FAST RECOVERY AND PRIVACY PRESERVATION AGAINST GLOBAL

EAVESDROPPER IN ETHERNET NETWORKS

ABSTRACT
Fast-recovery from link failures is a well-studied topic in IP networks. Employing fastrecovery in Ethernet networks is complicated as the forwarding is based on destination MAC
addresses, which do not have the hierarchical nature similar to those exhibited in Layer 3 in
the form of IP-prefixes. Moreover, switches employ backward learning to populate the
forwarding table entries. Thus, any fast recovery mechanism in Ethernet networks must be
based on undirected spanning trees if backward learning is to be retained. The goal of this
paper is to enhance the robustness of the network to - a) dual link failures; and b) single node
failures. To this end, we develop techniques that combine the positive aspects of the various
single-link and node failure recovery techniques.
In the developed approach, every node is assigned up to four addresses one normal
address and up to three protection addresses. The network recovers from the first failure
using IP-in-IP tunneling with one of the protection addresses of the next node in the path.
Packets destined to the protection address of a node are routed over a protection graph where
the failed link is not present. Every protection graph is guaranteed to be two-edge connected
by construction, hence is guaranteed to tolerate another link failure.
We develop an elegant technique to compute the protection graphs at a node such that
each link connected to the node is removed in at least one of the protection graphs, and every
protection graph is two-edge connected. The highlight of our approach is that we prove that
every node requires at most three protection graphs, hence three protection addresses. When
a tunneled packet encounters multiple link failures connected to the same next-hop node, we
conclude that the next-hop node has failed. The packet is then forwarded to the original
destination from the last good node in the protection graph along a path which does not
contain the failed node.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
NETWORKING
A network is a collection of computers and devices that are linked together by communication
device. In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize
different Types of networking
LAN
A LAN is a local area network. This is a network that connects devices that are relatively close
together. This can be at home, in a school district and even in an office building. Each device on
this network is usually connected by a cable. The devices on a LAN are called nodes.
WLAN
A WLAN is a wireless LAN. This is a network that does not depend on cables for connection.
The devices in a WLAN need wireless adapters, which often are built into them. Often a WLAN
communicates with a wired system as well.
MAN
A MAN is a metropolitan area network. This is a high-speed system that connects LANs together
in a city or town. MANs handle the bulk of traffic in these areas.
WAN
A WAN is a wide area network. This network covers large geographic areas like cities, countries,
or the world. The internet is the worlds largest WAN.
Client/Server Network
This is a configuration of one of the network types above where your computer (the "client")
makes requests of the server or host computer. The server is the computer that controls network
traffic and access to shared resources. This is the most common network architecture used in
businesses and school systems.
Peer-to-Peer Network
This network configuration is inexpensive since each computer, or peer, contains both the
network operating system and the application software; no server is needed. This network
usually contains fewer than 10 peers. Each peer has equal responsibilities and sharing
capabilities.

Internet Peer-to-Peer Network

An Internet peer-to-peer network is also called a file sharing network. Users on this network
access certain files on one another's hard drives and exchange files directly over the Internet.
When you log off, you sever your communication to the resources on this network, and other
computers can't access the resources on your computer.
Topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies
include a bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams in the Quick
Reference section of Webopedia.
Protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on
the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is
called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network.
Architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either apeer-topeer or client/server architecture.
Computers

on

network

are

sometimes

called nodes.

Computers

anddevices that

allocate resources for a network are called servers.

STUB NETWORK
A stub network is an internal network, usually a LAN that carries data packets only
among local hosts. Data on a stub network is destined for an endpoint located on that network.
Network traffic on a stub network is local in that it doesn't travel off the internal network.
STAR NETWORK
A local-area network (LAN) that uses a star topology in which all nodes are connected to
a central computer. The main advantages of a star network are that one malfunctioning node
doesn't affect the rest of the network, and it's easy to add and remove nodes. The main
disadvantage of star networks is that they require more cabling than other topologies, such as a
bus or ring networks. In addition, if the central computer fails, the entire network becomes
unusable.
RING NETWORK
A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the nodes are
connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those

messages addressed to it. One of the advantages of ring networks is that they can span larger
distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates
messages as they pass through it.
BUS NETWORK
A network in which all nodes are connected to a single wire (the bus) that has two
endpoints. Ethernet 10Base-2 and 10Base-5 networks, for example, are bus networks. Other
common network types include star networks and ring networks.
NETWORK ENGINEER
A network engineer, also known as network architect, designs and implements computer
networks. Unlike network administrators, who perform day-to-day support, the network engineer
focuses on high-level design and planning. Network engineers select the appropriate data
communications components and configure them to meet user and corporate needs. The
construction of a reliable and high-performing network integrating LAN, WAN, Internet, and
intranet components entails network modeling and analysis.
A bachelor's degree in network administration, computer science, or information technology is
the standard qualification for a network engineering position. In addition, IT certification in
networking offers targeted training for a network computer engineer. Examples include the
Microsoft Network Engineer and Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certifications.
NETWORK AUTOMATION
The phrase used to describe the methodologies, processes, and technologies needed to
help large organizations and enterprises automate the configuration and management
of network devices,

including hubs,routers and switches.

organization improve network service availability.

NETWORK DEVICES

Network

automation

helps

an

1. HUB
Networks using a Star topology require a central point for the devices to connect. Originally this
device was called a concentrator since it consolidated the cable runs from all network devices.
The basic form of concentrator is the hub.

