reaction-type-bladed turbine consists of one row of stationary
blades in which part of the expansion of the steam takes place
and one row of rotating blades in which the expansion of the
steam is completed. Different steam turbine characteristics are
achieved by the combination of different steam turbine stages.
The combination of different stages is discussed in detail in the
multi-stage arrangement section of this module.
Fixed Nozzle
Both impulse and reaction turbines require a device that
converts the stored thermal energy of the steam into kinetic
energy, or velocity energy. This device is called a nozzle. In a
reaction turbine, both the fixed blades and the rotating blades
serve as nozzles. In an impulse turbine, the energy conversion
takes place when the steam passes through fixed nozzles.
Nozzles are available in many different shapes that are
engineered and designed for various applications. A nozzle
serves two main functions: (1) energy conversion (thermal to
kinetic) as the steam expands from a high pressure area to a
low pressure area through the nozzle and (2) the directing of the
high-speed jet of steam tangentially onto the rotating blades,
where the final conversion of energy takes place (kinetic to
mechanical).
Steam Turbines
Because a nozzle is basically a smooth-shaped orifice that

separates a high-pressure region from a low-pressure region,
the high-pressure steam passes through the nozzle and
emerges at the low-pressure side as a high-speed jet of steam.
Nozzles may have many forms, but all are similar in principle of
operation. The two basic types of nozzles, the convergent
nozzle and the convergent-divergent nozzle, consist of an inlet
section, a throat, and a mouth, or outlet section. The type of
nozzle that is used in a steam turbine depends upon the
required pressure at the outlet of the nozzle.
The velocity of steam flow through any restricted channel, such
as a nozzle, depends upon the pressure difference between the
inlet of the nozzle and the region around the outlet of the nozzle.
If the inlet and the outlet of a nozzle are at equal pressure, a
static condition, in which steam does not flow, exists. If the
pressure at the inlet is maintained while the pressure at the
outlet is gradually decreased, the steam begins to flow from the
high-pressure side (inlet) to the low-pressure side (outlet). The
velocity of the steam increases as the outlet pressure and
temperature decrease. When the thermal energy of the steam
expands through a fixed nozzle, both pressure and temperature
decrease. A further decrease in the outlet pressure and
temperature eventually results in a point being reached where
the velocity of the steam is equal to the velocity of sound in
steam. This point is called the nozzles critical flow. Once
critical flow is reached, further reduction of the pressure and
temperature does not result in an increase in the velocity.
The ratio of the outlet pressure to the inlet pressure at which the
critical flow is reached is called the critical pressure ratio. The
critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.55 for superheated
steam. In other words, the velocity of the flow through a nozzle
is a function of the pressure-differential across the nozzle. The
steam velocity increases as the outlet pressure decreases in
relation to the inlet pressure until the critical pressure ratio is
reached. No further increase in steam velocity will occur when
the outlet pressure is reduced below 55 percent of the inlet
pressure.
Steam Turbines
When the pressure at the outlet of a nozzle is designed to be

higher than the critical pressure, a simple parallel-wall or
convergent nozzle may be used. In a convergent nozzle, which
is shown in Figure 1, the cross-sectional area at the outlet of the
nozzle is the same as the cross-sectional area at the throat of
the nozzle. Because the steam will not expand beyond the
throat of the nozzle, a convergent nozzle is often referred to as
a nonexpanding nozzle. High-pressure steam enters the inlet
section of the nozzle, and it expands as it passes through the
throat to the low pressure area of the nozzle.
The operation of a convergent nozzle works well in principle, but
it is not very practical in most high-pressure turbine applications.
The steam will expand in all directions, and it will become very
turbulent as it exits the nozzle into the low-pressure area. The
turbulent steam is difficult to direct efficiently toward the rotating
blades. Some of the steam will strike the rotating blades at
inefficient angles, and it will thereby cause the friction losses to
increase as the steam flows through the rotating blades.
Figure 1. Convergent Nozzle
Steam Turbines
To allow the steam to expand without the turbulence that occurs

in the convergent nozzle, a section is added after the throat.
The cross-sectional area of this additional section gradually
increases from the throat to the mouth of the nozzle. The
increase in the cross-sectional area causes the steam to
emerge from the nozzle in a uniform steady flow. This type of
nozzle, as shown in Figure 2, is a convergent-divergent nozzle.
High-pressure steam enters the inlet section of the nozzle, and
it expands as it passes through the throat to the low pressure
area.
Pyrometers are described in the following discussion in terms of
principles, design, performance, installation, and applications.
Convergent-divergent nozzles are used when the pressure at
the outlet of the nozzle is required to be lower than the critical
pressure ratio. The size of the throat and the length of the
divergent section of every nozzle must be specifically designed
for the pressure ratio for which the nozzle will be used.
Operation at any pressure ratio other than the design pressure
ratio causes a decrease in nozzle efficiency.
Because
expansion takes place from the throat of the nozzle to the mouth
of the nozzle, this type of nozzle is often called an expanding
nozzle.
Figure 2. Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
Steam Turbines
Nozzles can also be formed by locating blades adjacently to one

another. Figure 3 shows a nozzle diaphragm for an impulse
turbine that uses blades to form the nozzle passages.
Figure 3. Nozzle Diaphragm (Impulse Type)

Rotating Blades
Once the thermal energy of the steam has been converted into
kinetic energy by the steam turbine nozzles, some device must
be available to convert the kinetic energy into work. The
conversion of kinetic energy into work occurs in the rotating
blades.
Steam turbine blades are attached around the
circumference of the rotor assembly. The basic distinction
between types of turbine blades is the manner in which the
steam causes the turbine rotor to move. When the rotor is
moved by a direct push, or an impulse, from the steam that is
impinging on the blades, the turbine is called an impulse turbine.
When the rotor is moved by the force of reaction, the turbine is
called a reaction turbine.
Steam Turbines
To understand the manner in which kinetic energy is converted

to work on the turbine blades, it is necessary to consider both
the absolute velocity of the steam and the relative velocity of the
steam in relationship to the rotating blades. In a theoretical
elementary impulse turbine, such as the one that is shown in
Figure 4, the blades are merely flat vanes or plates. As the
steam jet flows from the nozzle, it impinges upon the blades and
moves the rotor. If it is assumed that there is no friction as the
steam flows across the blade, the relative velocity of the steam
at the blade entrance (R1) must be equal to the vector difference
between the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade
entrance minus the peripheral velocity of the blade
(V1 Vb), and the relative velocity of the steam at the blade exit
(R2) must also be equal to the vector difference between the
absolute velocity of the steam at the blade discharge minus the
peripheral velocity of the blade (V2 V1), because theoretically,
there is no change in the velocity as the steam flows across the
blade. V2 is the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade exit.
Figure 4. Elementary Impulse Turbine
Steam Turbines
To be able to convert all of the kinetic energy of the steam into

