Do not spend time memorizing formulas or constants. A formula and equation sheet will be
provided for you during the free-response portion of the test. You, however, need
howto know
to use these formulas.
2.
b. AP Physics 2:
Thermodynamics.*
Modern physics.*
The direction of current is conventional current: the direction in which positive charge
would drift.
d. Assume all batteries and meters are ideal unless otherwise stated.
e.
Assume edge effects for the electric field of a parallel plate capacitor unless otherwise
stated.
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f.
For any isolated electrically charged object, the electric potential is defined as zero at
infinite distance from the charged object.
Kinematics
1.
b. A quantity with both a magnitude and direction is called a vector and can be drawn
with an arrow.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Vectors can be added together by adding the magnitudes much like how
numbers are added, and can have a negative value.
c.
2.
One-dimensional kinematics.
a.
c.
ii.
iii.
iv.
d. Variables.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
= Time; measured in .
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vi.
e.
Formulae.
i.
1.
1.
1.
Returns velocity given acceleration, initial velocity, and initial and final
ii.
iii.
horizontal distance.
f.
Displacement (
):
1.
ii.
Velocity (
):
1.
iii.
Acceleration (
):
1.
3.
Projectile motion.
a.
Projectiles near Earth or are affected by gravity follow a curved parabolic path.
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If an object it thrown so that the path matches the curved surface of Earth, it will orbit
Earth.
f.
A satellite is a projectile that travels fast enough to fall around the Earth rather than
into it.
g.
Formulae.
i.
1.
ii.
1.
iii.
1.
2.
1.
iv.
4.
Momentum.
a.
Both mass and velocity of an object varies directly with its momentum.
i.
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i.
e.
Examples.
i.
Increasing momentum: to send a golf ball as far up into the air as possible,
one wants to increase the balls momentum as much as possible, which
requires a big impulse.
1.
ii.
3.
f.
g.
The same impulse does not mean the same amount of force or same amount of pain.
For a fixed change in momentum, a reduced impact force comes by increasing time.
When two objects bounce upon collision, impulse is provided to stop them and extra
impulse is provided to push them away from each other.
Elastic collisions happen when objects bounce off after colliding and do not stick or
deform.
i.
ii.
j.
ii.
5.
Forces.
a.
Natural motion such as a rock falling, smoke rising, or stars moving was
considered to occur without forces.
ii.
Friction is a type of force that results when two materials move past each other.
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i.
d. Galileo believed if there is friction, force is needed to keep an object moving.
i.
e.
2.
3.
ii.
iii.
By Newtons third law, forces come in pairs, and every action yields
an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples.
a.
The force of the Earth on a car is equal to the force of the car
on the Earth.
ii.
iii.
Example: the force needed to shake a soda can is less than to shake a car;
therefore, the car has more inertia.
g.
Frictional force always acts in a direction that opposes the direction of motion.
i.
ii.
k.
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i.
l.
This means, when terminal speed is reached, the object does not continue to
speed up.
6.
ii.
iii.
Terminal speed is not the same every time the same object falls.
iv.
Circular motion.
a.
b. Revolution is when an object turns about an external axis outside the object.
i.
c.
Linear speed is greater on the outer part of a rigid disk versus the inner part.
i.
ii.
d. Angular speed is the same throughout the disk.
i.
ii.
iii.
e.
f.
g.
h. The period of a rotating object is the time required for each rotation.
i.
i.
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i.
j.
Centripetal force is the force perpendicular to the path of the moving object and
produces circular motion.
i.
ii.
Examples.
1.
2.
3.
k.
Centrifugal force does not pull outward; it is simply an imaginary effect caused by the
Law of Inertia.
l.
Gravity can be simulated by spinning a cylindrical container, making its contents feel
as though they are pressed against the outer wall.
ii.
The center of mass of the Solar System is not at the center of the sun.
A star with a planetary system around it follows a wobbly path.
ii.
If the center of gravity of an object is above the area of support, it will remain
upright. Otherwise, it will topple.
1.
iii.
A humans center of gravity when standing with arms by the side is typically
located near the navel.
ii.
iii.
iv.
A doorknob placed far away from the hinges provides more leverage for easier
opening.
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v.
Torque is balanced when the products of the mass and distance of objects
from the turning axis are the same.
1.
Work is the product of the force and the distance the object is moved.
a.
c.
f.
g.
h. Example: The amount of work required to lift 0.25 pounds of cheese up one meter is 1
Joule.
2.
b.
c.
Twice the power means the object can do twice the work in the same amount of time
or the same amount of work in half the time.
3.
Mechanical Energy is the energy due to the position of something, or the movement of
something
a.
4.
Potential energy is the stored state of energy has the potential for doing work.
a.
b. Work is required to elevate objects against the earth's gravity. The potential energy due
to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy.
i.
Example: Water in an elevated reservoir and the raised ram of a pile driver
have gravitational potential energy.
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c.
5.
c.
6.
Exists in other forms such as: thermal energy, acoustical energy and radiant energy.
7.
