52

Chapter 2

Mathematical Models of Systems

linear, dynamic elements is given in Table 2.2 [5]. The equations in Table 2.2 are idealized descriptions and only approximate the actual conditions (for example, when a
linear, lumped approximation is used for a distributed element).

Table 2.2 Summary of Governing Differential Equations for Ideal Elements

Type of
Element

Physical
Element
(

Inductive storage

Governing
Equation
_ di

Electrical inductance

Symbol

E = i-Li2
2

J. dF_

Translational spring

21 =

Rotational spring

<2\ ==

k dt

2 k

E =

III

<
1 dT
-
k dt
dQ
dt

Fluid inertia

Capacitive storage

Energy or
Power SP

i =C

Translational mass

F = M

Fluid capacitance

T =J

dv2
dt

y2i

E =

-Mv22

2 o*

\\C

dP2i
dt

rdV2

Electrical resistance

i = va

Translational damper

F = bv'21

o vi

'-sH^Hlv
constant
2

da)2
dt

Q = Cf

< Thermal capacitance

E = -21<?

dv2i
dt

Electrical capacitance

Rotational mass

2 k

to, =

constant

E =

-CfP^

E = C<52

9"2

9", constant
R

R
9 =

v2 o/V\A/*-

bv2i2

v2
Energy dissipators

<

Rotational damper
Fluid resistance
Thermal resistance

T = bco21

= /-

d = J**

9 = ba)21

= ip

9 = ^

TK>

1I
>b

G>2
R

P2 o-AAA/
R

T2 o-^VVV

OG>I

> f|
q

> o3"i

Section 2.4

59

The Laplace Transform

T h e transformation integrals have been employed to derive tables of Laplace transforms that are used for the great majority of problems. A table of important Laplace
transform pairs is given in Table 2.3, and a m o r e complete list of Laplace transform
pairs can be found at the M C S website.

Table 2.3

Important Laplace Transform Pairs

F(s)

Step function, u(t)

s +a
bi

sin cot

S + bi2

s
COS bit

S + bi2

nl

t"

dkf(t)

skF{s) - 5* _ , /(0") -

dtk

-...-/^-^(0-)

f(t)dt

Impulse function 8(t)

sin cut

2
(s + a)

s j-oo

bi

e "' cos bit

-[(a

2
+ bi

s+a
2

2 V2

al

- a) + bi ] e-

sin(bit + cf>).

(s + af +
s+ a

bi"

a. ,.2
(s + af 2 +
bi

+or*~l<j>
= tan

^ = e _ f a , n ' sin binVl

Vl-2
1
1
a1 + to"

bi\/a2 + bi'
_i

<j> = tan
1

- 2t, < 1
e atsm(bit -

),

S + 2b)nS + bin
1
s[(s + a)2 + bi2]

bi

e" { V sin(<>Vl - eft + <f>),

. *
2

Vl - C

S(S + 2b)nS + bin)

_1

<f> = cos , < 1

2
2
a
1 (a - a) + to
1
2
2
a + b/
(o
a + co
n 1
(f) = t otan

a a

tan-1
a

1/2

e~al %m.{bit + <f>).

s + a
s[(s + a)2 + bi2]

sk-2f'(Q-)

76

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems

Table 2.5

Transfer Functions of Dynamic Elements and Networks

Element or System

G(g)

1. Integrating circuit, filter

C

If

1
RCs

o+
V-ts)

Vi(')

-o +

Vi(s)

2. Differentiating circuit

) ^

V,(s)

= -RCs

V,(s)

3. Differentiating circuit

9r

l/2(5)
+
IMs)

V',(s)

V,(*)

R2(RiCs + 1)
*,

4. Integrating filter
C,

|-VW-|(-n

rHr
V,(s)

y2(5)
+
V?(s)

(/JiC,* + i)(/? 2 Q* + l )
RiC2s

Section 2.5

Table 2.5

77

The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Continued

Element or System

G(s)

5. DC motor, field-controlled, rotational actuator

Vf{s)

s(Js + b){Lfs + Rf)

6. DC motor, armature-controlled, rotational actuator

m _

K*

Va(s)

s[(Ra + Las)(Js + b) + KhK,]

9{) ._
Vc(s)