As shown in Figure; the hub is a hardware device that contains multiple, independent ports that
match the cable type of the network. Most common hubs interconnect Category 3 or 5 twistedpair cable with RJ-45 ends, although Coax BNC and Fiber Optic BNC hubs also exist. The hub
is considered the least common denominator in device concentrators. Hubs offer an inexpensive
option for transporting data between devices, but hubs don't offer any form of intelligence. Hubs
can be active or passive.
An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data on to its
destination.
Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.
Ethernet Hubs
An Ethernet hub is also called a multiport repeater. A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal
as it passes through it, to counteract the effects of attenuation. If, for example, you have a
thin Ethernet networkwith a cable segment longer than the prescribed maximum of 185 meters,
you can install a repeater at some point in the segment to strengthen the signals and increase the
maximum segment length. This type of repeater only has two BNC connectors, and is rarely seen
these days.

8 Port mini Ethernet Hub

The hubs used on UTP Ethernet networks are repeaters as well, but they can have many RJ45
ports instead of just two BNC connectors. When data enters the hub through any of its ports, the
hub amplifies the signal and transmits it out through all of the other ports. This enables a star
networkto have a shared medium, even though each computer has its own separate cable. The
hub relays every packet transmitted by any computer on the network to all of the other
computers, and also amplifies the signals.
The maximum segment length for a UTP cable on an Ethernet network is 100 meters. A segment
is defined as the distance between two communicating computers. However, because the hub
also functions as a repeater, each of the cables connecting a computer to a hub port can be up to
100 meters long, allowing a segment length of up to 200 meters when one hub is inserted in the
network.
Multistation Access Unit

A Multi-station Access Unit (MAU) is a special type of hub used for token ring networks. The
word "hub" is used most often in relation to Ethernet networks, and MAU only refers to token
ring networks. On the outside, the MAU looks like a hub. It connects to multiple network
devices, each with a separate cable.

Unlike a hub that uses a logical bus topology over a physical star, the MAU uses a logical
ring topology over a physical star.

When the MAU detects a problem with a connection, the ring will beacon. Because it uses a
physical star topology, the MAU can easily detect which port the problem exists on and close the
port, or "wrap" it. The MAU does actively regenerate signals as it transmits data around the ring.

SWITCHES
Switches are a special type of hub that offers an additional layer of intelligence to basic,
physical-layer repeater hubs. A switch must be able to read the MAC address of each frame it
receives. This information allows switches to repeat incoming data frames only to the computer
or computers to which a frame is addressed. This speeds up the network and reduces congestion.

Switches operate at both the physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI Model.
Bridges
A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows computers on either segment
to access resources on the other. They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller

segments. Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more nodes, and since the
network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources on each segment thus
improving network performance.

Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different topologies, or different
protocols. But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token Ring segment, because these
use different networking standards. Bridges operate at both the Physical Layer and the MAC
sublayer of the Data Link layer. Bridges read the MAC header of each frame to determine on
which side of the bridge the destination device is located, the bridge then repeats the
transmission to the segment where the device is located.

OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT:

Ethernet is becoming an attractive solution in metropolitan and wide area networks as it
offers a cost-effective way to provision high data rate services. The simplicity and
costeffectiveness however comes with two major shortcomings of ethernet networks, poor
support for traffic engineering and slow failure recovery times. These two shortcomings are a
direct consequence of employing an undirected spanning tree as the basis for forwarding. The
spanning tree plays a key role in: (1) reducing the unnecessary overhead created by broadcasting

when a destination address is not available, and (2) retaining the backward learning mechanism,
which is crucial in supporting the scalability and mobility of the endhosts.
The spanning tree, however, provides only one path between any node pair and hence
the failure of any link or node would disconnect the spanning tree. To overcome the deficiencies
of the spanning tree approach, there have been several revisions to the original spanning tree
protocol, such as support for faster re-convergence (RSTP) and support for multiple spanning
trees (MSTP) that can help create smaller regions for recovery. Protocols to reduce fault
detection times, such as bi-directional forwarding detection (BFD) were developed. Despite all
these efforts, we still lack a fundamental understanding of the application of undirected spanning
trees in achieving good resiliency in network design.
In this paper, our goal is to study the use of multiple spanning trees with interesting
properties for achieving fast recovery in Ethernet networks. We develop methods to achieve fast
recovery from link failures in VLANs using proactive approaches that rely only on local
information with a constant overhead. Every spanning tree may be configured with a unique
VLAN identifier. The VLANs are precomputed and preconfigured, thus enabling fast recovery
from link failures. In addition, traffic may be split over multiple VLANs to provide increased
cross-sectional bandwidth. The algorithms and protocols have provable performance guarantees.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Redundant Trees for Preplanned Recovery in Arbitrary Vertex-Redundant or EdgeRedundant Graphs
Our scheme provides rapid preplanned recovery of communications with great flexibility in
the topology design. Unlike previous algorithms, our algorithm can establish two redundant trees

in the case of a node failing in the network. In the case of failure of a communications link, our
algorithm provides a superset of the previously known trees.
ALGORITHM
NEW Algorithm
ADVANTAGE
The increasing reliance on high-speed communications and the requirement that these
communications be robust in the case of certain failures.
LIMITATION
The problem of finding minimum cost trees for a certain source and a set of destinations
is the Steiner tree problem
2.2 Quality-of-Service and Quality-of-Protection Issues in Preplanned Recovery Schemes
Using Redundant Trees
We study quality-of-service (QoS) and quality-of-protection (QoP) issues in redundant tree
based preplanned recovery schemes for a single-link failure in two-edge connected graphs and
for a single-node failure in two-connected graphs. We present schemes (to be called G-MFBG
schemes) that generalize the schemes (to be called MFBG schemes) developed by Mdard et al.
to construct a pair of redundant trees, called red and blue trees, which guarantees fast recovery
from and single-link/node failure, as long as the failed node is not the root node.