Machines are devices used to multiply forces or simply change the direction of the forces.
a.
b. Simplest machine is the lever. When work is done on one end of the lever, the other
end does work on the load as well.
i.
ii.
iii.
c.
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force to input force for a machine. AKA
same as the number of strands of rope that actually support the load.
d. A pulley is basically a kind of lever that can be used to change the direction of force.
i.
e.
8.
A machine can only transfer energy from one place to another or transform it from
one form to another. It cannot create energy.
The machine efficiency is the ratio of useful work output to total work input, or the ratio of
actual mechanical advantage to theoretical mechanical advantage.
a.
There is more energy stored in the molecules in food than there is in the reaction
products after the food is digested. The energy difference is what sustains life.
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1.
A period is the time of a back-and-forth swing. It depends only on the length of the pendulum
and the acceleration of gravity.
a.
2.
3.
The simple harmonic motion is the back-and-forth vibratory motion of a swinging pendulum.
(also called oscillatory motion).
A simple harmonic motion traces out a special curve known as a sine curve.
a.
The high points of the wave are called crests, and the low points are called troughs.
b. Amplitude refers to the distance from the midpoint to the crest/trough of the wave.
i.
c.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from the tip of one crest to the top of the
next one.
ii.
The frequency of the vibrating source and the frequency of the wave it
produces is the same.
iii.
Example: One cycle per second is 1 hertz, 2 cycles per second is 2 hertz etc.
iv.
e.
f.
Example: Sound, light (in form of electromagnetic wave) are examples of different
types of waves.
g.
The speed of a wave depends on the medium through which the wave moves.
i.
Example: Sound waves move 330 m/s - 350 m/s depending on temperature
and four times faster in water.
1.
ii.
Use
Where
wavelength.
iii.
is the
Frequency and wavelength vary inversely to produce the same wave speed for
all sounds.
1.
Example: During a concert, you do not hear the high notes in a chord
before you hear the low notes. The sounds of all instruments reach you
at the same time.
h. A transverse wave is whenever the motion of the medium is at right angles to the
direction in which a wave travels.
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i.
ii.
i.
A longitudinal wave is when particles move along the direction of the wave rather
than at right angles to it.
i.
j.
ii.
iii.
A destructive interference is when the high part of one wave simply fills in
the low part of another. Also known as cancellation.
iv.
k.
A standing wave is when the original waves and the reflected waves form nodes, the
certain parts of the rope that remain stationary.
i.
ii.
iii.
l.
4.
ii.
iii.
can travel through gases, liquids, and solids, but not through a vacuum.
iv.
The Doppler Effect is the change in frequency due to the motion of the source (or receiver).
a.
The greater the speed of the source, the greater the Doppler effect.
b. Example: The changing pitch of a car horn as the car passes you.
i.
This occurs because the sound wave crests are encountering you more
frequently. And when the car passes and moves away, you hear a drop in the
pitch because the wave crests are encountering you less frequently.
ii.
is the new frequency, or the frequency you hear due to the Doppler
effect.
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2.
3.
4.
) and
For objects coming toward you, use the subtraction sign as the
frequency will be higher.
5.
For objects moving away, use the addition sign on the bottom of the
equation as the frequency will be lower.
5.
With Closed-Ended Pipes, the standing wave in this pipe must have a node at one end and an
antinode at the other.
a.
The wavelength of a standing wave is always twice the node-to-node distance, but the
wave is so long that we dont see a second node.
i.
Gravitational Forces
1.
2.
3.
Newton reasoned that the moon is orbiting the Earth for the same reason apples fallthey are
both pulled by Earths gravity.
4.
d. There can never be a force of gravity with just one mass, due to Newtons Law of
Action and Reaction.
e.
5.
f.
g.
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6.
A force field is a graphical representation of the acceleration near a mass due to gravity.
a.
7.
The acceleration due to gravity is the actual gravitational field around the mass.
a.
b. At the center of Earth, the gravitational field is zero.
8.
The weight reading on a bathroom scale is linked to the amount of compression, which is
related to the normal or support forces,
a.
and
As the elevator accelerates up, the scale would show an increase in weight.
As the elevator accelerates down, the scale would show a decrease in weight.
9.
Gravitational force between Earth and the moon is stronger on the side of the Earth facing the
moon.
a.
between Earth and the moon does not cause the oceans to be pulled toward the
moon.
b.
between Earth and the moon does not cause the solid planet to be pulled toward
the moon.
c.
There are two ocean tides per day because of the moon.
i.
Spring tides occur when the moon, Earth, and sun all line up.
1.
ii.
Neap tides occur when the moon, Earth, and sun form a right angle.
1.
10. A black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that
For extra heavy stars, gravity can collapse the star into a black hole with the
same mass as the original star.
b. One could escape from a black hole if they were a far distance away.
11. An Earth satellite is a projectile that falls around the Earth rather than into it.
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a.
The orbital speed for close orbit about the surface of the Earth is 8 km/s.
i.
b. Satellites are usually about 150 kilometers above the Earths surface.
c.
For a satellite close to Earth, the time for one complete orbit is 90 minutes.
d. Communications satellite orbits take a longer amount of time to orbit, and their
linear speed matches that at the equator.
