From Ideas To Implementation Notes - Online

From Ideas to Implementation
1.0 Describe cathode rays and cathode ray tubes
A cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube (evacuated tube) with electrodes at each end, across
which a high potential difference is applied (connected to a spark gap transformer) causing
electrons to be ejected from the cathode
This cannot occur in normal air due to the presence of air molecules which absorb the energy
from cathode rays, preventing them from reaching the other side of the tube, hence a
vacuum tube is used
Light is emitted when cathode rays (electrons) collide with particles within a cathode ray
tube, causing the particle to absorb and re-emit the energy in the form of light
The colour of the light is dependent on the chemical position of the gas present within the
cathode ray tube, and the gas pressure
1.1 Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays

caused debate as to whether they were charged particles or
electromagnetic waves
Cathode rays display properties that could classify it as either a wave or a particle
Properties of Cathode Rays
Wave Properties
Particle Properties
Travel in straight lines
Left the surface of the cathode at 90, not
Produce shadows when obstructed by
Were deflected by magnetic fields
objects
Could turn a small paddlewheel in the path
Can pass through thin metal foils without
of the rays
damaging them
Travelled significantly slower than light
Cathode rays caused great debate as scientists wanted to classify cathode rays as either a
wave or particle, but this was made difficult by the contradicting properties of cathode rays
Hertz claimed that cathode rays were waves, whilst Crookes maintained that they were
particles
The debate was resolved when Thomson used an electric field to deflect cathode rays, an
effect made possible by developments into stronger vacuum pumps and electric fields
This evidence supported the claim that cathode rays were particles as it was known to
scientists that electromagnetic radiation could not be deflected by electric fields, therefore
classifying cathode rays as particle streams
1.2 Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream
of charged particles
Cathode ray tubes allow for the manipulation of a steam of charged particle in several ways
o Cathode ray tubes are a steady source of charged particles, facilitating their manipulation
through production
o Cathode rays can be manipulated remotely through magnetic and electric fields, as well
as directly through thin metals, thick metals (e.g. maltese cross) and paddlewheels
Physics Notes
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Maksim Stojkovic 2016
1.3 Identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience

a force
The motor effect describes the force on a current carrying wire within a magnetic field, which
is equivalent to a stream of charged particles
When charged particles travel through a magnetic field, a force is experienced with
magnitude and direction affected by the velocity and direction of the particle relative to the
field
o A particle travelling with or along field lines experiences no force
o A particle travelling perpendicular to field lines experiences maximum force
The force on a charged particle is perpendicular to both the direction of motion, and the
magnetic field lines, producing a centripetal force
1.4 Identify that charged plates produce an electric field
Plates with a potential difference between them are known as charged plates and produce
a uniform electric field that is equal in strength at any point between the plates
Field lines run from the positive plate to the negative plate and are parallel to each other
The electric field produced does not exist outside the space between the plates
1.5 Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through

a magnetic field: =
sin
The force experienced by a charged particle moving through a magnetic field is can be
calculated using the equation:
=
sin
This equation shows that the force experienced by a charged particle is dependent on:
o The velocity of the particle
o The charge of the particle
o The strength of the magnetic field
o The angle between the direction of motion and field lines
Therefore, force is directly proportional to all of these factors
1.6 Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge,
positive and negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates
For a point charge, electric field strength is dependent on the magnitude of the point charge
The magnetic field of a point charge extends out in all directions and therefore obeys the
inverse square law, rapidly diminishing in strength with distance
The field lines of a positive charge extend outwards whilst the field lines of a negative charge
fall inwards
For oppositely charged parallel plates, a uniform electric field is produced that constant in
strength and direction for any point between the plates
Unlike a point charge, the direction and strength of the electric field produced by parallel
plates is the same at all positions between the plates, though the electric field only exists
between the plates, in comparison to point charges the electric field exists in all directions
The spacing of field lines between the plates indicates the strength of the electric field
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1.7 Describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged

parallel plates
The strength of an electric field can be calculated using the following equation:
Electric field strength is dependent on two factors, the potential difference between the
charged plates, and the distance between them
For charged plates, the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of the plates, and is
uniform in strength for all points between the spaces
1.8 Outline Thomsons experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of

an electron
Thomsons
experiment
to
measure the charge-mass ratio
of an electron involved using a
modified cathode ray tube with a
thermionic cathode (cathode
heated by an external circuit,
increasing number of electrons
released) and a slit anode with
two collimators that form the
electrons into a thin beam and
accelerate them into the main
tube
The thin beam of electrons then passes between a pair of charged plates mounted within
the tube above and below the beam, and a Helmholtz coil mounted on the sides of the tube,
before reaching a fluorescent screen which is used to measure deflection
The electric field is first turned on, causing the beam to deflect towards the positively charged
plate (electrons are negatively charged)
The magnetic field is then turned on by supplying current to the Helmholtz coil, adjusting the
strength of the magnetic field such that it cancels out the deflection caused by the electric
field, allowing the beam to travel to the end of the tube without deflection
This also had the effect of filtering electron velocities such that only electrons with a particular
speed would be able to travel through the tube uninterrupted
By equating the strength of the two fields, the velocity of electrons could be calculated in
terms of the strength of the electric and magnetic fields, given by:
=
By calculating the radius of the circle path travelled by cathode rays when only the magnetic
field is on, and equating the magnetic force to centripetal force, substituting the equation
above, it is possible to determine the charge-mass ratio of an electron, given by:
=
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1.9 Outline the role of: electrodes in the electron gun, the deflection
plates or coils, the fluorescent screen; in the cathode ray tube of
conventional TV displays and oscilloscopes
Cathode ray tubes in a display have three main components:

o Electron gun: Emits a stream of electron using a thermionic cathode, and accelerates it
by using a large potential difference between the anode and cathode, with the anode
having a hole in it so that electrons can leave the gun and pass through deflection plates
o Deflection plates: Deflection plates allow electrons to sweep across the fluorescent
screen rapidly, guiding them to particular places on the screen so that an image can be
produced (deflection coils are used in CRT TVs because they allow for greater angles of
deflection, which are needed for larger screens)
o Fluorescent screen: A screen coated in phosphors that fluoresce when struck by
electrons, making the electron beam visible and producing an image on a TV or
oscilloscope display.
1.10 Perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to

observe the occurrence of different striation patterns for different
pressures in discharge tubes
Striation patterns refer to light and dark regions within a discharge tube
The emission of light within a discharge tube is dependent on the energy of the electrons,
gas pressure, and the type of gas present
This experiment manipulates gas pressure to change the striation patterns produced, where
each gas pressure is measured as a percentage of standard atmospheric pressure
At 5%, glowing purple streamers extended from the cathode to the anode
At 2%, a series of pink alternating light and dark bands ran to the length of the tube, with a
gap immediately next to the cathode
At 0.5%, there were fewer pink striations and the gaps between light bands widened, with a
blue glow around the cathode
At 0.01%, there were no striations, with the glass around the anode glowing a yellow-green
colour
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1.11 Perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify properties of

cathode rays using discharge tubes: containing a maltese cross,
containing electric plates, with a fluorescent display screen, containing a
glass wheel, analyse the information gathered to determine the sign of
the charge on cathode rays
Maltese cross:
o Anode was mounted to the base of a tube, with a Maltese cross situated at the end of
the tube
o When cathode rays were ejected from the cathode, they travelled in straight lines,
obstructed by the Maltese cross, producing a cross-shaped shadow with sharp edges,
indicating that no diffraction occurred, indicating particle properties
o Also indicates that cathode rays can be produced independent of the location of the
anode
Electric plates:
o When a beam cathode rays passed between electric plates, it was deflected towards the
positive plate, indicating a positive charge
o The beam could also be deflected by the magnetic field of a bar magnet
Fluorescent screen:
o A fluorescent screen is placed in the path of a cathode ray beam, causing it to fluoresce
upon collision with electrons
o This suggested that cathode rays carry enough energy to produce the reaction
necessary for light to be produced, a property used in applications such as cathode ray
oscilloscopes
Glass wheel:
o A glass paddlewheel is mounted inside a tube with runners, such that is able to roll freely
o When a beam of cathode rays is fired at the paddle wheel, the wheel rotates upon
collision, rolling along the tube away from the cathode
o This implied that the cathode rays had momentum, and therefore mass, supporting the
theory that cathode rays were particles
2.0 Describe the photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that occurs when packets of electromagnetic