ALGORITHM
Optimal algorithm
Efficient algorithm
LIMITATION
We first investigate several important measures of quality of preplanned recovery
schemes using red/blue trees. First, assuming that each link in the network has a known

delay, one design goal is to construct a pair of red/blue trees with minimum average delay
in the blue (primary) tree.
We present an effective heuristic for constructing such a pair of red/blue trees. Next,
assuming that each link in the network has a known cost, another design goal is to
construct a pair of red/blue trees with minimum total cost.
ADVANTAGE
Concludes with a discussion of computational results that demonstrate the effectiveness
of the different algorithms presented.
2.3 Traffic Engineering in Metro Ethernet
We present an algorithmic solution for traffic engineering in Metro Ethernet using optimal
multiple spanning trees. This iterative approach distributes traffic across the network uniformly
without overloading network resources. We also introduce a new traffic specification model for
Metro Ethernet, which is a hybrid of two widely used traffic specification models, the pipe and
hose models.
ALGORITHM
Dijkstras algorithm
Spanning tree algorithm
LIMITATIONS
Both standards use a single tree to carry all the network traffic causing resource
overloading and resource under utilization.
ADVANTAGE

To take advantage of both these methods we introduce a hybrid model (Augmented

Hose) in the future directions.

2.4 IP Fast Rerouting for Single-Link/Node Failure Recovery
We present two fast rerouting algorithms to achieve recovery from single-link and singlenode failures, respectively. The idea is to calculate backup paths in advance. When a failure is
detected, the affected packets are immediately forwarded through backup paths to shorten the
service disruption. The schemes react to failures very fast because there are no calculations on
the fly. They are also cost efficient because no bandwidth reservation is required.

ALGORITHM

Fast rerouting algorithms

LIMITATIONS

The main challenge is how to achieve fast recovery without introducing high

complexity and resource usage.

The main approaches used by todays networks are route recalculation and lower

layer protection.
The LIMITATIONSs are: route recalculation could take as long as seconds to
complete; while lower layer protection usually requires considerable bandwidth
redundancy.

ADVANTAGE
This paper answers the following questions:
How to find backup paths?
How to coordinate routers during the rerouting without explicit signaling?
How to realize distributed implementation? Our schemes guarantee 100% failure
recovery without any assumptions on the primary paths.
2.5 Fast Failure Handling in Ethernet Networks
We propose a simple failure protection mechanism for Ethernet networks that can recover
from node and link failures under 50 milliseconds, which is also provided by SDH/Sonet rings.
The mechanism relies on a lightweight distributed protocol that runs on IP routers at the edges of
the network and works with commodity off-the-shelf Ethernet switches. This paper describes the
protocol design and implementation as well as the network testbed implementation for assessing
the performance and the robustness of the mechanism. The results collected in the testbed are
shown and discussed in the paper.
ALGORITHM

Simple failure protection mechanism

LIMITATIONS

There are other possibilities to implement failure handling in Ethernet networks, but
they have significant drawbacks. For instance, Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP) traps can be used to signal failure to a central manager.

Even though this method relies on standard Ethernet switches, it requires a failure
management centre, which besides being cost inefficient also slows down the failover
procedure.

ADVANTAGE

a fast and robust failure handling mechanism that can be implemented in Ethernet
networks using off-the-shelf commodity Ethernet switches, thus keeping the cost-

effectiveness of Ethernet-based solutions.

The second goal of this paper is to assess the performance of the proposed mechanism
and show that Ethernet mesh networks can be built with failover performance and
robustness similar to that of SONET/SDH rings

2.6 The Multi-Tree Approach to Reliability in Distributed Networks

This algorithm has a distributed version which finds the two trees even when a single edge
fails during their construction. The two trees them may be used to transform certain centralized
algorithms to distributed, reliable and efficient ones.
ALGORITHM
centralized algorithms
linear algorithm

LIMITATION
The problem with tree networks is that they are unreliable - the failure of a single edge
makes the network disconnected.
In our model of faults, the effect of failures is the loss of messages. After a failure, edges
may recover. We shall count the number of edges which failed rather than the number of
messages lost

ADVANTAGE

There still is an advantage in using disjoint spanning trees since no edge will carry the
traffic of more than one tree, thus preventing possible congestion at that edge.

2.7 A Survey of Advanced Ethernet Forwarding Approaches

Specifically focusing on Ethernets forwarding behavior; this survey covers solutions that
enhance the Ethernets path computation, allowing it to scale in larger, more complex
environments. General notions concerning the application of Ethernet in Metro areas are also
provided, as a specific example of Ethernets application in large scale networks.
ALGORITHM

STAR algorithm
Spanning tree algorithm

LIMITATIONS

Its spanning-tree based forwarding results in slow convergence and weak resource
efficiency.

ADVANTAGE

The obvious advantage of MSTP is that it allows having multiple paths to the same
destination(s). This means not only better bandwidth efficiency but also the opportunity

to implement load-balancing.
The connectionless approaches allow taking advantage of the full Ethernet potential
(plug&play, flexible) and creating room to easily deploy any type of service

(multipoint-to multipoint) from a data plane perspective.

2.8 Maintaining Colored Trees for Disjoint Multipath Routing Under Node Failures
In this approach, two trees, namely red and blue, are constructed rooted at a drain such
that the path from any node to the drain is link- or node-disjoint. For applications where both the
trees are used simultaneously, it is critical to maintain the trees after link or node failures. To this
end, this paper develops an algorithm, referred to as SimCT that efficiently constructs and
maintains colored trees under failures using only local information

ALGORITHM

SimCT algorithm

LIMITATION

Both the trees are used simultaneously, it is critical to maintain the trees after link or node
failures.