12. A satellite with an elliptical orbit path has the greatest speed when it is closest to the center
of gravity.
a.
b. Apogee is the point when the satellite is farthest from the center of gravity.
i.
c.
Potential energy is lowest at this point, while kinetic energy is the greatest.
Perigee is the point when the satellite is closest to the center of gravity.
i.
Potential energy is greatest at this point, while kinetic energy is the lowest.
13. Work is required to launch a rocket straight up and escape gravity. This work is used to give the
rocket kinetic energy.
a.
The speed associated with this kinetic energy is called the escape speed from the
surface of the Earth.
i.
Thermodynamics
1.
The internal energy, also known as the thermal energyof an object is related to the kinetic
energy of all the particles comprising the object.
a.
In solids, the particles comprising the solid are held together tightly, allowing limited
motionthe particles can only vibrate back and forth in their given positions.
b. In liquids, the particles can move back and forth across each other, but the object itself
has no defined shape.
c.
In gases, the particles move throughout the volume available, interacting with each
other and the walls of any container holding them.
d. Instead of looking at the sum of all the individual particles kinetic energies, you could
examine the average kinetic energy of the particles comprising the object.
i.
1.
2.
J/K.
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e.
ii.
The zero point on the Kelvin scale is at absolute zero, a theoretical minimum
temperature, and the zero point on the Celsius scale is at the freezing and
melting point of water.
1.
2.
3.
2.
When objects are heated, they tend to expand, and when they are cooled, they tend to
contract.
a.
This occurs because at higher temperatures, objects have higher kinetic energies, so
their particles vibrate more.
b. At higher levels of vibration, the particles arent bound to each other as tightly, so the
object expands.
i.
ii.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another object due to a difference in
temperature.
a.
Positive values of
When heat flows into or out of an object, the amount of temperature change depends
on the material.
i.
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Heat can be transferred from one object to another by three different methods.
i.
An example is when you stick an iron rod in a fire. The end in the fire
warms up, but over time, the particles comprising the iron rod near the
fire move more quickly, colliding with other particles in the iron
speeding them up, and so on, resulting in heat transfer down the
length of the iron rod.
2.
a.
), the
2.
iii.
f.
4.
Matter can exist in different states, including solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas.
a.
Plasmas are energetic gases that have been ionized to conduct electricity.
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i.
b. When matter changes state, its internal energy changes, so the kinetic energy of its
constituent particles changes.
c.
i.
When an object transitions between the solid and liquid phases, you
use the latent heat of fusion (
).
).
You can calculate the energy required for a material to change phases
using the following formula, where
objects mass, and
transformation.
is the
a.
5.
In studying the behavior of gases in confined spaces, it is useful to limit ourselves to the study
of ideal gases.
a.
Ideal gases are theoretical models of real gases, which utilize a number of basic
assumptions to simplify their study.
i.
The assumptions include treating the gas as being comprised of many particles
which move randomly in a container.
ii.
The particles are, on average, far apart, and they do not exert forces upon one
another unless they come in contact in an elastic collision.
b. Under normal conditions, most gases behave in a manner quite similar to an ideal gas.
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i.
Heavy gases as well as gases at very low temperatures or very high pressures
are not as well modeled by an ideal gas.
c.
The Ideal Gas Law relates the pressure, volume, number of particles, and temperature
of an ideal gas in a single equation.
i.
ii.
Boltzmanns Constant (
1.
), and
is
is the temperature.
iii.
It is also quite straightforward to find the total internal energy of an ideal gas.
1.
iv.
2.
6.
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a.
with object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then objects A and C
must be in thermal equilibrium.
i.
Two objects are in thermal equilibrium when their internal energies are the
same.
ii.
b. The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in the internal energy of a
closed system is equal to the heat added to the system plus the work done on the
system.
i.
1.
2.
If heat was taken from the system or work was done by the system, the
respective quantities would be negative.
3.
ii.
1.
iii.
In exploring ideal gas state changes, there are a number of state changes in
which one of the characteristics of the gas or process remain constant, and are
illustrated on the following PV diagram.
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1.
a.
c.
One statement of this law says that heat flows naturally from a warmer object
to a colder object, and cannot naturally flow from a colder object to a warmer
object without an external force doing work on the system.
ii.
This law also limits the efficiency of any heat engine and proves that it is not
possible to make a 100 percent efficient heat engine.
iii.
The law also states that the level of entropy in a closed system can only
increase or remain the same.
d. The third law of thermodynamics, also known as Nernsts Theorem, states that no
material can ever be cooled to absolute zero.
A fluid is matter that flows under pressure, which includes liquids, gases, and plasmas.
a.
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2.
is pronounced rho.
b. Less dense fluids will float on top of denser fluids, and less dense solids will float on
top of denser fluids.
i.
3.
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the
density of the fluid, multiplied by the volume of the fluid displaced, multiplied by the
acceleration due to gravity.
i.
ii.
Example: steel boats can float because the average density of the entire boat,
including the air inside the boat, is less than that of water.
1.
The weight of the volume of water displaced is greater than the weight
of the boat itself.