radiation known as photons, produced from light, are directed towards the surface of a metal
Photons are absorbed by the electrons within the metal, before being ejected from the
metals surface
The velocity (kinetic energy) of the electrons is dependent on the frequency of the radiation,
and the quantity of electrons ejected is dependent on the intensity of the light
The frequency of light at which the photoelectric first occurs for a given metal is known as
the threshold frequency
Below the threshold frequency, no electrons are emitted from the metal
The energy of a photon with a frequency equal to the threshold frequency is known as the
work function (i.e. E from the equation E=hfthreshold=hf0)
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2.1 Describe Hertzs observation of the effect of a radio wave on a

receiver and the photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate
In 1887, Hertz discovered that radio waves could induce current in a receiver
This experiment involved a spark gap transmitter and received
A spark was generated by a high AC voltage across the electrodes of one spark gap,
inducing a similar spark that jump across the other spark gap which wasnt connected to a
voltage
It was also observed that the sensitivity of his spark gap device could be increase by
illuminating it with ultraviolet light
2.2 Outline qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the speed of

radio waves and how they relate to light waves
Hertz concluded that the radiation produced in his experiments was part of the
electromagnetic spectrum by comparing its properties to light
The results of his experiments show the following:
o The radiation could be reflected by metal plates
o The radiation could be refracted by asphalt blocks
o The radiation could be diffracted around obstructions
o The radiation was polarised
o The radiation travelled at the speed of light
Hertz used the standing wave of the radiation to calculate wavelength, and knowing the
frequency of his wave generator, he calculated that the radio waves travelled at the speed
of light, as predicted by Maxwell
2.3 Identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by

the walls of a black body cavity is quantised
Classical theory predicted that radiation emitted by a black body (a body that can absorb
and/or emit light energy perfectly) would continuously increase in intensity as wavelength
decreased, producing a spectrum of intensities that resembles an exponential curve
Experimental data indicated that the energy radiated reaches a maximum intensity at a
wavelength dependent on the temperature of the black body, before dropping significantly
for small wavelengths
Planck proposed a hypothesis that would resolve this issue, known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe by stating that radiation from a black body is emitted as small packets of energy
known as quanta
Plancks hypothesis explained that the energy contained by a single quantum is dependent
on the frequency of the radiation only, given by the equation:
=
Planck proposed that the vibrational states of atoms in a black body are also quantised into
discrete value and cannot exist as any value between, emitting energy only when an atoms
vibrational state decreases, therefore suggesting that the energy released is quantised
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2.4 Identify Einsteins contribution to quantum theory and its relation to

black body radiation
Einstein extended Plancks concept of quanta to all forms of light, instead of only black body
radiation, proposing packets of energy known as photons
Einstein also developed an explanation for the photoelectric effect in terms of work function
and threshold frequency, stating that it only occurs when electromagnetic radiation is
directed onto a metal surface, causing electrons to be ejected from the surface of the metal
Einstein also played a significant role in introducing quantum theory to the scientific
community, facilitating further investigation
2.5 Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular
energy and frequency
The particle model of light identifies light as small particles with a rest mass of zero
The energy of a photon can be increased by increasing the frequency of the light
Amplitude can be increased by increasing the number of photons emitted
Photon energies can only occur in multiples of Plancks constant
Using the equations = and = , the relationship between variables can be deduced
Since the speed of light c is constant, the frequency of a photon is inversely proportional to
it wavelength
Since Plancks constant h does not change, the energy of a photon is directly proportional
to frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength
2.6 Identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed

of light and wavelength: = and =
2.8 Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information and
use available evidence to assess Einsteins contribution to quantum
theory and its relation to black body radiation
Einstein made a significant contribution to quantum theory by interpreting Plancks theories

on black body radiation to establish principles and models for quantum theory
By using quantum theory to identify radiation as photons, as well as address the issue of the
photoelectric effect by providing a concrete model that explains experimental observations,
Einstein validated quantum theory, facilitating further research based on quantum ideas
Einstein therefore had a significant positive contribution to quantum theory and its relation
to black body radiation by applying quantum ideas to solve a real world problem
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2.9 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to

summarise the use of the photoelectric effect in photocells
A photocell (also known as a phototube) is a small lowpressure glass bulb in which a small anode and large
photoelectric material-coated cathode are embedded
Due to the gap present between the anode and cathode,
there is too much resistance for an applied voltage to flow
across the circuit
However, when light shines on the photo-sensitive
cathode, electrons are ejected as a result of the
photoelectric effect, allowing current to flow through the
attached circuit by reducing the reducing overall
resistance in the photocell
2.11 Process information to discuss Einsteins and Plancks differing views

about whether science research is removed from social and political
forces
Initially Einstein and Planck held differing views about the relationship between science and
politics, but soon came to the realisation that the two are very closely linked
Einstein refused to use science to assist governments fight in WWII, believing that science
should be removed from social and political forces
However, he eventually realised that the science and politics share an inherent link,
contributing to the Manhattan project that played a major role in ending the war
Planck initially though that science played a role in politics, but turned against the Nazi
regime, criticising it with the belief that science should be independent from politics
Although he attempted to separate science from politics, research for military purposes
continued under other scientists due to the underlying link between science and politics that
Planck remained aware of
Einstein and Planck are both representative of the debate that continues in current society
about the role of government agendas on the direction of scientific research, though they
came to the conclusion that regardless of circumstances, science and politics can never be
separated
3.1 Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and
move freely
In solids, electron shells are replaced by electron band structures as electrons from
neighbouring atoms are no longer bound to any one atom
This is because in metals, electrons no longer exist in discrete energy levels as there are
many atoms influencing electrons, hence they occupy a continuous range of energies
This concept is explained by the sea of electrons model where the structure of a metal
consists of a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a cloud of delocalised valence
electrons
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The two bands associated with electron band structures are the valence band and the
conduction band
The valence band refers to the outermost shell of an atom where electrons are associate
with a particular atom
The conduction band refers to an energy level where electrons are free to move between
other atoms in a solid metal structure
Electrons in the valence band are immobile, whilst electrons in the conduction band are
shared
3.2 Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and

semiconductors in terms of band structures and relative electrical
resistance
The relative positions of the conduction and valence bands is important when determining
the conduction properties of a material as electrons can only conduct electricity in the
conduction band
In conductors, the conduction and valence bands overlap, allowing electrons in the valence
band to move into the conduction band without gaining additional energy, allowing electrons
to move between atoms freely
In insulators, there is a very large energy gap between the conduction and valence bands,
known as the forbidden energy gap, preventing the flow of electrons as a large amount of
energy is required for electrons to move from the valence band into the conduction band
In intrinsic semiconductors (pure semiconductor crystals with only one element), the band
gap is smaller compared to insulators, but larger compared to conductors, making them
insulators initially, but conductors once they are heated (more energy input)
In extrinsic semiconductors (semiconductor crystals with deliberate impurities consisting of
small quantities of group 3 or 5 elements), a semiconductor is doped to reduce the energy
required for an electron to cross the forbidden energy gap, improving conductivity
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Although a rise in temperature increases the number of undesirable collisions between