work, it would be necessary to design a blade from which the
steam would exit with zero absolute velocity. This blade would
be curved in the manner that is shown in Figure 5, and the jet of
steam from the nozzle would enter the blade tangentially rather
than at an angle. The shape of the blade that is shown in
Figure 5 closely approximates the shape of the blades that are
used in actual impulse turbines. If the curved blade that is
shown in Figure 5 is used, the direction of the steam flow is
exactly reversed. The relative velocity of the steam at the blade
entrance (R1) is again equal to the absolute velocity of the
steam at the blade entrance minus the peripheral velocity of the
blade (V1 Vb), and the relative velocity of the steam at the
blade exit (R2) is also be equal to the absolute velocity of the
steam at the blade discharge minus the peripheral velocity of
the blade (V2 Vb). Because the direction of flow is reversed,
however, the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade exit (V2)
is now equal to the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade
entrance minus twice the peripheral velocity of the blade (V1
2Vb2). If the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade exit (V2)
is zero, the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance
must be equal to twice the peripheral velocity of the blade (V1 =
2Vb).
Figure 5. Curved Impulse Blade
10
Steam Turbines
The maximum amount of work is obtained from a reversing

blade when the velocity of the blade is exactly one-half of the
absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance. This
statement assumes that the nozzle is tangential to the blades.
In an actual turbine, however, the nozzle is positioned at an
angle to the rotating blades, which causes the steam to enter
the blade at an angle, as shown in Figure 6, rather than
tangentially, as was previously shown in Figures 4 and 5. In
actual turbines, it is not feasible for the steam to enter the blade
tangentially and to utilize the complete reversal of steam in the
blades; to do so would require that the nozzle be placed in a
position that would place it in the path of the rotating blades. In
actual impulse turbines, the maximum amount of work is done
when the blade speed is one-half times the cosine of the nozzle
angle times the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade
entrance. Because the nozzle angle is only the tangential
component of the steam velocity that produces work on the
turbine blades, the nozzle angle is made as small as possible.
Figure 6. Impulse Turbine Nozzle Position
11
Steam Turbines
Figure 7 shows a section of an impulse turbine wheel and with

the blades in place. Modern, high-speed turbines use these
types of turbine wheels (blades, shroud ring, and blade disc).
Turbine blading is designed to match the steam, PT, and
volume flow conditions in the section of the turbine in which the
blading is located.
The turbine wheel is contoured to
approximate the expansion characteristics of the steam. In the
first stages (high-pressure or control stages) in which the blades
are subjected to shocks from steam pressures that vary as the
blade passes the inlet nozzle groups, the blades are short and
sturdy. The blade length is increased from the high-pressure
end of the turbine to the exhaust end of the turbine in order to
accommodate the increased specific volume of the steam as the
steam approaches the exhaust end of the turbine. The blades
at the low-pressure end of the turbine are tapered from the base
of the blade to the tip of the blade in order to meet radial loading
requirements that are caused by the increased centrifugal force
in the longer blades. The blades at the low-pressure end are
also normally twisted from the base of the blade to the tip of the
blade in order to accommodate the increase in peripheral
velocities.
Figure 7. Impulse Turbine Wheel Section
12
Steam Turbines
In a modern reaction turbine, the stationary blades that are

attached to the casing are formed and mounted so that the
spaces between the blades have the shape of nozzles. The
distinction between actual nozzles and the stationary blading
that serves the purpose of nozzles in reaction turbines is
mechanical rather than functional. The previous discussion of
steam flow through nozzles applies equally well to steam flow
through the nozzle-shaped spaces between the stationary
blades of reaction turbines. The stationary blades guide the
steam into rotating blades. The blades that project radially from
the periphery of the rotor are formed and mounted so that the
spaces between these blades also have the shape of nozzles.
The general arrangement of the reaction-type stationary blades
and the rotating blades is shown in Figure 8.
The conversion of the thermal energy of the steam into
mechanical work in reaction blading is similar to the conversion
of the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical work in
impulse blading. The angles and velocities are different in the
two types of blading. Because the velocity of the steam
increases as the steam expands through the rotating blades, the
initial velocity of the steam that enters the blade must be lower
in a reaction turbine than it would be in an impulse turbine with
the same blade speed.
Figure 8. Reaction Turbine Stationary and

Rotating Blade Arrangement
13
Steam Turbines
STEAM TURBINE STAGING ARRANGEMENTS

As briefly explained previously, a basic distinction between
steam turbine types is the manner in which the steam causes
the turbine rotor to move: by an impulse force or by a reaction
force. Three different staging arrangements methods are
utilized in turbine construction to achieve the desired results
from a turbine. Two of the three stage arrangements methods
use the impulse principle to convert the thermal energy that is
stored in the steam into useful work.
The third stage
arrangement method uses the reaction principle to convert the
thermal energy that is stored in the steam into useful work. This
section of the Module will discuss the following stage
arrangement types:
Impulse (Rateau Stage)
Impulse (Curtis Stage)
Reaction
14
Steam Turbines
Impulse (Rateau Stage)

In an impulse turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is
converted into mechanical energy through a row of nozzles and
one or more rows of moving blades. If the conversion of
thermal energy to mechanical energy occurs through one row of
nozzles and one row of moving blades, the impulse turbine
stage is referred to as a Rateau stage. The Rateau stage
impulse turbine consists of a set of nozzles that discharges
against a single row of moving blades that are mounted on the
periphery of rotor, as shown in Figure 9. The steam enters the
turbine through a steam chest and expands from some initial
pressure and temperature to some final pressure and
temperature as it passes through the nozzles and acquires a
very high velocity. The steam exits the nozzles and flows
through the moving blades and out of the turbine exhaust.
The steam that enters the turbine has a great deal of thermal
energy due to its high pressure and temperature. The nozzles
convert the thermal energy of the steam (pressure and
temperature) into kinetic energy (velocity). As the steam
expands through the nozzles, the steam's pressure and
temperature decreases and its velocity increases.
The
decrease in pressure and temperature and the increase in
velocity create a steam jet that is directed by the nozzles into
the moving blades of the turbine wheel. The moving blades
convert the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam jet into
mechanical energy in the form of the actual movement of the
turbine wheel and shaft, or rotor. In the moving blades, the
steam's velocity decreases, but the pressure remains constant.
A Rateau stage impulse turbine utilizes both the impulse of the
steam jet and, to a lesser extent, the reactive force that results
as the curved moving blades cause the steam to change its
direction.
The moving blades do not serve as nozzles.
Because the pressure remains constant across the moving
blades, impulse turbines do not exert any significant amount of
thrust force on the rotor, and they do not require a balance
drum.
15
Steam Turbines
The disadvantage of a Rateau stage impulse turbine is its

relatively low efficiency due to the inability to extract all energy
from the steam. The most efficient speed of a turbine is directly
related to the velocity of the steam in the turbine. The Rateau
stage impulse turbine produces very high velocity steam. To
obtain the maximum work (increase the efficiency) from a single
stage Rateau turbine, an extremely high blade speed would be
required. Because the centrifugal forces that are involved in the
blade speed would exceed the design strength of the material
that is used to construct the turbine, the extremely high blade
speed is not feasible. The blade speed of the Rateau stage
impulse turbine is lower than the blade speed that will provide
the maximum amount of work per pound of steam. Because
single-stage steam turbines are small, low-power units that
usually drive pumps and fans, they typically operate at 3600
rpm and, as a result, they have a low ratio of blade speed to
steam velocity; therefore, single-stage steam turbine efficiencies
are typically only 30 to 35%. A decrease in the blade speed will
not allow the blades to absorb the maximum amount of kinetic
energy, and the steam will leave the turbine with a relatively
high exit velocity. The relatively high exit velocity represents the
kinetic energy that was not absorbed by the blades and that was
lost. The loss of energy is a decrease in efficiency. Another
decrease in efficiency is due to the increased windage losses
and friction losses of the Rateau stage impulse turbine. The
windage losses and friction losses that are associated with a
turbine wheel that operates in a steam atmosphere rapidly
increase as the velocity of the steam increases. Because the
Rateau stage impulse turbine has a relatively high exit velocity,
the windage losses and friction losses increase.
An advantage of the Rateau stage impulse turbine is its
simplicity of design and construction. Although this type of
turbine is relatively inefficient, the simplicity of design and
rugged, robust construction make the simple Rateau stage
impulse turbine well-suited for mechanical drive applications.
16
Steam Turbines
Figure 9. Rateau Stage Impulse Turbine
17
Steam Turbines
Impulse (Curtis Stage)