4.
It is a scalar quantity calculated as the force applied per unit area, where the force
applied is always perpendicular to the surface.
i.
ii.
b. The pressure that a fluid exerts on an object submerged in that fluid can be calculated
by multiplying the density of the fluid by the depth submerged, all multiplied by the
acceleration due to gravity.
i.
ii.
This is the gauge pressure, because this is the reading you would observe on a
pressure gauge.
1.
), which is about
Pa on
a.
c.
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i.
ii.
1.
a.
2.
, must be equal to
.
a.
3.
must equal
a.
4.
over
a.
5.
6.
d. The continuity equation for fluids states that the volume of fluid that enters a pipe
must equal the volume of fluid that leaves the pipe, even if the diameter changes.
i.
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ii.
1.
2.
As the cross-section of the pipe gets smaller, the velocity of the fluid
increases.
e.
Fluids moving at higher velocities lead to lower pressures, and fluids moving at
lower velocities lead to higher pressures.
ii.
1.
Airplane wings have a larger top surface than the bottom surface, so
the velocity of the fluid has to be greater on the top to cover the same
distance.
a.
This means the pressure from the air on top is less than the
pressure from the air on the bottom of the wing.
iii.
1.
The pressure at a point in the tube plus half the density of the fluid
multiplied by the square of its velocity at that point, added to
must be equal at any point in the tube.
Electrostatics - Part 1
1.
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ii.
b. Most atoms are neutral, but if it loses or gains electrons, it is no longer neutral and is
called an ion.
i.
ii.
c.
If an atom loses one or more electrons, its net charge is positive and it is
known as a positive ion.
If an atom gains one or more electrons, its net charge is negative and it is
known as a negative ion.
The particles in a nucleus, known as nucleons, are held together by the strong nuclear
force.
d. Antimatter is matter made up of particles with the same mass as regular matter
particles, but opposite charges.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
When a matter particle and its corresponding antimatter particle meet, the
particles may combine to annihilate each other, resulting in the complete
2.
3.
Positive and negative charges are meant to be treated algebraically, so that during any process,
the net amount of charge produced is zero.
a.
The law of conservation of electric charge states that that the net amount of electric
charge produced in any process is zero.
4.
unit of charge and calculations will often be done in milli, micro, and
nano-coulombs.
a.
1C=
b. -1 C =
c.
electrons, respectively.
5.
protons
Conductivity.
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a.
ii.
iii.
Conductors can also be charged without coming into contact with another
charged object in a process called induction.
1.
2.
The free electrons on the conductor will move toward the charged
object if the object is positively charged, or away if it is negatively
charged.
3.
4.
The ground connection is then severed, and when the object is moved
away from the conductor, the charges in the conductor redistribute,
leaving a net charge on the conductor.
b.
The atomic structure of insulators is such that electrons are bound very tightly
to the nuclei and are nearly immovable.
ii.
For example, if you rub a balloon against your hair, some of the
electrons from the atoms in your hair are transferred to the
balloon.
i.
c.
Few materials that fall into the semiconductor category, such as Silicon and
Germanium.
i.
6.
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a.
By bringing a strong positive or negative charge close to that object, the electrons in
the neutral object tend to move toward a strong positive charge or away from a strong
negative charge.
i.
ii.
7.
Coulombs Law.
a.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
.
, where
, the
and
A positive value for the electrostatic force indicates that the force is a repelling force,
while a negative value for the electrostatic force indicates that the force is an attractive
force.
d. Keep in mind that force is a vector, and therefore has both magnitude and direction,
which allows you to apply Coulombs Law to problems of multiple dimensions.
i.
In cases where you have forces due to multiple charges, determine the force
due to each individual charge and then add the forces using the superposition
8.
Electric Fields.
a.
principle.
The electric field is a chart of the electric force per unit charge also known as
Newtons per Coulomb.
i.
Denoted by letter
ii.
Where is the distance between the charge and the point in space.
2.
Where
or
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b. The electric field is usually rendered with arrows showing what force it would
experience if a positive charge was placed in the space.
i.
point away from the positive charge and towards the negative.
1.
ii.
1.
c.
9.
The equation
Electric potential is defined by the change in electric potential energy when an electric charge
moves from point A to point B.
i.
Work is done when charge q moves from low to high potential whereas
negative work is done when the charge falls from high to low potential.
ii.
As the charge falls from high to low potential, the charge translates potential
energy into kinetic energy.
iii.
2.
Where
at this point is
at some point
.
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a.
b. The difference in potential energy equivalent to work done by the electric force to
move the charge from point B to point A, or from low to high potential.
c.
Note that a positive terminal or plate in a battery has a higher potential than a
negative one.
Thus a positively charged object moves naturally, or falls from a high
to low potential.
You can find the work required to move a charge from point B to point A using both
Electric potential and electric field.
i.
ii.
We also find
in meters. We can find the voltage given the Electric field and a distance
because, at different distances, the electric field has different potential.
iii.
voltage and the distance between the high and lower potential point.
12. The electron Volt.
a.
Joules.
13. Capacitance
a.