electrons and the lattice of the semiconductor, the increased number of electrons in the
valence band is able to
overcome the increase
in resistance
3.3 Identify absences

of electrons in a
nearly full band as
holes, and recognise that both electrons and holes help to carry current
In the crystal lattice of an intrinsic semiconductor, all of the outer shells are theoretically
filled, resulting in no electrons being available to conduct electricity
When group 3 (only have 3 valence electrons) impurities are introduced to a semiconductor,
a hole is created in the crystal lattice where an electron is normally located
These holes create a positive region of space that is able to move charges due to its own
charge
Holes help to carry current as electrons move to fill the hole, creating a new hole, essentially
behaving as a positive point charge (in reality its a region of empty space that is positive
relative to the lattice)
When a current is applied to a semiconductor, electrons in the lattice receive enough energy
to move in to the conduction band and also assist with carrying current through the lattice
3.4 Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can
drift from atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators
Under normal conditions, conductors have many free electrons that can drift between atoms
In semiconductors and insulators, there are very few, if any, electrons that are free and able
to drift between atoms
However, if energy is applied to a semiconductor in the form of heat or a strong or electrical
field, the number of free electrons increases significantly, allowing it to conduct
Note: Semiconductors are not able to conduct to the same extent as a normal conductor.
3.5 Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to

lack of ability to produce other materials of suitable purity
Early transistors used germanium as a semiconductor as purity played an important role in

ensuring that semiconductors have predictable properties
Although silicon was a superior material, being more abundant and thermally resistant,
therefore being cheaper to produce and easier to dope, it could not be used as the
purification techniques used for germanium could not be applied to silicon
Therefore, although silicon was considered a superior material for use as a semiconductor,
the inability to produce silicon crystals with a high enough purity to produce reliable chips
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meant that germanium had to be used in early transistors until silicon with a suitable purity
could be produced
3.6 Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical

properties
Doping a semiconductor involves adding group 3 or 5 elements to a semiconductor as an

impurity at approximately 1 atom per million semiconductor atoms (ensures that
semiconductor properties are predictable)
Doping reduces the energy input required for a semiconductor to become conductive
Group 3 elements only have 3 valence electron, producing a hole in the lattice structure that
is capable of moving charge
Group 5 elements have 5 valence electrons, giving the lattice structure an extra free electron
that is free to move between atoms and carry charge
3.7 Identify differences in p-type and n-type semiconductors in terms of

the relative number of negative charge carriers and positive holes
P-type semiconductors have been doped with a group 3 element (boron)

N-type semiconductors have been doped with a group 5 element (phosphorus)
Although both materials are able to carry charge, the p-type semiconductor positive holes
that move charge while n-type semiconductors have extra electrons to move charge
Holes and electrons flow in opposite directions within the crystal lattice to conduct electricity
3.8 Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and
discuss why solid state devices replaced thermionic devices
A solid state device is an electronic device made from semiconductors

Although thermionic devices and solid state transistors have the same function of amplifying
signals or acting as an electrical switch, solid state devices almost completely replaced
thermionic devices due to their superior properties in terms of practicality and operation
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Feature
Thermionic Device
Solid State Device
Cost
Expensive
Cheap
Dimensions
Large and heavy
Small and lightweight
Durability
Fragile and easily broken
Durable and reliable
Lifespan
Short lifespan
Long lifespan
Warmup time
Long warmup time
No warmup time
Energy efficiency Large power requirements
Very low power
Solid state devices also replaced valves for the purposes of audio amplification
Common examples of solid state devices include diodes and transistors
Diodes are an electrical device that only allow for the flow of current when the diode is
forward biased (current flows from the p-type to n-type semiconductor material
Diodes do not allow current to flow when current is reverse biased, making diode useful as
rectifiers, converting AC to DC
Solid State Device
Thermionic Device
Transistors are made by sandwiching a thin layer of an

n-type or p-type semiconductor material in between two
layers of the opposite type of semiconductor material
(NPN transistors are most common)
A transistor consists of a collector, base and emitter
For an NPN, applying a small current (forward bias) to
the base allows current to flow through the transistor,
making them effective switches without any moving
parts
3.9 Perform an investigation to model the behaviour of semiconductors,

including the creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has
lost the electron and the movement of electrons and holes in opposite
directions when an electric field is applied across the semiconductor
A semiconductor can be modelled in a petri dish using marbles to represent electrons