2.9 Fast Edge Splitting and Edmonds' Arborescence Construction for Unweighted Graphs
Our first application is a sub-quadratic (in n) algorithm to construct Edmonds'
arborescence. A classical result of Edmonds shows that an unweighted directed graph with c
edge-disjoint paths from any particular vertex r to every other vertex has exactly c edge-disjoint
arborescence rooted at r. For a c edge connected unweighted undirected graph, the same theorem
holds on the digraph obtained by replacing each undirected edge by two directed edges, one in
each direction.
ALGORITHM
deterministic algorithm
sub-quadratic (in n) algorithm
LIMITATION
Graph size is high
ADVANTAGE
The goal of this operation is to reduce the graph size while retaining certain connectivity
properties, thus serving as an inductive/recursive tool for proving connectivity properties
2.10

as well as obtaining algorithms for connectivity problems.

A Survey of Advanced Ethernet Forward in Approaches, Rute C. Sofia(2009)
Specifically focusing on Ethernets forwarding behavior; this survey covers solutions

that enhance the Ethernets path computation, allowing it to scale in larger, more complex
environments. General notions concerning the application of Ethernet in Metro areas are also
provided, as a specific example of Ethernets application in large scale networks.

ALGORITHM
STAR algorithm
ADVANTAGE
To take advantage of the full Ethernet potential (plug and play, flexible) and create room
to easily deploy any type of service (multipoint-to multipoint) from a data plane
perspective.
LIMITATION
The lack of backward compatibility Smart bridge does not consider the use of backup
paths, which implies that there may be still heavy packet loss during reconfiguration.
CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
EXISTING SYSTEM:
Our goal is to study the use of multiple spanning trees with interesting properties for
achieving fast recovery in Ethernet networks. Develop methods to achieve fast recovery from
link failures in VLANs using proactive approaches that rely only on local information with a
constant overhead. Every spanning tree may be configured with a unique VLAN identifier. The
VLANs are pre-computed and preconfigured, thus enabling fast recovery from link failures. We
focus on providing guaranteed recovery from single link failures in Ethernet networks using
multiple undirected spanning trees, each identified with a unique VLAN. Cycles can be avoided
by making a small modification to the original ESCAP algorithm.
DISADVANTAGE:

Poor support for traffic engineering, and slow failure recovery times

still lack a fundamental understanding of the application of undirected spanning trees in

achieving good resiliency in network design.

The proposed technique only deals with the single link failure in Ethernet network.

If more than one failure occurs the proposed technique will fail.

CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
PLATFORM AND TOOLS
Os xp or windows 7
Software tools cygwin, ns-allinone 2.28
SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
CPU type

Intel Pentium 4

Clock speed

3.0 GHz

Ram size

2 GB

Hard disk capacity

80 GB

Monitor type

15 Inch color monitor

Keyboard type

Internet keyboard

CD -drive type

52xmax

3.5.2 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

NETWORK SIMULATOR-2
After setting up the platform, software named ns2 was set up on it which was used for all
the analysis and simulation work apart from other tools used. Ns2 is the de facto standard for
network simulation. Its behavior is highly trusted within the networking community. It is
developed at ISI, California, and is supported by the DARPA and NSF. Ns2 is an object oriented
simulator, written in C++, with an OTcl interpreter as a frontend. This means that most of the
simulation scripts are created in Tcl. If the components have to be developed for ns2, then both
Tcl and C++ have to be used. Ns2 uses two languages because any network simulator, in general,
has two different kinds of things it needs to do. On the one hand, detailed simulations of
protocols require a systems programming language which can efficiently manipulate bytes,
packet headers, and implement algorithms that run over large data sets. For these tasks run-time
speed is important and turn-around time (run simulation, find bug, fix bug, recompile, re-run) is
less important. On the other hand, a large part of network research involves slightly varying
parameters or configurations, or quickly exploring a number of scenarios. In these cases,
iteration time (change the model and re-run) is more important. Since configuration runs once (at
the beginning of the simulation), run-time of this part of the task is less important.
WIREDVS W I R E L E S S NETWORKS

The different types of networks available today are Wired and Wireless networks.
Wired are differentiated f r o m wireless as being wired from point to point.
WIRED NETWORKS
These networks are generally connected with the help of wires and cables. Generally the
cables being used in this type of networks are CAT5 or CAT6 cables. The connection is
usually established w ith the help of physical devices like Switches and Hubs in between to
increase the strength o f the connection. These networks are usually more efficient, less
expensive and much faster than wireless networks. Once the connection is set there is a
very little chance of getting disconnected .
ADVANTAGES

Physical, fixed wired connections are not pronet interference and fluctuations in
available bandwidth, which can affects me wireless networking connections .

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive to maintain t h e network due to many cables between computer systems

and even if a failure in the cables occur then it will be very hard to replace that
particular cable as it involved more and more costs.

When using a laptop which is required to be connected to the network, a wired

network will limit the logical reason of purchasing a laptop in the first place.

WIRELESS NETWORKS
Wireless networks use some sort of radio frequencies in air to transmit a n d receive
data instead of using some physical cables. The most admiring fact in these networks is
that it eliminates the need for laying out expensive cables and maintenance costs.
ADVANTAGES

Mobile users are provided with access to real-time information even when they are

away from their home or office.

Setting up a wireless system is easy and fast and it eliminates the need for pulling

out the cables through walls and ceilings.

Network can be extended to places which can n ot be wired.

Wireless networks offer more flexibility and adapt e a s i l y to changes in the

configuration o f the network.

DISADVANTAGES

Interference d u e to weather, o t h e r radio frequency devices, or obstructions like

walls.

The total Through put is affected when multiple connections exists.

PROBLEMS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Some

of

the

problems

related

to

wireless

communication

are

multipath

p r o p a g a t i o n , p a t h loss, interference, a n d limited frequency spectrum.

