CHAPTER 4

TRANSDUCER
ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION
Transducer elements convert the input physical variable

to usable form, usually electrical signal.

Types of Transducer
ANALOGUE

types,
comprising potentiometric
resistance type, inductance,
capacitive, piezoelectric, resistance
strain gauge, ionisation and
mechano- electronic types

DIGITAL

Electromechanical

Opto-electronic
transducers,
comprising
photo- emissive,
photo-conductive and photo-voltaic
types

Types
of
Transd
ucer

Frequency generating types

Digital encoder types

4.1 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS

4.1.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL TYPES
An electrical output is produced due to an input of mechanical
displacement or strain.

Fig.4.1 shows the scheme for measurement using electromechanical

transducer.

 The following factors are considered when selecting a motion

transducer for a given application:
Magnitude of motion
Type of input-output relation
Static and dynamic characteristics
Attachment or proximity type
Self-generating or external power source type

Type of associated circuit

1. Potentiometric Resistance-Type Transducer

A wire-wound potentiometer may be used as a transducer

for converting mechanical

displacement
to
an electrical
output.
Fig. 4.3 shows the motion of the object changes the effective
resistance and hence, the voltage output eo between points b
and c.
Thus, the output voltage is directly proportional to the dynamic
displacement of the moving object.

Fig. 4.3 Potentiometer resistance transducer

2. Inductive-Type Transducers
The magnetic characteristics of an electric circuit change due to

the motion of the object.

These are classified into two types:

Self-generating types voltage signal is generated in the

transducer, because of relative motion of a conductor and a

magnetic field. Eg. Electrodynamic, electromagnetic and eddy
circuit types of transducers.
Non-self-generating types an external source is needed
to energize a coil, the inductance of which would change due
to the motion of the object. Eg. Attachment type inductance
transducer, air gap type, Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT) and magneto-strictive type of transducers.

Linear Variable Differential

Transducer (LVDT)

Rotary Variable Differential

Transformer (RVDT)

3. Capacitive Type Transducers

Displacement-sensitive transducer.
There is change in capacitance between two plates due to motion.

=
where

3.6

C = capacitance, pF
A = area of plates, cm2
d = distance between plates, cm
= dielectric constant of the medium
between the plates (=1 for air)

4. Piezo-Electric Transducers
Operates

on the principle that when a crystalline material

(quartz/barium titanate) is distorted, an electrical charge.
Application of a force P causes deformation xi, producing a charge Q,
where Q = K1xi
K1 = charge sensitivity constant
The crystal behave as if it was a capacitor, carrying a charge across it.
Voltage eo across the crystal, is given by

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change

in shape is greatly exaggerated)

C being

capacitance
of the crystal
sensitivity constant = K1/C

and

K the voltage

As before,

=
3.6

C = capacitance of crystal, pF
= dielectric constant of the material
A = area (cm2)
t = thickness (cm)

If A is in m2, t in m, and C in F, the equation above becomes:

=
1.13 1011
Relation between force P and deformation xi is:

(E = Youngs modulus of the crystal material)

5. Resistance Strain Gauges

Based

on the principle that if a conductor is stretched or

compressed, its resistance will change because of change in
its length, area and resistivity.
The resistance R of a conductor of cross-sectional area A, length L,
made of a material with resistivity is:

..(4.20)

Gauge factor F of the conductor is defined as:

/
/
=
=
/

..(4.21)

where R = change in resistance R due to axial strain, a; which is L/L

 Strain gauge transducers are of two types:

Unbonded strain gauge
Bonded strain gauge

Unbonded Strain Gauges

Unbonded strain gauge measure very small motions, of order 50 m

and very small forces. Used to measure force, pressure,

acceleration.

Bonded Strain Gauges

Bonded strain gauge is used for measurement of several physical

variables like strain, force, torque, pressure, vibrations. Very

sensitive when used with equipment, strain as low as 10-7 may be
measured.

 Resistance strain gauge is made a part of a Wheatstone bridge so

that the change in its resistance due to strain can either be

measured or made to give an output which can be displayed.
There are two types of bridge arrangements:
Balanced bridge
Unbalanced bridge

Resistance Strain Gauges Bridges

In

the balanced bridge arrangement, strain gauge resistance

R1, shown as a rectangle in Fig. 4.31, forms one arm of the
Wheatstone bridge while the remaining arms have resistance R2, R3
and R4 as part of the bridge.
The bridge is excited by a DC source, with voltage E.
RG is the resistance of the galvanometer.
The bridge is balanced when there is no current
through the galvanometer.
Used for measuring static strain.

..(4.22)

 In the unbalanced bridge arrangement shown in Fig. 4.32, the

current through the galvanometer or the voltage drop across it, is

used to indicate the strain in the strain gauge.
Used to measure dynamic and static strains.

..(4.26)

Temperature Compensation
Temperature change would also change the resistance of a

resistance strain gauge.

It is inconvenient to calculate and apply temperature correction,
therefore temperature compensation is made in the experimental setup by:
1. Using a dummy gauge.

Fig. 4.36 Temperature compensation with a dummy gauge

2. Using more than one active gauge with proper

arrangement of the gauges.
Temperature compensation is necessary when static strains are
to be measured.
Since a change of temperature causes only a drift in the

output signals as such changed are normally slow, for

measurement
of
dynamic
strains,
temperature
compensation is not necessary.