See Electrostatics Part II. Small number of capacitance problems on the AP Test.
Electrostatics - Part 2
1.
The Standard Model of Particle Physics explains the interactions of different forces in the
universe.
a.
When observed from their most basic aspects, all observed forces in the universe can
be consolidated into four fundamental forces.
i.
Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
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ii.
iii.
iv.
All fundamental forces act on hadrons, which include bigger particles such as
neutrons and protons.
1.
2.
Up quark ( ):
ii.
Down quark ( ):
iii.
Charm quark ( ):
iv.
Strange quark ( ):
v.
vi.
Top quark ( ):
.
.
.
.
Bottom quark ( ):
3.
ii.
All but the strong nuclear force act on smaller leptons, such as electrons,
positrons, muons, tau particles, and neutrinos.
1.
Electron ( ):
b. Electron neutrino (
c.
Muon ( ):
d. Muon neutrino (
e.
Tau ( ):
): .
): .
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f.
2.
Tau neutrino (
): .
If you know the potential difference between two parallel plates, you can easily calculate the
electric field strength between the plates.
a.
i.
Where
ii.
b. As long as youre not near the edge of the plates, the electric field is constant between
the plates.
c.
3.
Note that this formula gives the electric field strength in volts per meter, but it is
equivalent to Newtons per coulomb.
Capacitors: Parallel conducting plates separated by an insulator can be used to store electrical
charge.
a.
b. The amount of charge a capacitor can store on a single plate for a given amount of
potential difference across the plates is known as the devices capacitance.
i.
ii.
is charge in Coulombs,
farads.
iii.
is voltage, and
is capacitance in
).
c.
The amount of charge a parallel plate capacitor can hold is determined by its
geometry as well as the insulating material between the plates.
i.
ii.
The capacitance is directly related to the area of the plates, and inversely
related to the separation between the plates.
1.
a.
The permittivity (
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and is equal to
ii.
iii.
Dielectrics are insulators which are placed between the plates of a capacitor
to increase the devices capacitance.
1.
2.
3.
the capacitance.
iv.
3.
The electrical energy stored in the electric field between the plates of
the capacitor (
a.
b. Simpler equation:
Where
separated by
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i.
They occur often in physics as well as molecular biology. Image given below:
1.
ii.
Then
simplifies to the equation
iii.
iv.
at point
4.
5.
is the distance from Point P to the positive charge within the dipole.
6.
7.
8.
DC Circuits - Part 1
Problems on the AP test will often ask you to find the potential at the
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1.
Flow of Charge
a.
Charge flows when there is a potential difference (difference in voltage), across the
ends of a conductor.
Electric charge will always flow from low to high potential. Dont confuse this with the
flow of conventional current, which flows from high to low potential.
2.
Power in a Circuit.
a.
b.
c.
3.
is equal to
and
Conduction electrons are electrons that carry the charge through the circuit of the solid
conductors since they are free to move throughout the atomic network.
b. Measured in amperes (
i.
c.
4.
).
Electric resistance is the resistance the conductor offers to the flow of the charge.
a.
The resistance depends upon the conductivity of the material used in the wire, the
thickness and the length of the wire, and the temperature of the wire.
b. Longer wires have more resistance than short wires. Thick wires have less resistance
than thin wires. The greater the jostling about of atoms within the conductor, the
greater resistance the conductor offers to the flow of charge.
c.
Measured in ohms (
).
d.
i.
Where
area.
e.
is the cross-sectional
Resistance, which tells how difficult it is for change to flow through a circuit element, is
not to be confused with resistivity, a property of a material, which implies what the
resistance would be of a meter-cube bit of that material.
5.
Ohms Law states that the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed
across the circuit, and is inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
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a.
, also expressed as
i.
ii.
iii.
Where
, and
is current ( ),
is resistance ( )
is voltage (
).
A circuit is a complete path from the positive terminal at the top of the battery to the negative
terminal, which is the bottom of the battery.
a.
A short circuit happens when a path of little resistance is formed directly from the
positive to negative terminal, which creates a massive amount of current flowing
through one path.
provided by an electric switch that can be opened or closed to either cut off or allow
electron flow.
7.
Simple Circuits.
a.
Series circuits will have two or more objects connected in series with a battery. The
current flows through each object and the electrons in all parts of the circuit start to
move at once.
A parallel circuit includes electrical devices connected in parallel which are then
connected to the same two points of an electric circuit.
8.
d. Combinations of parallel and series circuits can be formed to create a complex circuit.
Kirchhoff's junction rule says that the current entering a wire junction equals the
current leaving the junction.
i.
b. Kirchhoff's loop rule says that the sum of voltage changes around a circuit loop is
zero.
i.
c.
A battery can raise the electrical potential energy of some charge that flows, while a
resistor will lower the potential energy of that charge. But the sum of all the changes
must still be zero.
9.
a.
Explains a battery or generator that converts a type of energy into electric energy.
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c.
. However when a
current flows from the battery, there is an internal voltage drop inside of the battery,
like a resistor.
i.
1.
Where
In order to measure current, the ammeter must be in series with that resistor.