Multipath

Propagation is, when a signal travels from its source to destination, in between there are
obstacles which make the signal propagate in paths beyond the direct line of sight due to
reflections, refraction and diffraction and scattering. Path loss is the attenuation of the
transmitted signal strength

as it propagates

away from the sender.

Path loss can be

determined as the ratio between the powers of the transmitted signal to the receiver signal.
This is mainly dependent on a number off actors such as radio frequency and the nature of the
terrain. It is some times important to estimate t h e path lo s s in wireless communication
networks. Due to the radio frequency and the nature o f the terrain a r e not same everywhere, it
is hard to estimate the path loss during communication. During communication a number of
signals in the atmosphere m a y interfere with each other resulting in the destruction of the
original signal. Limited Frequency S p e c t r u m is where, frequency bands are shared by many
wireless technologies and not by one single wireless technology.
NETWORK SIMULATOR 2.28 (NS2)
NS-2 is a packet-level simulator and essentially a centricdiscrete event scheduler to
schedule the events such as packet and timer expiration. Centric event scheduler cannot
accurately emulate events handled at the same time in real world, that is, events are handled
one by one. This is not a serious problem in most network simulations, because the events here

are often transitory. Beyond the event scheduler, ns-2 implements a variety of network
components and protocols. Notably, the wireless extension, derived from CMU Monarch Project,
has 2 assumptions simplifying the physical world: Nodes do not move significantly over the
length of time they transmit or receive a packet. This assumption holds only for mobile nodes of
high-rate and low-speed. Consider a node with the sending rate of 10Kbps and moving speed of
10m/s, during its receiving a packet of 1500B, the node moves 12m. Thus, the surrounding can
change significantly and cause reception failure. Node velocity is insignificant compared to the
speed of light. In particular, none of the provided propagation models include Doppler effects,
although they could.
STRUCTURE OF NS-2

Create the event scheduler

Turn on tracing

Create network

Setup routing

Insert errors

Create transport connection

Create traffic

Transmit application-level data

FUNCTIONALITIES OF NS-ALLIONE2.28
C++/OTcl Linkage
Root of ns-2 object hierarchy
Bind (): link variable values between
Tcl Object

C++ and OTcl

Command (): link Octal methods to C++ implementations
Tcl Class
Create an Octal object, and create a linkage between the Octal object and C++
Object
Talc++
Methods to access TCU interpreter
Tcl Command
Standalone global commands
Embedded Tcl
ns script initialization

HOW TO START TCL SCRIPTS

We can write were TCU scripts in any text editor like Joe or maces. First of all, we need
to create a simulator object. This is done with the command set ns [new Simulator] Now we open
a file for writing that is going to be used for the name trace data. Set nf [open out. namw] $ns
nam trace-all $nf The first line opens the file 'out.nam' for writing and gives it the file handle 'nf'.
In the second line we tell the simulator object that we created above to write all simulation data
that is going to be relevant for nam into this file. The next step is to add a 'finish' procedure that
closes the trace file and starts nam.
NETWORK COMPONENTS
The root of the hierarchy is the Tcl Object class that is the super class of all Octal library
objects (scheduler, network components, timers and the other objects including NAM related

ones). As an ancestor class of Tcl Object, Ns Object class is the superclass of all basic network
component objects that handle packets, which may compose compound network objects such as
nodes and links. The basic network components are further divided into two subclasses,
Connector and Classifier, based on the number of the possible output data paths. The basic
network objects that have only one output data path are under the Connector class, and switching
objects that have possible multiple output data paths are under the Classifier class.
PACKET
A NS packet is composed of a stack of headers, and an optional data space. A packet
header format is initialized when a Simulator object is created, where a stack of all registered (or
possibly useable) headers, such as the common header that is commonly used by any objects as
needed, IP header, TCP header, RTP header (UDP uses RTP header) and trace header, is defined,
and the offset of each header in the stack is recorded. What this means is that whether or not a
specific header is used, a stack composed of all registered headers is created when a packet is
allocated by an agent, and a network object can access any header in the stack of a packet it
processes using the corresponding offset value.
STARTING NAM
NAM is a Tcl /TK based animation tool for viewing network simulation traces and real
world packet trace data. The first step to use NAM is to produce the trace file. The trace file
should contain topology information, e.g., nodes, links, as well as packet traces. Usually, the
trace file is generated by ns2. During ns2 emulation, user can produce topology configurations,
layout information, and packet traces using tracing events in ns2. When the trace file is
generated, it is ready to be animated by NAM. Upon start-up, NAM will read the trace file,
create topology, pop up a window, do layout if necessary and then pause at the time of the first
packet in the trace file. Through its user interface, NAM provides control over many aspects of
animation.
TRACE GRAPH
Trace graph is a free tool for analyzing the trace files generated by ns2. Trace graph can
support any trace format if converted to its own or ns2 trace format. Trace graph runs under
Windows, Linux, and UNIX and MAC OS systems.
Some of the program features are as follows:

238 2D graphs: Trace graph supports drawing 238 different graphs depending upon
different parameters in 2 Dimensional areas.

12 3D graphs: Trace graph supports 12 graphs in 3 Dimensions.

Delays, jitter, processing times, round trip times, throughput graphs and statistics can
be plotted with the help of Trace graph. These are described below:

Delay: This is the delay encountered between the sending and receiving of the packet.

Jitter: This is the unwanted variation in the output.

Processing Time: The time it takes for a node to process the input.

Round Trip Time: The time required for a signal pulse to travel from a specific source
to a specific destination and back again.

Whole network, link and node graphs and statistics.

All the results can be saved to text files, graphs can also be saved as jpeg and tiff.