To avoid the energy losses that are associated with the
operation of the Rateau stage impulse turbine, the Curtis stage
impulse turbine was developed. As shown in Figure 10, two or
more rows of moving blades are mounted on the periphery of
the shaft. The conversion of thermal energy to mechanical
energy in the Curtis stage impulse turbine occurs through one
row of nozzles and more than one row of moving blades. Fixed
blades are attached to the casing between the rows of moving
blades to redirect the steam flow into the next row of moving
blades. These blades are commonly known as reversing
buckets. The steam enters the turbine through the steam chest,
and it expands in a single set of nozzles as in the Rateau stage
impulse turbine. The steam passes through the first row of
moving blades into a row of fixed blades that directs the flow of
steam into a second row of moving blades and out of the turbine
exhaust.
Figure 10 also shows the velocity and pressure relationships
across the nozzles and moving blades (flow diagram) of a Curtis
stage impulse turbine. Because the reduction of velocity occurs
through the two sets of moving blades, the Curtis stage impulse
turbine is called a velocity-compounded turbine. The nozzles
convert the thermal energy of the steam (pressure and
temperature) into kinetic energy (velocity). As the steam
expands through the nozzles, the steam's pressure and
temperature decreases and its velocity increases.
The
decrease in pressure and temperature with the increase in
velocity create a steam jet that is directed by the nozzles into
the first set of moving blades. The velocity of the steam
decreases through the first set of moving blades as the blades
convert some of the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam jet
into mechanical energy. The moving blades do not serve as
nozzles, and the pressure of the steam remains constant. The
steam exits the moving blades and enters the fixed blades. The
fixed blades redirect the jet of steam into the second row of
moving blades, and no pressure or velocity change occurs in
the fixed blades. The velocity of the steam decreases through
the second set of moving blades as the blades convert the
remainder of the kinetic energy (velocity) of the steam jet into
mechanical energy. Because the moving blades do not serve
as nozzles, the pressure of the steam remains constant.
18
Steam Turbines
Figure 10. Curtis Stage Impulse Turbine
19
Steam Turbines
Reaction
In a turbine with a reaction-type blade assembly, as shown in
Figure 11 the thermal energy (pressure and temperature) of
steam is converted into mechanical energy through a row of
stationary blades and a row of rotating blades. The stationary
blades and rotating blades are almost identical in shape, and
both sets of blades act as nozzles. Steam expansion and
redirection take place in both sets of the blades. Figure 11 also
illustrates the pressure-velocity relationship across the reaction
blading. The steam pressure decreases across every row of
stationary and rotating blades. The expansion converts the
thermal energy (pressure) of the steam into kinetic energy
(velocity). The rotating blades convert the kinetic energy
(velocity) of the jet of steam into mechanical energy, which
takes the form of the actual movement of the turbine rotor.
Figure 11. Reaction Turbine
20
Steam Turbines
All reaction turbines that have more than one stage are
classified as pressure-compounded turbines.
A pressurecompounded turbine is a turbine that is arranged so that the
pressure drop from the inlet to the exhaust is divided into many
steps through use of alternate rows of stationary and rotating
blades. Because the entire pressure drop occurs over several
stages, the pressure drop in each set of stationary and rotating
blades (each stage) is reduced. The reduced pressure drop
across each stage causes a small increase in velocity across
each stage.
The change in direction of the steam flow through the rotating
blades causes the steam to counteract or to kick back onto the
rotating blades. This kickback gives more energy to the rotating
blades and the wheel to which the rotating blades are attached.
The following actions of the steam in the reaction turbine cause
the turbine to move:
The reactive force that is produced on the rotating blades

when the steam increases in velocity.
The reactive force that is produced on the rotating blades

when the steam changes direction.
The impact of the steam on the rotating blades as the highvelocity steam from the stationary blades strikes the
rotating blades; therefore, the reaction turbine operates on
the impulse principle as well.
21
Steam Turbines
A disadvantage of a reaction-bladed turbine is the reduced

overall efficiency of the turbine when used in high-pressure
application. As the pressure drops in each blade row, there is a
pronounced tendency toward leakage of the steam around the
blade tips. This leakage necessitates extremely small radial
clearances between the rotating blade tips and the casing, and
between the stationary blade tip and the rotor. Because the
specific volume of the steam at the high-pressure end of the
turbine is small, the blades at the high-pressure end of the
turbine are short, and the amount of tip clearance is an
appreciable percentage of the total blade length. The short
blades and the amount of tip clearance increase the amount of
tip leakage, and they decrease the overall turbine efficiency.
Another disadvantage of a reaction-bladed turbine is the cost of
the materials and construction that would be required to
manufacture the reaction-bladed turbine for use as a highpressure turbine. The heavy construction and more expensive
materials that would be required to manufacture a reactionbladed turbine for use in high-pressure applications makes the
reaction-bladed turbine cost prohibitive. Because of these
disadvantages, reaction-bladed turbines are normally used for
low-velocity steam applications, such as low-pressure turbines.
The advantage of reaction-bladed turbines is that because of
the lower pressure and temperature, the turbines can be
constructed of lighter and less expensive materials. Another
advantage of reaction-bladed turbines is that for low-pressure
applications, reaction turbine efficiency exceeds impulse turbine
efficiency by two to three percent.
Because of the pressure drop that occurs across the rotating
blades, the rotor thrust that is produced in a reaction turbine is
significantly higher than the rotor thrust that is produced in an
impulse turbine. Because of this increased amount of rotor
thrust, a reaction turbine usually requires a balance drum to
reduce the thrust bearing load.
22
Steam Turbines
Multi-Staging
Steam turbines are classified by the arrangement of the stages
of the turbine. The combination of several stages of the various
types of blading is called multi-staging.
The multi-stage
arrangements use the advantages of each type of blading to
increase the overall efficiency of the steam turbine.
Compounding (or the arrangement of the various stages) refers
to the reduction of the pressure and/or velocity over a series of
steps. Steam turbines can be velocity-compounded, pressurecompounded, or both pressure- and velocity-compounded. A
single Curtis Stage was referred to as a velocity-compounded
turbine because the velocity reduction across the stage
occurred in two steps. A multiple-stage reaction turbine was
referred to as a pressure-compounded turbine because the
velocity reduction occurred in several steps.
A reduction in the blade speed of a turbine will result in an
increase in the efficiency of the turbine. The reduced blade
speed allows the turbine to produce more work by the increased
absorption of energy from the steam. One method that is used
to reduce the blade speed is to allow the steam pressure
reduction to occur in steps rather than to have the entire
pressure drop occur over one set of nozzles. The combination
of a number of Rateau stages results in the reduction of the
steam pressure in steps. Because the entire arrangement
consists of a compound series of pressure stages, this type of
turbine arrangement is called a pressure-compounded turbine.
Figure 12 shows the four stages of a pressure-compounded
impulse turbine and the pressure velocity relationship of the
pressure-compounded turbine.
23
Steam Turbines
The pressure-compounded impulse turbine consists of a series