In order to measure voltage, you must put the voltmeter in parallel with the
resistor.
c.
d. You may sometimes see multimeters, which are a combination of the three.
i.
To use a multimeter:
1.
Plug the black probe into the COM port and use the needle for
measuring the (-), or low potential side of an object.
2.
Plug the red probe into the mAV port and use it for measuring on
the positive terminal or side.
3.
Switch the knob to what you need to measure: current (amps), voltage
(volts), or resistance (ohms).
a.
Always turn the knob to something higher than you expect the
value will be, to prevent damage to the meter.
b. You can assume that a bulb has constant resistance, for the AP Test.
DC Circuits - Part 2
1.
Capacitors in parallel:
).
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i.
b. Capacitors in series:
i.
c.
Notice that the equations are inverse for capacitance, in comparison to resistance
involving series and parallel resistors.
2.
RC Circuits (Resistor-capacitor).
a.
As charge accumulates on a capacitor, the voltage across it increases, and the voltage
decreases until the voltage across the capacitor equals the emf of the battery.
b. There is no voltage drop across the resistor, and no more current flow in the circuit.
c.
The voltage across the capacitor, which is proportional to the charge that the capacitor
has, increases with time.
i.
circuit.
in
charged.
a.
c.
2.
b. Where
of the
of the battery.
Where is time in
The lower the resistance in the circuit, the faster the capacitor becomes
charged.
ii.
d.
Where
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ii.
e.
The charge and discharge of a capacitor within a RC circuit can be utilized to produce
voltage pulses at a consistent frequency.
i.
ii.
Magnetism
1.
An electric field becomes a magnetic field when the electric charges are moving relative to the
observer.
a.
All atoms have magnetic fields due to their moving electrons, known as orbital
magnetic fields.
i.
ii.
Atoms whose outermost electron shells are half-filled are the most
magnetic.
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iv.
If all the atoms or molecules in a material align in the same direction to create
a strong net magnetic field, the material is ferromagnetic.
1.
v.
2.
vi.
2.
If they are aligned and point in the same direction, a magnetic field is
observed.
3.
At the atomic level, the atom must have a partially-filled outer shell.
At the crystal lattice level, the atoms or molecules must be arranged in the
same magnetic alignment.
iii.
At the domain level, all magnetic domains must be oriented in the same
direction.
iv.
c.
Magnets are polarized, and each have a north and south pole.
i.
If you split a magnet in half, each half exhibits both a north and a south
pole.
ii.
You can draw magnetic field lines, or magnetic flux lines, to show the
direction the north pole of a magnet would point if placed in the field.
1.
Magnetic field lines are drawn as closed loops, starting from the north
pole of a magnet and continuing to the south pole of a magnet.
2.
Inside the magnet itself, the field lines run from the south pole to the
north pole.
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3.
a.
When a magnetic field interacts with a material, the material obtains an amount of
magnetization due to that field.
i.
The ability to support that magnetic field within itself is the materials
magnetic permeability ( ).
1.
2.
3.
2.
The Earth exerts a force on magnets; therefore, the Earth is technically a giant magnet.
a.
The magnetic north and south pole of the Earth are constantly moving.
i.
3.
The current rate of change is thought to be more than 20 kilometers per year.
A current running through a wire can create a magnetic field, leading to the modern study of
electromagnetism.
a.
ii.
According to this theory, length and time are not absolute measures.
They can be perceived differently based on the motion of the observers
relative to each other.
iii.
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b. A wire contains a large number of positive metal ions fixed in space, surrounded by a
sea of negative electrons which are able to move freely.
c.
The wire as a whole is neutral because the quantity of electrons matches the quantity
of positive ions.
d. When current flows through the wire, the net flow of electrons is in a specific direction
while the positive ions are fixed in space.
e.
If a charged observer object moves outside the wire, the separation of electrons and
ions differ slightly due to length contraction from the observers perspective.
i.
This creates a difference in charge density between the positive ions and
negative electrons, leading to a non-zero net charge.
ii.
The charged observer object sees the wire as having a net electrical charge,
and therefore experiences an electric force from the wire.
iii.
4.
The magnetic force is just an electric force acting on a moving charged object.
Relative motion between charges and a magnetic field can produce a force.
a.
i.
ii.
is the angle between the velocity vector and the direction of the magnetic
field.
iii.
2.
Curl your fingers inward 90o in the direction the magnetic field points.
3.
Your thumb will point in the direction of the force on the charged
particle.
iv.
2.
The strength of the fields are chosen such that the magnitudes
of the electric and magnetic forces are equal for a charged
particle of the desired velocity.
3.
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v.
2.
Once the particles are positively ionized, they are accelerated into a
magnetic field.
3.
As the charged particles enter the magnetic field, the field exerts a
force on the particle perpendicular to its velocity, which is a centripetal
force, causing the particle to turn in a circle.
4.
By measuring where the particle hits, you can determine the radius,
and therefore calculate the mass of the particle.
5.
b. Magnetic fields cause a force on moving charges, and current-carrying wires contain
moving charges; therefore, a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field may experience
a magnetic force.
i.