 Factors to decide strain gauge arrangement on elastic

members for measuring various physical variables:
1. High sensitivity
2.

Temperature compensation

Possible Arrangement of Gauges

Signal
enhancement
factor is (1 + v)

Signal
enhancement
factor is 2

Signal
enhancement
factor is 2(1 + v)

Signal
enhancement
factor is 4

Signal
enhancement
factor is 2(1 + v)

6. Strain Gauge Rosettes

If more than one strain gauge is mounted in an area, with a view to

finding principal strains, the arrangement is called strain gauge

rosettes.

Fig. 4.42 Types of rosettes

Balancing of Bridges
The

bridges need to be balanced since all four arm

resistances may not be equal to the desired values. The methods
include:
Series balancing using an apex resistance (Fig. 4.46). Due
to movement of apex resistance contact point, if R2 increases,
R3 decreases by the same amount and vice versa.
Parallel balancing motion of contact point P can balance the
bridge, if desired. (Fig. 4.47)

Calibration Electrical Method

For an unbalanced bridge arrangement, it is necessary to relate the

bridge output with the strain in the strain gauge.

One of the method using electrical, in which a change in arm
resistance may be simulated using an apex resistor.
The second
electrical
method of calibration
is using a
shunt resistor. If a shunt resistor Rc is connected parallel to the
strain gauge resistance R, the change R1 is:

..(4.46)

Calibration Mechanical method

For static calibration, dead weights can be used directly and strain can be

calculated and related to the output.

For dynamic calibration, two methods are used; i.e. using a rotating
eccentric and an electrodynamic vibrator.
Fig. 4.49 Dynamic calibration of
strain gauges using an eccentric

Fig. 4.50 Dynamic calibration of strain gauges

using an electrodynamic vibrator

7. Ionization Transducer
Works on the principle of development of voltage across 2 electrodes

placed in an ionised gas, the magnitude of which depends on

the electrode spacing and state of balance, which can change
due to the motion to be measured.

8. Mechano-Electronic Transducer
Displacement transducer type, based on the principle that the

plate
current depends on the spacing between an anode and a cathode
in a diode/triode.
Used to measure displacement, pressure, and force.

A mechanoelectronic
transducer is a system
in which a voltage is
developed by the
motion of one or more
of the elements in a
diode, triode or other
multielement electron
tube

4.1 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS

4.1.1 OPTO-ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER
These transducers convert a light beam into an electrical signal.
There are 3 types of photoelectric transducers.

1. Photo-Emissive Transducer
Light beam strokes a photo emissive cathode, which releases
electron, attracted towards the anode, producing a current I,
in the circuit, which is proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation, the sensitivity depending on the wavelength of the
radiation.

2. Photo-Conductive Transducer
Material changes its resistance due to a change in the intensity of
incident light.

3. Photo-Voltaic Transducer
Has a sandwich construction, consisting of a metal base plate 3, a
semiconductor material layer 2 (selenium) and a thin transparent
metal layer 1.
A voltage output is generated due to incident light and can be
measured.

4.2 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

4.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The output is discrete and may give frequency type output or a digitally

coded output of binary or other types.

Main advantage of digital transducers are:
Use of digital computers along with transducers for data
manipulation, is made easier.
Digital signals pulse count frequency or sequences of digitally
codes outputs are not dependent on signal amplitudes, thus easy
to transmit without distortion.
Increased accuracy in pulse count.
Ergonomic advantages in presenting digital data.
Digital transducers range from frequency domain or frequency
generating types of transducers to digital encoders.

4.2.1 FREQUENCY DOMAIN TRASNDUCERS

The

output is in the form of pulses or sinusoidal wave forms, the

frequency of which is a measure of magnitude of the physical variable.

Three types of frequency domain transducers:

1.

Electromagnetic Frequency Domain Transducer

Used for speed measurement.

Device

consists of a permanent magnet/solenoid. A gear made from

ferromagnetic material is attached to the rotating shaft.

As each gear tooth passes in front of the magnet, the gap length
changes. This change the flux density and a voltage pulse is induced in
the coil.
Pulse frequency equals speed N times the number of teeth T. The pulse

frequency is a measure of speed of rotation.

2. Opto-Electrical Frequency Domain Transducer

Measurement of speed of rotation of shaft.
The shaft has half dark and half whiting/shining portions. Each
time the latter portion is in front of the light source, it gives an
electrical pulse output.
The frequency of the pulses is a measure of the speed of rotation.

 For linear motion, the moving object is attached to the

transparent scale.
Light from a source passes through the scale and a slit and

then falls on a photo-electric transducer.

The

motion equals to the pitch of the grating that

produces one complete cycle of light and darkness, thus a
pulse output is obtained.

From the number of output pulses, the change in motion of

the scale and object attached can be determined.

3. Vibrating Spring Transducer

Used

to measure the force applied to a metal string, which is

kept vibrating, the frequency of which is dependent on the
force applied.
One end of the string is fixed and the other can be moved.
An electromagnetic transducer picks up the vibrations, and
frequency changes, which is a measure of the force applied on the
string.
Can be used for force and displacement measurements.

Fig. 4.65 Vibrating string transducer