of Rateau stages with the nozzles located between rows of
moving blades. The steam enters the turbine through the steam
chest into the first set of nozzles. As the steam passes through
the first set of nozzles, the steam expands. The expansion of
the steam causes pressure and temperature to decrease while
velocity increases. As the steam passes through the row of
moving blades, the pressure remains the same, but the velocity
of the steam decreases as the blades absorb the energy of the
steam to produce work. The discharge from the moving blades
is directed either into the next row of nozzles (inlet of the next
stage) or out the turbine exhaust.
As the steam passes through each nozzle, the pressure and
temperature decreases and the velocity increases. As the
steam passes through each row of moving blades, the pressure
remains constant and the velocity decreases.
The total
pressure drop across the turbine from the steam chest to the
exhaust is divided into as many steps as there are stages. The
division of the total pressure drop into many steps results in a
relatively low pressure drop across each nozzle and a relatively
low steam entrance velocity for each moving blade. An
increase in the number of stages decreases the velocity of each
stage to allow the blade speed to be reduced. The advantage
of a pressure-compounded turbine arrangement is that relatively
low-steam velocities can be used to achieve the desired steam
turbine blade speed.
24
Steam Turbines
Figure 12. Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine
25
Steam Turbines
The efficiency of the turbine increases as the actual blade

speed approaches the desired blade speed. The combination
of enough pressure-compounded stages to result in an efficient
blade speed would require a large turbine. The combination of
a pressure- compounded turbine with a velocity-compounded
turbine results in an efficient blade speed that is attained in a
relatively short turbine. Modern, high-pressure steam turbines
usually use velocity-compounded stages and pressurecompounded stages combined in one casing, as shown in
Figure 13. This type of multi-stage arrangement is called a
pressure-velocity compounded turbine. The pressure-velocity
compounded turbine consists of a velocity-compounded stage
(a Curtis stage) that is followed by several pressurecompounded stages (Rateau stages).
The velocitycompounded Curtis stage is always placed at the high-pressure
end of the turbine to absorb the largest portion of the total
pressure and temperature drop of the steam in a single stage.
The energy that remains in the steam is then absorbed in the
pressure-compounded stages. In addition to the reduction of
the overall length of the turbine, the addition of the velocitycompounded stage as the first stage allows the use of lighter
construction materials throughout the remainder of the turbine.
Figure 13 illustrates one velocity-compounded Curtis stage
followed by four, pressure- compounded Rateau stages, and the
pressure-velocity
relationship
of
the
pressure-velocity
compounded turbine. The steam enters the turbine through the
steam chest into the first set of nozzles. As the steam passes
through the first set of nozzles, the steam expands with a
decrease in pressure and temperature and an increase in
velocity. The pressure remains the same through the two rows
of moving blades, but the velocity decreases as the blades
absorb the energy of the steam to produce work. The fixed
blades redirect the exhaust from the first row of moving blades
into the second row of moving blades. The discharge from the
second row of moving blades is directed into the nozzles of the
first pressure-compounded Rateau stage.
26
Steam Turbines
Figure 13. Pressure-Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
27
Steam Turbines
It is advantageous to combine an impulse-type stage with

reaction stages, as shown in Figure 14. This multi-stage
arrangement is called a combination turbine. The addition of an
impulse stage at the high-pressure end with its large
temperature and pressure decrease results in a comparatively
low-pressure and low-temperature steam that enters the
reaction stages. The lower-pressure and lower-temperature
steam allows for the use of light and inexpensive reaction
blading.
This type of multi-stage arrangement combines one impulse
stage followed by a series of reaction stages. As the steam
enters the turbine through the steam inlet, the steam pressure
and temperature decrease while the velocity increases in the set
of nozzles of the impulse stage. As the steam passes through
the row of moving blades, the velocity decreases as the kinetic
energy is converted to work. The steam is directed from the row
of moving blades into the fixed blades or nozzles of the first
reaction stage. As the steam expands across every row of fixed
and moving blades of the reaction stages, the thermal energy
(pressure) of the steam is converted into kinetic energy
(velocity). The moving blades convert the kinetic energy
(velocity) of the jet of steam into work. As the steam passes
through each row of moving blades, it is directed either into the
next row of fixed blades or out the turbine exhaust.
28
Steam Turbines
Figure 14. Combination Turbine Reaction Turbine

with One Impulse Stage
29
Steam Turbines
Stage Efficiencies
A comparison of stage efficiencies based on velocity ratios and
applications will improve explain why and when Rateau, Curtis,
and reaction stages are used.
Impulse Stages
In an actual turbine, the impulse stage nozzle is positioned at an
angle () to the rotating blades which causes the steam to enter
the blade at an angle, as shown in Figure 15. Therefore, in
actual impulse turbines, the maximum amount of work is done
when the blade speed is one-half the cosine of the nozzle angle
times the absolute velocity of the steam at the blade entrance.
Because it is only the tangential component of the steam
velocity that produces work on the turbine blades, the nozzle
angle is made as small as possible.
Figure 15. Vector Diagram for a Single Stage

Impulse Stage (Rateau)
30
Steam Turbines
Figure 15 also shows the vector diagram for a single stage

impulse stage (Rateau). The blade efficiency (b) is defined as
the ratio of the actual work per pound mass of steam flowing to
the kinetic energy of the steam entering the blade passage.
b = V 2w
1
A blade efficiency of 100% would indicate that the work is

exactly equal to the kinetic energy of the steam entering the
blade, and the kinetic energy of the steam leaving the blade is
zero. However, the steam must have some axial velocity to flow
out of the blade passage. Stage efficiency is frequently shown
graphically compared to the velocity ratio. The velocity ratio is
the ratio of the blade speed (Vb) to the velocity of the steam
leaving the nozzle (V1). Typical designations for the velocity
ratio are Vb/V1 or V/Co.
Figure 16 shows three vector diagrams for different velocity
ratios. Figure 16a shows a reversible impulse stage vector
diagram that has a very small entrance and blade exit angle that
result in a velocity ratio of 0.5. As the angles and (inlet and
blade exit angles) approach zero, the exit velocity V2 will also
approach zero, resulting in a stage that approaches 100%
efficiency. Figures 16b and 16c show the vector diagrams for a
reversible impulse stage with essentially zero angles, but with
the velocity ratios less than and greater than 0.5. In both cases,
the exit velocity (V2)is large, and the blade efficiency is
considerably less than 100%. It is generally considered that an
impulse blade reaches the optimum efficiency when the velocity
ratio is 0.5.
Figure 16. Vector Diagrams Illustrating Optimum Velocity Ratio
31
Steam Turbines
In practical application, a single impulse stage turbine that would