Any graph saved in text file with 2 or 3 columns can be plotted.

Script files processing to do the analysis automatically.

The program does have some disadvantages though, such as it hangs or takes a very long
time while trying to open large trace files. Also it sometimes hangs after displaying the graph in
3D. The reason why this tool was used in the simulation work is that there are not too many
graph plotting tools available in the market.
SCENARIO FILE
As cbr file is used to store the traffic connections, similarly scenario file is used to store
the initial position of the nodes and movement of nodes at different times and their speed, etc.
Since it will be difficult to manually give initial position, movement of the nodes and their speed
for each movement at different times we use a random file generator here also. The node
movement generator is available under /indep-utils/cmu-scen-gen/setdest/ directory. It is
available under the name setdest, which is an exe file. This file is run with certain arguments to
create the scenario file.
The arguments are:

Number of nodes

Pause time

Maximum speed

Simulation time

X-axis dimension

Y-axis dimension

THE ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING

Networks allow computers, and hence their users, to be connected together. They also
allow for the easy sharing of information and resources, and cooperation between the devices in
other ways. Some of the major benefits are

Connectivity and Communication:

Networks connect computers and the users of those computers.
Individuals within a building or work group can be connected into

LAN.
Data Sharing:
One of the most important uses of networking is to allow the sharing
of data. True networking allows thousands of employees to share data

much more easily and quickly.

Hardware Sharing:
Networks facilitate the sharing of hardware devices. For example,
instead of giving each of 10 employees in a department an expensive
color printer, one printer can be placed on the network for everyone to

share.
Internet Access:
The Internet is itself an enormous network. The significance of the
Internet on modern society is hard to exaggerate, especially for

technical fields.
Internet Access Sharing:
Small computer networks allow multiple users to share a single
Internet connection. Special hardware devices allow the bandwidth of

the connection to be easily allocated to various individuals as they

need it.
Data Security and Management:
In a business environment, a network allows the administrators to
much better manage the company's critical data. Instead of having this
data spread over dozens or even hundreds of small computers in a
haphazard fashion as their users create it.

LINK
A link is another major compound object in NS. When a user creates a link using a
duplex-link member function of a Simulator object, two simplex links in both directions are
created. One thing to note is that an output queue of a node is actually implemented as a part of
simplex link object. Packets de queued from a queue are passed to the Delay object that
simulates the link delay, and packets dropped at a queue are sent to a Null Agent and are freed
there. Finally, the TTL object calculates Time to live parameters for each packet received and
updates the TTL field of the packet.
STARTING NS
NS starts with the command ns (assuming that we are in the directory with the ns
executable, or that were path points to that directory), where is the name of a Tcl script file which
defines the simulation scenario (i.e. the topology and the events). We could also just start ns
without any arguments and enter the Tcl commands in the Tcl shell, but that is definitely less
comfortable. Everything else depends on the Tcl script. The script might create some output, it
might write a trace file or it might start nam to visualize the simulation.
PROTOCOLS
A Heterogeneous Network (MANET) is a kind of wireless ad-hoc network, and is a self
configuring network of mobile routers (and associated hosts) connected by wireless links the
union of which forms an arbitrary topology. The routers are free to move randomly and organize
themselves arbitrarily, thus the network's wireless topology may change rapidly and
unpredictably. Such a network may operate in a standalone fashion, or may be connected to the
larger Internet. There are various routing protocols available for MANETs. The most popular
ones are DSR, AODV and DSDV. In this thesis, an attempt has been made to compare these
three protocols on the performance basis under different environments. The comparison has been

done under two protocols namely UDP and TCP. The tools used for the simulation are NS2
which is the main simulator, NAM (Network Animator) and Trace graph which is used for
preparing the graphs from the trace files. The results presented in this thesis work clearly indicate
that the different protocols behave differently under different environments. The results also
illustrate the important characteristics of different protocols based on their performance and thus
suggest some improvements in the respective protocols. Protocol names: MANET, AODV, DSR,
DSDV, NS2, NAM, UDP, TCP, Trace graph.
ROUTING ALGORITHMS
Most QoS routing algorithms represent an extension of existing classic best-effort routing
algorithms. Many routing protocols have been developed which support establishing and
maintaining multi-hop routes between nodes in MANETs. These algorithms can be classified
into two different categories: on-demand (reactive) such as DSR, AODV, and TORA, and tabledriven (proactive) such as Destination Sequenced Distance Vector protocol (DSDV). In the ondemand protocols, routes are discovered between a source and a destination only when the need
arises to send data. This provides a reduced overhead of communication and scalability. In the
table-driven protocols, routing tables which contain routing information between all nodes are
generated and maintained continuously regardless of the need of any given node to communicate
at that time. With this approach, the latency for route acquisition is relatively small, which might
be necessary for certain applications, but the cost of communications overhead incurred in the
continued update of information for routes which might not be used for a long time if at all is too
high.
DSR- DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOL
DSR is one of the most well known routing algorithms for ad hoc wireless networks. It
was originally developed by Johnson, Maltz, and Broch. DSR uses source routing, which allows
packet routing to be loop free. It increases its efficiency by allowing nodes that are either
forwarding route discovery requests or overhearing packets through promiscuous listening mode
to cache the routing information for future use. DSR is also on demand, which reduces the
bandwidth use especially in situations where the mobility is low. It is a simple and efficient
routing protocol for use in ad hoc networks. It has two important phases, route discovery and
route maintenance.