1.
= Magnetic force.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ii.
c.
The direction of this force can also be found using a right-hand rule.
1.
2.
3.
Your thumb will then point in the direction of the magnetic field.
Moving electric charges create magnetic fields; therefore, electrical current in a wire
creates a magnetic field around the wire.
i.
The curve of your fingers as you grasp the wire shows the direction of
the magnetic field around a wire.
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ii.
The magnetic field strength ( ) is a function of the distance from the center
of the wire ( ). A stronger magnetic field exists close to the wire, and a weaker
magnetic field exists further away from the wire.
1.
iii.
You can obtain an even stronger magnetic field by wrapping a coil of wire in a
series of loops, or a solenoid, and flowing current through the wire.
1.
2.
This is an electromagnet.
You can make this field even stronger by placing a piece of iron inside
the coils of wire.
3.
Another right-hand rule tells you the direction of the magnetic field due
to an electromagnet.
a.
b. Your thumb will point toward the north end of the induced
magnetic field.
4.
) can be
a.
i.
ii.
5.
d. In electromagnetic induction, charges may be moved when the magnetic fields are
changed.
i.
ii.
This potential difference can move charges in wire segments as well as circuits.
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iii.
The amount of magnetic field passing through an area is the magnetic flux
(
iv.
).
v.
vi.
The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux through an area defined by a loop of wire.
1.
vii.
If the flux passes through multiple loops of wire, multiply the flux by the
number of loops.
1.
viii.
The direction of the current induced in the loop of wire always opposes the
change in magnetic flux.
1.
ix.
By turning a coil of wire in a magnetic field, you can generate an induced emf.
1.
a.
b. Assume the loop of wire is placed in a constant magnetic field,
and the velocity is constant.
c.
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component oriented perpendicular to each other, and do not require a medium in which to
travel.
a.
, or
b.
c.
Waves in which the electric and magnetic fields vibrate in more than one plane are
unpolarized.
i.
ii.
2.
Two polarizing filters at right angles to each other are opaque, blocking
100% of the light.
3.
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4.
2.
When more than one wave travels through the same location in the same medium at the same
time, the total displacement of the medium is given by the principle of superposition.
a.
The total displacement is the sum of all the individual displacements of the waves.
b. The combined effect of the interaction of multiple waves is called wave interference.
i.
When two or more pulses with displacements in the same direction interact, it
is known as constructive interference.
1.
ii.
iii.
After interfering, the waves continue along their original path as if they had
never met.
iv.
3.
When waves of the same frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions meet, a
standing wave is produced.
a.
Certain nodes appear to be standing still and other antinodes vibrate with maximum
amplitude above and below the axis.
b.
c.
4.
The shift in a moving waves observed frequency due to relative motion between the source of
the wave and the observer is known as the Doppler Effect.
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a.
When a source and observer are moving towards each other, the observer perceives a
higher frequency.
b. When a source and observer are moving away from each other, the observer perceives
a lower frequency.
c.
d. Observed frequencies in space shifted towards the red end of the electromagnetic
spectrum is known as the Red Shift, and indicates that celestial objects are moving
away from the Earth.
5.
Geometric Optics is the study of image formation with light. It involves the properties of
images formed with mirrors and lenses.
a.
Reflection occurs when a wave reaches a boundary between two media, some or all of
the wave bounces back into the first medium.
i.
ii.
iii.
The angle made by the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of
incidence.
The angle made by the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of
reflection. They are equal.
The relationship between the reflected ray, incident ray, and the normal is
called the law of reflection, also known as the Second Law of Specular
Reflection.
1.
2.
).
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iv.
Diffuse reflection is the type of reflection that occurs when rough surfaces,
such as a piece of paper, reflect light in a variety of directions.
v.
Specular reflection occurs when smooth surfaces reflect light waves in a more
regular fashion so that the reflected waves maintain their parallelism.
vi.
surface of a mirror(or lens). The image is not actually located at its apparent
position and cannot be formed on a screen.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The distance from the object to the mirror is known as the object
distance (
).
distance (
).
The distance from the image to the mirror is known as the image
For virtual images, the distance is negative.
vii.
Mirrors can either be plane or spherical, depending on the shape of its surface.
1.
2.
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ii.
iii.
iv.
3.
ii.
iii.
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iv.
3.
b. When one part of each wave is made to travel at a different speed than another part,
refraction occurs.
i.
2.
3.
4.
ii.
5.
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a.
ii.
The amount a light wave bends as it enters a new medium is given by Snells
Law.
1.
a.
and
b.
and
refracted rays.
2.
iii.
When the angle of refraction reaches 90o , the refracted ray would
travel on the boundary between the surfaces.
2.
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a.
which is when the beam does not emerge into the air above
the surface.
b. At the critical angle (
c.
c.
Thin lenses come in convex and concave, but light converges in convex lenses while it
diverges in concave lenses.
i.
Convention states that image distances beyond the lens are considered
positive distance, and images on the same side of the lens as the object are
considered negative distance.
ii.
A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the far focal
point of the lens.
2.