receive steam at 100 psi, 482F, and an exhaust pressure of 2
psi, would have the steam velocity leaving the nozzle at
approximately 3609 feet per second. To have a velocity ratio of
0.5 (100% efficient), would require a blade speed of
approximately 1804 feet per second. Blade speeds of this
magnitude result in high stresses due to the centrifugal force,
and irreversibilitys associated with steam flow increase as the
steam velocity increases.
Using a velocity compounded (Curtis) stage will reduce the
blade speed for the same steam velocity and entrance angle.
For a reversible, zero angle turbine using a Curtis stage, the
velocity ratio for optimum efficiency is 0.25. Figure 17 shows
the vector diagram for a two-row Curtis stage.
Because the most efficient blade speed for a Curtis stage is
one-half that of a Rateau stage for the same steam velocity, the
Curtis stage is placed ahead of the Rateau stage in pressurevelocity compounded turbines. By placing the Curtis stage
before the Rateau stage, the steam velocity at the Rateau
stage would be less than the steam velocity entering the Curtis
Stage. All turbine stages could operate in series and closely
approach the most efficient blade speed for each stage.
32
Steam Turbines
Figure 17. Vector Diagram for a Curtis Stage
33
Steam Turbines
Reaction Stages
In the pure reaction stage, the entire pressure drop occurs as
the steam flows through the moving blades. The moving blades
act as a nozzle, and the blade passage must have the proper
contour for a nozzle, converging if the exit pressure is greater
than the critical pressure and converging-diverging if the exit
pressure is less than the critical pressure. The only purpose of
the stationary blade is to direct the steam into the moving blade
at the proper angle and velocity.
In application, most turbines that are classified as reaction
turbines have a pressure and enthalpy drop in both the fixed
and moving blades. The degree of reaction is defined as the
fraction of the enthalpy drop that occurs in the moving blades.
The most commonly used fraction is 50 percent reaction, where
half of the enthalpy drop across the stage occurs in the fixed
blade and the other half of the enthalpy drop occurs in the
moving blade.
Reaction stage performance may be shown by a velocity
diagram. Figure 18 shows the velocity diagram for a reaction
stage. The component of absolute steam velocity V1 in the
direction of blade motion is shown by the vector FA=V1 cos =
VR1 cos + Vb. For a pure reaction blade, R1 cos , which is the
component of relative steam entrance velocity in the direction of
blade motion, must be equal to zero (angle must be 90 so no
impulse force is acting on the moving blade). Due to the
expansion of the steam as it passes through the blades, the
relative exit velocity, VR2, is greater than the relative entrance
velocity, R1. If the blades are considered frictionless, and if the
drops in heat energy across the fixed and moving blades are
equal, and angle = angle , then V1 = VR2 and VR1 = V2. To
obtain the maximum work from the blades, vector V2, the
absolute steam exit velocity, must be minimized because it
performs no work.
Vector V2 is minimized when V2 is
perpendicular to Vb. Since VR2 = V1, the condition of maximum
work is obtained when Vb = V1 cos . For high steam velocities,
a reaction turbine would have too high of a blade speed to
operate at the most efficient point, therefore, reaction turbines
are not normally used in high pressure steam applications.
Reaction turbines are typically used in low velocity steam
applications, such as low pressure turbines, because the turbine
can operate closer to the most efficient blade speed. Because
of the low pressure and temperature steam used for reaction
turbines, the turbine can be constructed of lighter and less
expensive materials.
34
Steam Turbines
Figure 18. Vector Diagram for a Reaction Stage
35
Steam Turbines
Reaction stages has a maximum efficiency when the velocity

ratio is approximately equal to .707.
Vb
1
=
=.707
V1
2
For a given enthalpy drop per stage, the maximum efficiency for
a reaction stage requires a higher blade speed than for an
impulse blade. Because the most efficient blade speed for a
Curtis stage is lower than the efficient speed of a reaction stage
for the same steam velocity, a Curtis stage can be placed ahead
of the reaction stages in a combination, velocity-compounded
impulse and pressure-compounded reaction turbine. By placing
the Curtis stage before the reaction stages, a large temperature
and pressure drop can be effected in the first stage nozzles so
that the pressure and temperature of the steam striking the
reaction stages are lower. The Curtis stage converts a large
part of the available kinetic energy in the velocity-compounded
wheel, requiring fewer remaining reaction rows to complete the
extraction of energy, and resulting in a shorter turbine. All
turbine stages could operate in series and closely approach the
most efficient blade speed for each stage.
Figure 19 shows a comparison of stage efficiencies to velocity
ratios for the different stage arrangements. The effects of the
stage arrangements to the relative work per stage and the
number of stage required can also be seen on Figure 19. By
adding a two-row Curtis stage, efficiency curve 2, to reaction
stages, efficiency curve 5, results in the efficiency curve 3.
Efficiency curve 3 reaches approximately 80% when the velocity
ratio is 0.3.
The efficiency for the combination Curtis
stage/reaction stage turbine is greater than the efficiency of just
a two-row Curtis stage turbine. However, the efficiency of the
combination Curtis stage/reaction stage turbine is less than the
efficiency of a reaction turbine. The decrease in reaction stage
efficiency is offset by the number of stages required to obtain
maximum efficiency.
36
Steam Turbines
Figure 19. Efficiency Versus Stage Type
37
Steam Turbines
STEAM TURBINE TYPES, ARRANGEMENTS, AND APPLICATIONS

Although a steam turbine is a relatively simple type of prime
mover, the type of steam turbine and the arrangement of the
steam turbine that is used in a process depends upon the needs
of the process. Modern steam turbines are the result of many
years of research, development, accumulated knowledge, and
experience. Steam turbine users are continuously interested in
achieving improved energy effectiveness and reduced total life
costs without sacrifice of safety or reliability. The years of
research, development, accumulated knowledge, and
experience have led the petroleum industry to classify all steam
turbines into two types of turbines based upon the needs of the
process.
The object of this classification is to provide a purchase
specification to facilitate the manufacture and procurement of
different classes of turbines for refinery service. Steam turbines
that are used for refinery service are classified by the American
Petroleum Institute (API) as either special-purpose steam
turbines (API 612) or general-purpose steam turbines (API 611).
These classifications cover the minimum requirements for
steam turbines for general refinery systems, which include basic
design, materials, related lube-oil systems, controls, and
auxiliary equipment.
Both special-purpose and general-purpose steam turbines may
be further classified by the type of arrangement of the steam
turbine and the application of the steam turbine. This section of
the module presents the following turbine classifications:
General Purpose (API 611)
Special Purpose (API 612)
Arrangements
Applications
38
Steam Turbines
General Purpose (API 611)