AODV - THE AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE-VECTOR PROTOCOL

AODV is another routing algorithm used in ad hoc networks. Unlike DSR, it does not use
source routing, but like DSR it is on-demand. In AODV, each node maintains a routing table
which is used to store destination and next hop IP addresses as well as destination sequence
numbers. Each entry in the routing table has a destination address, next hop, precursor nodes list,
lifetime, and distance to destination.
INTERESTING CONCEPTSOFAODV
The concepts o f AODV that make it desirable for MANETs w i t h limited
bandwidth include the following:

Minimal space complexity: The algorithm makes sure that the nodes that
are not in the active path do not maintain i n f o r m a t i o n ab ou t this route.
After a node receives the RREQ and sets are verse path in its routing table and
propagates the RREQ to its neighbours, if it does not receive any RREP from
its neighbours for this request, it deletes the routing info that it has recorded.

Simple: It is simple with each node behaving as a router, maintaining a simple

routing table, and the source node initiating path discovery request, making the
network self-starting.

Most effective routing info: After propagating an RREP, i f a node finds

receives an RREP with smaller hop-count, it updates its routing info with this
better path and propagates i t .

Most current routing info: The route info is obtained o n demand. Also, after
propagating

an RREP, i f an odefinds receives an RREP with greater

destination sequence number, it updates i t s routing info with this latest

path and propagates it.

Loop-free routes: The algorithm maintains l o o p free routes by using the

simple logic of nodes discarding non better p a c k e t s for same broadcast-id.
Coping up with dynamic topology and broken links: When the nodes
in the network move from their places and the topology is changed or the links
in the active path are broken, the intermediate node that discovers this link

breakage propagates an RERR packet. And the source node reinitializes the path
discovery if it still desires the route. This ensures quick response to broken
links.

Highly Scalable: The algorithm is highly scalable because of the minimum

space complexity and broadcasts avoided when it compared with DSDV

ADVANCED USES OF AODV

Because of its reactive nature, AODV can handle highly dynamic behavior of
Vehicle Ad-hoc networks.

Used for both unicasts and multicasts u s i n g theJ(Join multicast g r o u p )

flag in the packets.

LIMITATIONS/ DISADVANTAGES OF AODV

Requirement on broad cast medium: The algorithm expects/ requires that

the nodes in the broadcast m e d i u m can detect each others broad casts.

Over head on the bandwidth: Overhead on bandwidth will be occurred compared to DSR, when an RREQ travels From node to node in the process of
discovering the route info an demand, it sets up the reverse path in itself with the
addresses of all the nodes through which it is passing and it carries all this info all
its way.

More use of routing info: AODV lacks an efficient route m a i n t e n a n c e

technique. The routing info is always obtained on demand, including for common
cause traffic.

It is vulnerable to misuse: The messages can be misused for inside attacks

including route disruption, r o u t e

invasion, node isolation, and resource

consumption.

AODV lacks support for high throughput routing metrics: AODV is

designed to support t h e shortest h o p count metric. This metric favours long, low-

bandwidth links overshot, high-bandwidth links.

High route discovery latency: AODV is are activer o u t i n g p r o t o c o l .

This means that AODV does not discover a route until a flow is initiated. This
route discovery latency result can be high in large-scale mesh networks.

DSDV - THE DESTINATION SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR PROTOCOL

DSDV is one of the most well known table-driven routing algorithms for MANETs. It is
a distance vector protocol. In distance vector protocols, every node i maintains for each
destination x a set of distances {dij(x)} for each node j that is a neighbor of i. Node i treats
neighbor k as a next hop for a packet destined to x if dik(x) equals minj{dij(x)}. The succession
of next hops chosen in this manner leads to x along the shortest path. In order to keep the
distance estimates up to date, each node monitors the cost of its outgoing links and periodically
broadcasts to all of its neighbours its current estimate of the shortest distance to every other node
in the network. The distance vector which is periodically broadcasted contains one entry for each
node in the network which includes the distance from the advertising node to the destination. The
distance vector algorithm described above is a classical Distributed Bellman-Ford (DBF)
algorithm.
ADVANTAGES OF DSDV

DSDV protocol guarantees l o o p free paths.

Count to infinity problem is reduced in DSDV. We can avoid extra traffic with

incremental u p d a t e s instead of full dump updates.

Path Selection: DSDV maintains o n l y the best path ins tead of maintaining multiple
paths to every destination. With this, the amount of space in routing table is reduced.

CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED SYSTEM
5.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM:
The goal of this paper is to enhance the robustness of the network to - a) dual link failures;
and b) single node failures. To this end, we develop techniques that combine the positive aspects
of the various single-link and node failure recovery techniques. In the developed approach, every
node is assigned up to four addresses one normal address and up to three protection addresses.
The network recovers from the first failure using IP-in-IP tunneling with one of the protection
addresses of the next node in the path.
Packets destined to the protection address of a node are routed over a protection graph where
the failed link is not present. Every protection graph is guaranteed to be two-edge connected by
construction, hence is guaranteed to tolerate another link failure. We develop an elegant
technique to compute the protection graphs at a node such that each link connected to the node is
removed in at least one of the protection graphs, and every protection graph is two-edge
connected. The highlight of our approach is that we prove that every node requires at most three
protection graphs, hence three protection addresses. When a tunneled packet encounters multiple
link failures connected to the same next-hop node, we conclude that the next-hop node has
failed. The packet is then forwarded to the original destination from the last good node in the
protection graph along a path which does not contain the failed node.
ADVANTAGES:

The recovery mechanism of dual link or single node failure avoids the data leakage or
data loss.