A ray drawn from the object through the center of the lens passes
through the center of the lens unbent.
a.
3.
iii.
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1.
A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis is refracted away
from the principal axis on a line from the near focal point through the
point where the ray intercepts the center of the lens.
2.
Any ray that passes from the object through a focal point is refracted
parallel to the principal axis.
3.
iv.
Formulae.
1.
This equation relates the distance from the center of the mirror
(lens) to the object (
the mirror (lens). :
2.
the mirror. The focal point is real for a concave mirror but virtual for
convex mirror.
3.
).:
The smaller the obstacle and longer the wavelength, the greater the diffraction.
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ii.
iii.
Huygens Principle states that every point on a wave front acts as a source of
spherical waves, which propagate at the speed of the wave itself.
1.
The sum of all the spherical wavefronts from all the individual points
determines the new wave front.
a.
2.
As light waves pass through the slit, parallel rays pass directly
through the center and create a central bright spot on the
screen.
c.
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3.
You can relate the slit width ( ), the angle at which destructive
4.
a.
b. The two light waves travel different distances to the screen on
which they are projected, so effects of both constructive and
destructive interference are observed.
c.
d.
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i.
Since
is equal to
approximately equal to
Diffraction of X-rays has been extremely useful for exploring the composition
of atomic-scale materials.
1.
2.
Some of the beam will be reflected at the first plane of atoms, and
some of the beam will be reflected at the next plane.
3.
4.
v.
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2.
3.
Modern Physics
1.
Electromagnetic waves can also exhibit some characteristics and properties of particles in
addition to waves.
a.
Blackbody radiation.
1.
2.
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a.
Photoelectric effect.
1.
).
The value of
given as
2.
3.
Einstein proposed that the electrons in the metal object were held in
an energy well, and they needed to absorb enough energy to free
themselves from the well.
a.
ii.
, of the metal.
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iii.
iv.
v.
ii.
iii.
1.
2.
3.
iii.
Compton effect.
).
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1.
The original X-ray was also scattered and emitted with a longer
wavelength, which means energy was lost.
b.
c.
iv.
de Broglie wavelength.
1.
ii.
foil and discovered that a significant number of the particles were deflected by large
amounts.
i.
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2.
3.
ii.
Niels Bohr further refined Rutherfords model of the atom by researching and
developing a model of the hydrogen atom.
1.
2.
3.
iii.
To visualize the allowed energy levels in an atom, one could use an energy
level diagram.
1.
a.
The
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c.
iv.
Electrons can only absorb photons with energy equal to the difference
in energy levels as the electron jumps from a lower to a higher energy
state.
2.
c.
2.
Electrons exist in specific states, and photons are emitted and absorbed in conjunction
with electrons moving between states.
i.
Electrons exist in electron clouds, which can be thought of like a wave spread
out in three-dimensional space.
1.
2.
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) is usually written as
or
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can exist in
the exact same state.
4.
a.
b.
5.
b.
If
position.
ii.
c.
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i.
3.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The atomic number determines the element, but the element can have varying
mass numbers.
1.
2.
b. Einstein proposed that an objects mass is a measure of how much energy that object
contains.
i.
ii.
The law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of energy can be
combined into the law of conservation of mass-energy.
iii.
2.
3.
4.
iv.
.
One universal mass unit converted to energy is equivalent to 931 MeV.
You must add energy to the system to break apart the nucleus.
2.
v.
If measured carefully, the mass of a stable nucleus is actually slightly less than
the mass of its individual component nucleons.
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1.
2.
).
The binding energy must be equal to the mass defect due to the law of
conservation of mass-energy.
a.
c.
Fission is the process in which a nucleus splits into two or more nuclei.
i.
For heavier nuclei such as Uranium-235, the mass of the original nucleus is
greater than the sum of the mass of the fission products.
1.
ii.
2.
iii.
This also sends out three more neutrons to continue a chain reaction.
d. Fusion is the process of combining two or more smaller nuclei into a larger nucleus.
i.
The product of the reaction may have a smaller mass than its precursors,
releasing energy.
ii.
iii.
You can create hydrogen from water, which can then be used in fusion.
2.
4.
Nuclear decay.
a.
The law of conservation of nucleon number states that the total number of
particles in the nucleus, known as nucleons, must remain constant in any
radioactive decay process.
element to a new element that has an atomic number two units less than the initial.
i.
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ii.
c.
In a beta decay process ( ), a neutron decays into a proton, which stays in the
nucleus, and an electron, which is emitted.
i.
ii.
decay.
Decay:
decay.
2.
Decay:
iii.
d. In a gamma decay process ( ), a high-energy gamma photon is emitted.
i.
The number of nucleons remains constant, but the nucleons are rearranged to
a lower energy state.
1.
ii.
iii.
e.
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i.
ii.
The half-life of a material describes how long it takes for half of the nuclei to
decay.
1.
5.
The maximum possible speed for any reaction is the speed of light in a vacuum ( ).
i.
The speed of light in the vacuum is the same for all observers, whether moving
or at rest.
c.
d. As objects move faster and faster, it takes more energy to accelerate them.
i.
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