General-purpose steam turbines for use in the petroleum
industry are defined in accordance with API standard number
611. General-purpose steam turbines are defined as horizontal
or vertical turbines that are used to drive equipment that is
usually spared, that is relatively small in size (power), or that is
in noncritical service. General-purpose steam turbines are
generally used where steam conditions will not exceed a
pressure of 600 psig (41 bar) and a temperature of 750F
(400C), or where speed will not exceed 6000 rpm.
General-purpose steam turbines are generally classified as low
horsepower turbines. General-purpose steam turbines use
standard designs that use off-the-shelf components. Although
general-purpose steam turbines are durable, they generally
have a low efficiency (35 to 40%). A steam turbine vendor may
offer alternative designs other than the specified designs in the
API standard; however, any substitutions must be mutually
agreed upon by the purchaser and the vendor.
The equipment and auxiliaries that are used to construct a
general-purpose steam turbine must be designed and
constructed for a minimum service life of 20 years with at least 3
years of uninterrupted operation between overhauls. Generalpurpose steam turbines must be designed to satisfy the
following requirements:
Capable of operation at normal power and speed under

normal steam conditions.
Capable of delivery of rated power at the rated power

speed with simultaneous minimum inlet and maximum
exhaust conditions.
Capable of continuous operation at maximum continuous

speed for the turbine and at any speed within the specified
range for the turbine.
Capable of continuous operation at rated power and speed

under maximum inlet steam conditions and maximum or
minimum exhaust steam conditions.
39
Steam Turbines
Capable of operation with variations from rated steam

conditions.
Capable of operation without damage up to the trip speed

of the turbine and relief valve settings.
Single-stage turbines must be capable of immediate

startup and operation at full load without a warmup period.
The turbine wheels must be located between the bearings.
Oil reservoirs and housings that enclose moving lubricated

parts (such as bearings, shaft seals, highly polished parts,
instruments, and control elements) must be designed to
minimize contamination by moisture, dust, and other
foreign matter.
Designed to permit rapid and economical maintenance.

Major parts such as casing components and bearing
housings must be designed and manufactured to ensure
accurate alignment on reassembly.
The Saudi Aramco requirements that are associated with

general-purpose steam turbines are documented in Saudi
Aramco Materials System Specifications 32-SAMSS-009,
General Purpose Steam Turbines. This standard establishes
the requirements of API 611, Second Edition, dated January
1982 as part of the specification. The requirements that are
contained in 32-SAMSS-009 are either additional requirements
or exceptions to the requirements that are set forth in API 611.
40
Steam Turbines
Special Purpose (API 612)

Special-purpose steam turbines for use in the petroleum
industry are defined in accordance with the API standard
number 612. Special-purpose steam turbines are horizontal
turbines that are used to drive equipment that is usually not
spared, that is relatively large in size (power), or that is in critical
service. Special-purpose steam turbines are not limited by
steam conditions or turbine speed.
Special-purpose steam turbines are highly engineered, highefficiency (65 - 83%) steam turbines that have an applicationspecific design. A steam turbine vendor may offer alternative
designs other than the designs that are specified in the API
standard; however, any substitutions must be mutually agreed
upon by the purchaser and the vendor.
The equipment and auxiliaries that are used to construct a
special-purpose steam turbine must be designed and
constructed for a minimum service life of 20 years with at least 3
years of uninterrupted operation between overhauls. Specialpurpose steam turbines must be designed to satisfy the
following requirements:
Capable of operation at normal power and speed under

normal steam conditions.
Capable of delivery of rated power at the rated power

speed with simultaneous minimum inlet and maximum
exhaust conditions.
Capable of continuous operation at maximum continuous

speed for the turbine and at any speed within the specified
range for the turbine.
Capable of continuous operation at rated power and speed

under maximum inlet steam conditions and maximum or
minimum exhaust steam conditions.
Capable of continuous operation at the lowest speed at

which maximum torque is required with minimum inlet and
maximum exhaust conditions.
41
Steam Turbines
Extraction and induction steam turbines must be capable

of continuous operation at conditions agreed upon
between the purchaser and the vendor.
Capable of operation with variations from rated steam

conditions.
Capable of operation while uncoupled with maximum inlet

steam conditions. (Operation while uncoupled may result
in governing instability that may require action such as
throttling of inlet pressure.)
Capable of operation without damage up to the trip speed

of the turbine and relief valve settings.
Oil reservoirs and housings that enclose moving lubricated

parts (such as bearings, shaft seals, highly polished parts,
instruments, and control elements) must be designed to
minimize contamination by moisture, dust, and other
foreign matter.
Designed to permit rapid and economical maintenance.

Major parts such as casing components and bearing
housings must be designed and manufactured to ensure
accurate alignment on reassembly.
The Saudi Aramco requirements that are associated with

special-purpose steam turbines are documented in Saudi
Aramco Materials System Specifications 32-SAMSS-010,
Special Purpose Steam Turbines. This standard establishes the
requirements of API 612, Second Edition, dated June 1979 as
part of the specification. The requirements that are contained in
32-SAMSS-010 are either additional requirements or exceptions
to the requirements that are set forth in API 612.
42
Steam Turbines
Figure 20 lists some of the major differences between generalpurpose steam turbines and special-purpose steam turbines as
noted in 32-SAMSS-009 and API 611 for general-purpose
steam turbines and in 32-SAMSS-010 and API 612 for specialpurpose steam turbines.
Scope
API 611 and 32-SAMSS-009
General-purpose
turbines
are
horizontal or vertical turbines that are
used to drive equipment that is usually
spared, that is relatively small in size
(power), or that is in noncritical
service.
General-purpose turbines
are generally used where steam
conditions will not exceed a pressure
of 600 psig (41 bar gauge) and a
temperature of 750F (400C) or
where speed will not exceed 6000
rpm.
Special-purpose turbines are those

horizontal turbines that are used to drive
equipment that is usually not spared, that
is relatively large in size (power), or that
is in critical service. This category is not
limited by steam conditions or turbine
speed.
General-purpose turbines must not be

applied for requirements that exceed
1000 kW (1340 HP).
Provision must be made for hot
alignment during operation, using the
Acculign System.
General
Provisions for borescope inspection must

be installed if specified.
Configuration
Vertical or horizontal.
Horizontal only.
Flow
Arrangement
Backpressure or condensing only.
Backpressure,
condensing.
Pressure
Casings
The turbines casing may be either

axially or radially split.
The turbines casing must be axially split.
induction,
extraction,
Turbine casings may also be split radially

between high-pressure and low-pressure
portions.
Figure 20. Comparison of General-Purpose to

Special-Purpose Steam Turbines
43
Steam Turbines

Casing
Appurtenances
All nozzles or nozzle blocks must be

replaceable.
All other stationary
blading must be mounted in
replaceable diaphragms or segments.