5.2 ARCHITECTURE DIAGRAM

5.3 MODULE DESCRIPTION

Computing Protection

The decomposition of the graph into three protection graphs for every node u is achieved by
temporarily removing node u and obtaining the connected components in the resultant network.
If the network is two-vertex connected, then removal of any one node will keep the remaining
network connected. However, if the network is only one-vertex-connected, removal of node u
may split the network into multiple connected components. In such a scenario, we consider every
connected component individually. We assign the links from a connected component to node u
into different groups based on further decomposition and compute the protection groups. We then
combine the corresponding protection groups obtained from multiple connected components.
Packet Forwarding
By default, all packets are forwarded towards the destination prefix decided by the
destination address in the packet header. Traffic is routed on graph G towards the selected egress
node. A packet destined to d is transmitted with address d0, and is routed on graph G. The
network is assumed to employ any desired routing algorithm under no failure scenario. Every
node is assumed to route the packet based on the destination address and the interface (incoming
link) over which the packet was received. For every destination-interface pair, the routing table at
a node specifies the interface (outgoing link) over which the packet has to be forwarded. Note
that if the network employs shortest path routing, the outgoing link for default destination
address for a node would be the same, irrespective of the incoming interface.
Forwarding Tree Selection in a Protection
Consider a packet, destined to egress node d, that encounters a failure at node x, where the
default forwarding link is xy. Node x stacks a new header to the packet with the destination
address as y. The packet may now be transferred either along the red or blue tree.
The first approach is referred to as the red tree first (RTF), where every packet is
forwarded along the red tree. Upon failure of a red forwarding link in the protection graph, the
packet will be forwarded along the blue tree. When a blue forwarding link fails, the packet is
simply dropped as it indicates that the packet has already experienced two link failures1. Note
that if the RTF approach is employed, we may construct the red and blue trees such that the path
on the red tree is minimized.
The second approach is referred to as the shortest tree first (STF), where a packet is
forwarded along that tree which provides the shortest path to the root of the tree. As the packets

are first forwarded on the shortest tree, the packets experience lower delays under single link
failure scenarios. While the red tree may offer the shortest path for node x in the protection
graph, the blue tree may offer the shortest path for another node x in the same protection graph.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
6.1 CONCLUSION
The first failure is handled by routing the packet in a protection, where each protection
graph is designed to handle another link failure. This project develops the necessary theory to
prove that the links connected to a node may be grouped such that at most three protections are
needed per node. The project uses aspects from established schemes as intermediate steps and
does not impose restrictions on the routing protocol handling the normal failure-free scenario.
This project discusses two approaches, namely RTF and BTF, to forward the tunneled packet in
the protection, describing the benefit of shorter paths in BTF at the cost of an extra overhead bit.
The second scheme extends the first scheme so that it provides recovery from dual-link failures
or a single-node failure. A node failure is assumed when three separate links connected to the
same node are unavailable. The packet is then forwarded along a path to the destination avoiding
the failed node. The performance of the schemes is evaluated by applying the algorithms to
available failure paths and comparing the path lengths obtained with the two approaches.
6.2 FUTURE WORK
The Enhancement of this project includes creation of more number of nodes and links,
and also simulate recovery scheme for different types of wired networks in order to achieve
better performance.

APPENDIX
ELEGANT TECHNIQUE
Input:
Source
Destination
Nodes involved in Single Link failure
Nodes involved in another single link failure (creates dual
link failure)
Node involved in node failure
Initialize:
Direct links
One hop Links
Linkstatus (0: no failure; 1: failure)
usedState( eachNode) = 0;
count = 0; // number of nexthop
m1 = 1st_directlink
m2 = 2nd _directlink
Create single link failure
Call updateLinkStatus { }
Call protection Graph {source destination}
Protection Graph {source destination} {
Check direct Links of source

i) if (any_directlink==destination &&(linkstatus(direct link)==

0))
nexthop = destination
a. if((linkstatus(m1)==0) &&(usedState(m1)== 0)
b. increment count
c. nexthop(count) = m1
ii) if((linkstatus(m2)==0)&&(usedState(m2)==0)
a. increment count
b. nexthop(count) = m2
iii) if((linkstatus(3rd _directlink) = = 0) &&
( usedState(3rd _directlink) = = 0) )
a. increment count
b. nexthop(count) = 3rd _directlink
iv) if((linkstatus(1st _onehoplink) = = 0) && ( usedState(1st _
onehoplink) = = 0) )
a. increment count
b. nexthop(count) = intermediate Node of 1st onehop link
c. increment count
d. nexthop(count) = 1st onehop link
v) if((linkstatus(2nd _onehoplink) = = 0) &&(usedState(2nd _
onehoplink) = = 0)
a. increment count
b. nexthop(count) = intermediate Node of 2nd onehop link
c. increment count
d. nexthop(count) = 2nd onehop link
vi) if((linkstatus(3rd_onehoplink)==0)&&(usedState (3rd_
onehoplink)==0))
a. increment count
b. nexthop(count) = intermediate Node of 3rd onehop link
c. increment count
d. nexthop(count) = 3rd onehop link

Call protectionGraph {source destination} if any of the

above condition is satisfied by assigning current nexthop as
current source
vii) if none of the above condition is satisfied assign the
previous nexthop as current source and call
protectionGraph {source destination}
viii) Repeat the steps above till current nexthop becomes
destination
ix) RedTree ( )
x) BlueTree ( )
xi) Tunneling ( )
}
RedTree () {
Assign current nexthop details
Assign nexthop count as backup path length
}
BlueTree () {
m1 = 2nd Direct Link
m2 = 1st Direct Link
Call ProtectionGraph {source destination} {}
Assign current nexthop details
Assign nexthop count as backup path length
}
find shortest path by comparing path length of both trees
Tunneling () {
if (RTF approach)
Tunneling via the calculated nexthop from source to
destination
if (STF approach)
Tunneling via the calculated nexthop from source to
destination over shortest path tree

}
Create Dual link failure
Call updateLinkStatus { }
Call protectionGraph {source destination}
Create Node failure
Call updateLinkStatus { }
Call protectionGraph {source destination}

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