K
S{TS + 1)

7. AC motor, two-phase control field, rotational actuator

+o
V,(.u

^04=G3

= J/(b - m)

in = slope of linearized torque-speed

curve (normally negative)

Reference
field

8. Rotary Amplifier (Amplidyne)

>Wv
o+

K/(W
VC(S)

(STC + 1 ) ( - , + 1)

for the unloaded case, ld ~ 0, rc

0.05 s < TC < 0.5 s

9. Hydraulic actt ator

c(ft. Control valve

t
displacement

Yls)
X(s)

s(Ms + *)

-K)

Akx

Return *Piston

*
Return *-

TV

M, h
Load

k --i
"0

T,M

g = g(x,P) = flow
A = are a of jiston

(continued)

78

Chapter 2

Table 2.5

Mathematical Models of Systems

Continued

Element or System

G(s)

10. Gear train, rotational transformer

Gear I

Gear ratio = =

Gear 2
11. Potentiometer, voltage control

V2(J) =

Vi(s)
+ o-

R2 _

Vx(s) Rf*

R2
R

R2
R^ + R2

e
#ax

2 V->(.v)

12. Potentiometer, error detector bridge

0-,

V2(s)

= /:,,(0,(5)-02(5))

V2(s)

= Merror(^)

*.-

^Battery
"max

voltage

13. Tachometer, velocity sensor

Shaft

V2(s) = *,(*) = #,s0(.y)

iv, = constant

0U), o>(.?)

14. DC amplifier
V\{S)

ST + 1

RQ - output resistance
CQ = output capacitance
T = RaC,T

IS

and is often negligible for

controller amplifier
(continued)

Section 2.6

Block Diagram Models

Table 2.5 Continued

Element or System

G(s)

15. Accelerometer, acceleration sensor

*o(0 = y{t) - xm{t),

X0(s)
-s*
2
Xin(s) s + (b/M)s + k/M
For low-frequency oscillations, where

Frame

ai < &J,

X0{j(o)
Xia(j<o)
^

16. Thermal heating system

or
k/M
1

,
where

q(s)
C,s + (QS + \/R,Y
2T = % ~ % = temperature difference
due to thermal process
C, = thermal capacitance

Fluid ill

Q = fluid flow rate = constant

Fluid
out

S = specific heat of water

R, = thermal resistance of insulation

Heater

q(s) = transform of rate of heat flow of

heating element
17. Rack and pinion

x = rd
converts radial motion
to linear motion

2.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS

The dynamic systems that comprise automatic control systems are represented mathematically by a set of simultaneous differential equations. As we have noted in the
previous sections, the Laplace transformation reduces the problem to the solution of a
set of linear algebraic equations. Since control systems are concerned with the control of
specific variables, the controlled variables must relate to the controlling variables. This
relationship is typically represented by the transfer function of the subsystem relating

81

Section 2.6 Block Diagram Models

Here the Y and R matrices are column matrices containing the I output and the J input
variables, respectively, and G is an I by J transfer function matrix. The matrix representation of the interrelationship of many variables is particularly valuable for complex multivariable control systems. An introduction to matrix algebra is provided on the MCS
website for those unfamiliar with matrix algebra or who would find a review helpful [21].
The block diagram representation of a given system often can be reduced to a
simplified block diagram with fewer blocks than the original diagram. Since the
transfer functions represent linear systems, the multiplication is commutative. Thus,
in Table 2.6, item 1, we have
X3(s) = G2{s)X2{s) =

Table 2.6 Block Diagram Transformations

Transformation
Original Diagram
1. Combining blocks in cascade
x.

Gl{s)G2{s)Xx{s).

Equivalent Diagram
G2(s)

G,(s)

X,

*l

*3

n.n~
lT[02

or
X

*i

2. Moving a summing point

behind a block

X,

G2Gl

*i

__/^__l
x%

3. Moving a pickoff point

ahead of a block

X,

"

X, I
1
G
+I

4. Moving a pickoff point

behind a block

xt

r~
I

*l

X,

*l

5. Moving a summing point

ahead of a block

x,

X2

1
G

*i

X-y

6. Eliminating a feedback loop

x, +

~\

fc

t>

X-y

X-,

l + GH

<