All bladed
replaceable.
nozzle
rings
must
be
Diaphragm horizontal joints must be

rabbet fit.
Each rotor must be clearly marked with a
unique identification number.
Rotors
Rotor Dynamics
Stiff shaft, Ncr 1.2N
Separations margin defined.
Seals
Outer glands must be sealed at the

shaft by carbon-ring packing.
Outer glands must be sealed with

replaceable labyrinth packing.
A separate vacuum device must be
furnished to reduce external leakage
from
the
glands
and
possible
contamination of the bearing oil.
Sealing System
Ejector exhausts to atmosphere.
Ejector exhausts to gland condenser.
Bearings
Bearing
Housings
Hydrodynamic radial bearings are

required where anti-friction-bearing dN
factors are 300,000 or more, when
standard anti-friction bearings fail to
meet an L10 rating life, or when the
turbine horsepower rating exceeds 50
kW (67 hp). The anti-friction bearing
L-10 life must be calculated in
accordance with ISO 281.
Radial bearings must

hydrodynamic design.
Horizontal turbines must be equipped

with thrust bearings that are designed
to handle axial loads in either
direction. Multi-stage turbines must
have hydrodynamic thrust bearings
when specified or where anti-friction
bearings fail to meet the minimum L10
rating life.
Thrust bearings must be of the

hydrodynamic, steel-backed, babbitted
multiple-segment type, designed for
equal thrust capacity in both directions
and arranged for continuous pressurized
lubrication to each side. Thrust bearings
must have two temperature sensors in
each of the active and inactive sides.
and
be
of
the
Vertical turbines may have oil- or

grease-lubricated ball- or roller-type
radial and thrust bearings.
Figure 20. Comparison of General-Purpose to SpecialPurpose Steam Turbines (Contd)
44
Steam Turbines

Bearings
and
Bearing Housings
(Continued)
Hydrodynamic radial bearings must

have forced feed lubrication when the
shaft velocity at the bearing exceeds
14 m/s (45 ft/s).
Non-pressure-fed bearings must be
limited to turbines that have shaft
velocities below 11 m/s (35 ft/s)
unless water is cooled via jackets or
cooling coils; then, the limit may be
increased to 12 m/s (40 ft/s). If water
is cooled via an external cooling
system, shaft velocities up to 14 m/s
(45 ft/s) are acceptable.
When specified, provisions for the
mounting of accelerometers on the
bearing housings must be made in
accordance with API Standard 678.
Lubrication
Control Oil
and
When
specified,
resistance
temperature detectors must be
installed in accordance with ISS 8020416-ENG.
When specified, thrust bearings and

radial bearings must be fitted with
bearing-metal temperature sensors.
Closed
circulation
or
pressure
lubrication systems must be in
accordance with 32-SAMSS-013 and
API 611.
Lube and control oil systems must be in

accordance with 32-SAMSS-013 and API
614.
Permissive starting features for lube oil
pressure must be furnished.
Vibration Probes
and Bearing RTDs
As required by AES-J-604.
Required.
Nameplates and
Rotation Arrows
Minimum allowable turbine speed

must be included.
A rotation arrow must be located on the

thrust bearing housing.
Gear Units
Integral gear units must not be used

for driven equipment that requires
more than 75 hp (56 kW).
Gear units must be in accordance with

13-SAMSS-001 and API 613.
Gear units must be in accordance

with 13-SAMSS-001 and API 613 or
API 677 for operating speeds of 3600
rpm and above.
45
Steam Turbines
Coupling
No specification.
In accordance with API 671.
Mounting Plates
The mounting surfaces for the

equipment feet must be machined flat
and parallel within 0.002 inch per foot.
The upper and lower surfaces of bearing

pedestals and mounting plates must be
machined parallel to within 0.0005 inch
per foot.
Baseplate
A baseplate must
fabricated steel unit.
single,
A baseplate must be a single fabricated

steel unit unless the purchaser and the
vendor mutually agree that it may be
fabricated in multiple sections. Multiplesection baseplates must have machined
and doweled mating surfaces to ensure
accurate field reassembly.
Unless otherwise specified, a NEMA

SM 23 Class A oil-relay governor will
be supplied.
The speed governor for generator drive

applications must conform to NEMA SM
23, Class D minimum, with an adjustable
droop.
Accomplished pneumatically, remote

speed adjustment
must utilize a
control signal of 3 to 15 psig. Dual
speed sensors must be provided as a
minimum.
Details of electrical governors must be

mutually agreed upon by the purchaser
and the vendor; however, as a minimum,
dual speed-sensing systems must be
provided.
The trip and throttle valve may be of

either the single-seated or the doubleseated balanced type, with renewable
parts.
The speed of the turbine must vary

linearly with the control signal. Unless
otherwise specified, an increase in control
signal will increase the turbine speed.
Governor
be
The trip and throttle valve must be of the

double-seated
balanced-type
with
renewable parts.
When a solenoid-operated valve is
provided in the trip system, it must
activate closure of the trip and throttle
valve and the control valves when
deenergized.
Controls
Built-in trip and throttle valve.
Separate trip and throttle controls.
Piping
and
Appurtenances
The minimum size of any connection

must be 1/2 inch nominal pipe size.
The minimum size of any connection must

be 3/4 inch nominal pipe size.
Testing
No witness required.
Witness required.
46
Steam Turbines
Arrangements
The steam turbine arrangement that is used in a process
depends on the needs of the process. In this section of the
Module, the Mechanical Engineer will examine the following
turbine arrangements:
Condensing
Backpressure
Extraction
Induction
Condensing
A condensing steam turbine is a turbine that exhausts to a

condenser. Condensing turbines can be either single-stage or
multi-stage design. A multi-stage condensing turbine is a
turbine that contains more than one stage (reaction and/or
impulse type) and exhausts to a condenser. The exhaust from
a multi-stage condensing turbine is at a pressure that is less
than atmospheric pressure. The exhaust steam is condensed
by cooling water condensers or air-fin condensers.
Figure 21 is an illustration of a multi-stage condensing turbine.
The figure includes a blowup of the first four stages and a
diagram of the steam supply, exhaust, and condensing system.
Steam, which is at a pressure of 125 psig or higher, is supplied
to the turbine. The turbine extracts the energy from the steam
and produces work. The turbine exhaust is directed into a
condenser. The exhaust pressure of a condensing turbine is
very low, usually between 4 and 6 in. Hg absolute (2 to 3 psia).
The low exhaust pressure allows the maximum pressure energy
to be extracted from each pound of steam. The condensed
water (condensate) is recovered, and for reuse, it is pumped
back to the steam generating system.
47
Steam Turbines
Figure 21. Multi-Stage Condensing Turbine
48
Steam Turbines
Because only a portion of the steam energy is converted to

work, the condensing turbine has a relatively low cycle efficiency
even though the turbine efficiency is the highest of all of the
turbine arrangements (70 to 83%). A large part of the steam
energy is lost in the condenser. In fact, more heat is transferred
to the cooling water or the air in the condenser than is converted
to work in the turbine. However, condensing turbines are
necessary if mechanical power generation from steam is
required and if there is no use for the exhaust steam.
Backpressure
A backpressure turbine is a steam turbine that exhausts at a

pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure, which is
normally 15 psig or higher. A backpressure turbine is a noncondensing steam turbine. A multi-stage backpressure turbine
is a steam turbine that contains more than one stage (reaction
and/or impulse type), and it exhausts at a pressure that is
greater than atmospheric pressure. The exhaust steam from a
backpressure turbine can be used for some other process, such
as heating steam, or the exhaust steam can be exhausted into
the atmosphere.
Figure 22 is an illustration of a reaction-type, multi-stage
backpressure turbine. The figure includes a blowup of the first
four stages and a diagram of the steam supply and exhaust
system arrangements. The steam system shows the highpressure steam inlet line and the exhaust line. High-pressure
steam (400 to 650 psig) is supplied to the turbine. The turbine
extracts energy from the steam in order to produce work. The
turbine exhaust steam leaves at medium to low pressure (225 to
15 psig), and it is distributed to other parts of the plant that use
the useful heat of the steam for other processes.
49
Steam Turbines
Figure 22. Multi-Stage Backpressure Turbine
50
Steam Turbines
The backpressure turbine arrangement has a cycle efficiency

that is high, with little lost energy. The energy of the steam that
is not used to produce work in the turbine is used in other plant
processes. The high-efficiency cycle assumes that there is a
use for the exhaust steam and that the exhaust steam will not
be vented to the atmosphere. The typical efficiencies of
backpressure turbines range from 65 to 75%.
Extraction
Many industrial plants require various quantities of process

steam at various pressure applications. The extraction turbine
is used to balance the process steam requirements of the
various plant process pressure requirements. An extraction
turbine is a multi-stage turbine in which some of the steam is
exhausted, or bled, from between the turbine stages. The
extraction steam is used for various processes, such as to drive
general-purpose turbines, to heat feedwater, or to heat
buildings.
Extraction turbines can be adapted to a variety of plant
conditions. Many different types of extraction turbines are built.
Extraction turbines can be non-condensing or condensing
turbines that have one or more extraction points. Extraction
turbines can have automatic or non-automatic extraction. The
pressure of the steam at any stage of a multi-stage turbine is
determined by the steam flow or the turbine load. In a nonautomatic extraction turbine, no effort is made to control the
extraction steam pressure or the extracted steam flow. The
steam pressure or steam flow varies with the load of the turbine.
In an automatic extraction turbine, valves are used at the inlet to
the next section of turbine. Both the main turbine valves and
the extraction turbine valves receive the output of the control
signal in order to regulate the extraction steam pressure and/or
the extraction steam flow.
51
Steam Turbines
The most frequently used extraction turbine is the single,

automatic-extraction, condensing turbine that is shown in Figure
23. Figure 23 also shows a diagram of the steam supply, the
exhaust, and the condensing systems that are associated with
the extraction condensing turbine. High-pressure (HP) steam
(400 to 1500 psig) is supplied to the inlet of the turbine. After
one or more stages, medium-pressure or low-pressure (MP/LP)
steam (15 to 400 psig) is extracted from the turbine and is
supplied to other plant processes. The steam that is not
extracted proceeds through the low-pressure stages of the
turbine, and it exhausts to a condenser at a normal condensing
pressure of 2 to 3 psia. The exhaust portion of the steam is
condensed by cooling water. The condensate is returned to the
steam generator for reuse.
For design purposes, the extraction turbine that is shown in
Figure 23 may be considered as a backpressure turbine and a
condensing turbine that operate in series on a common rotor
and that are built into a single casing. Because of the emphasis
that is placed on compactness and simple construction, the
number of stages of an extraction turbine is usually limited.
Because of the compactness and simple construction, the
performance may not be equal to the combined performance of
a backpressure turbine and a straight condensing turbine that is
built in two separate units. The extraction-type of turbine is
more complex and, therefore, more expensive than either a
backpressure turbine or a straight-condensing turbine. On the
other hand, the cost of an extraction turbine is less than the total
cost of two independent units, a backpressure turbine and a
straight-condensing turbine.
52
Steam Turbines
Figure 23. Single, Automatic-Extraction, Condensing Turbine
53
Steam Turbines
Induction
Another type of turbine that is very similar to the extraction

turbine is the induction turbine or automatic admission turbine.
The induction turbine is also used to balance the process steam
requirements of the plant with the electrical power requirements.
An induction turbine is a multi-stage turbine that has the
provision to use low-pressure steam and high-pressure steam in
proportion to the available steam supply. Unlike the extraction
steam (where steam is extracted from the turbine to be used for
various processes, such as feedwater heating or heat building),
an induction turbine generally uses low-pressure steam that is
exhausted from other plant processes to generate electrical
power.
Low-pressure steam is admitted to the turbine to carry normal
load conditions.
If the available low-pressure steam is
insufficient to supply the turbine, or if the electrical load
requirements exceed the capacity of the low-pressure steam
supply, high-pressure steam is admitted to the latter stages of
the turbine in order to provide sufficient energy to operate the
turbine. If a complete loss of low-pressure steam occurs,
induction turbines are normally designed to operate
satisfactorily on high-pressure steam.
Induction turbines can be adapted to a great variety of plant
conditions. Induction turbines are normally condensing-type
turbines that have one or more induction points. The steam
pressure, or steam flow, varies with the load of the turbine.
Both the main turbine valves and the high-pressure steam
supply valves receive the output of the control signal to regulate
the high-pressure steam flow to the turbine.
54
Steam Turbines
Applications
Multi-stage condensing turbines are typically used in large
horsepower applications and in applications in which there is no
suitable use for the exhaust steam. Saudi Aramco typically
uses multi-stage condensing turbines for generator drives, but
they may also be used to drive the following:
Large centrifugal pumps
Compressors
Blowers
Multi-stage backpressure turbines are typically used in

applications in which there is a suitable use for the exhaust
steam, such as process steam or plant heating. Saudi Aramco
typically uses multi-stage backpressure turbines for compressor
drives. Multi-stage backpressure turbines may also be used to
drive the following:
Compressor drives
Generator drives
Pump drives
Saudi Aramco typically uses extraction turbines for generator

drives. Extraction turbines can also be used to drive the
following:
Large centrifugal pumps
Compressors
Blowers
Induction turbines are typically used for generator drives. Saudi

Aramco currently does not have any induction turbines in use in
their facilities.
55
Steam Turbines
GLOSSARY
automatic extraction
turbine
A steam turbine with the capacity to extract steam.

The pressure, or flow rate, of the extracted steam is
controlled by a valve gear at the inlet to the lowpressure section of the turbine and the main valve
gear. (Steam turbines can be furnished with automatic
extraction and admission capability.)
backpressure turbine
A steam turbine that exhausts at a pressure that is

equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Also
known as a non-condensing steam turbine.
blades
Blades are attached around the circumference of the

rotor assembly. The blades receive the steam from the
nozzles and convert the steam velocity into useful
work.
casing
A casing is the housing of the turbine that contains the

steam, supports the stationary internals (nozzles and
interstage diaphragms) of the turbine, and houses the
gland labyrinths, the steam admission valves (except
on large electric utility steam units), and the journal and
thrust bearings.
governor
A turbine control and protection device that is used to

sense or measure a single quantity, such as turbine
speed, inlet pressure, extraction pressure, induction
pressure, exhaust pressure, or any combination of
these quantities, and to control the turbine to regulate
the quantities that are sensed. A governor limits
turbine load, varies turbine load to maintain constant
power, and/or shuts down the turbine in an emergency.
induction turbine
A steam turbine with the capacity to admit steam at two

or more pressures. Valve gear at the low-pressure
opening can automatically control the pressure in the
low-pressure opening. Commonly called an automatic
admission turbine.
nozzle
A device that converts the stored thermal energy of the

steam into kinetic energy, or velocity, and guides the
56
Steam Turbines
steam to the blades at the correct incident angle.

rotor
A turbine rotor consists of the rotating elements of a

steam turbine: the shaft, the blade disks, and the
blades. The rotor transmits the rotating mechanical
energy from the turbine blades to the load.
seal
A device or material that prevents excessive leakage of

fluids (gases or liquids) by creating and/or maintaining
a fluid-pressure differential across the gap that exists
between two relatively movable and/or separable
components of a fluid system
steam chest
The section of a turbine that serves as the steam inlet

to the turbine. The steam chest houses the control
valves, receives the supplied steam, and directs the
steam to the first stage nozzle assembly.
57

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