Removing a marble represents the creation of a hole
Disturbing the dish by moving it around simulates the application of an electric field, with the
position of the hole moving around the dish as marbles move to fill the hole
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The hole and the and marbles move in opposite directions, creating a new hole as a marble
moves to fill the old gap
Modelling a semiconductor using marbles as atoms and small ball bearings as free electrons
moving around a petri dish as it is disturbed demonstrates how free and random movement
of electrons as they drift between atoms
3.10 Gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how

shortcomings in available communication technology lead to an increased
knowledge of the properties of materials with particular reference to the
invention of the transistor
The main problem associated with the early stages of radio communication was amplification
as received signals were extremely weak and could not produce loud sounds without
amplification
Researches therefore worked to address the shortcomings of available communication
technologies, such as valves for amplification which had a high failure rate, high power
consumption, high weight and long warmup time
Upon first determining the basic properties of properties of semiconductors, significant
research was performed on the ways in which semiconductors could be used for
amplification in the form of transistors
Thus, the shortcomings of early communication technology led to the rapid development of
the transistor after basic properties of semiconductors had been determined, driven by the
need to replace valves as well as the high demand for communications technology
3.11 Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use
available evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on
society with particular reference to their use in microchips and
microprocessors
Transistors dramatically changed society through their use in microprocessors and

microchips
Transistors have allowed for the development of small, efficient computers that are widely
used by society, as well as for scientific research
Transistors have also facilitated automation for repetitive task, increasing quality of life
However, transistors have also increased the level of unemployment as manual labour is no
longer required for repetitive tasks
Overall, the invention of transistors has been extremely beneficial to society by improving
communication technologies as well as enabling the internet which allows for easy access
to information
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3.12 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to

summarise the effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells
A solar cell consists of a junction between a P-type and N-type semiconductor, which
produces a current when exposed to light
Electrons are ejected from the PN-junction due to the photoelectric effect when exposed to
photons from light with sufficient energy to move the electron from the valence band into the
conduction band
This also results in a hole being left behind, behaving as a positive point charge
Note that a photon must have sufficient energy to move an electron from the valence band
into the conduction band, being absorbed instantly or not being absorbed at all (E=hf)
Due to the electric field produced by the depletion zone at the PN-junction of a solar cell,
holes move to the P-type material whilst electrons move to the N-type material
The electrons and holes then travel through an external circuit, before reaching the P-type
layer, producing a potential difference that can be used to do work
4.1 Outline the methods used by Braggs to determine crystal structure
Diffraction is a property of waves which causes them to bend around obstructions, producing
an interference pattern as bent waves act as a point source, interfering with the original wave
Diffraction gratings have small obstructions that are separated by a distance similar to the
wavelength of a wave, producing an interference pattern that is directly linked to the spacing
between diffraction gratings
The Braggs realised that the layers of a crystal lattice are similar to the wavelength of x-rays,
functioning as a diffraction grating
This experiment involved using an x-ray tube to produce x-rays that would then pass through
a hole in a shielding, acting as a collimator, forming a thin, focused beam of x-rays
The x-rays were then reflected through a range of crystal targets which acts as a deflection
grating, producing an interference pattern that can be observed using a photographic film
detector
The interference pattern obtained could then be used to calculate the lattice separation
distance within a crystal structure
4.2 Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure
Metals have a crystal lattice structure in their solid state, existing as a three-dimensional grid
of atoms arranged into layers
The lattice of a metal forms a repeating structure where a well-define equilibrium distance
exists between each atom, with electrons flowing between lattice layers and conducting
electricity
4.3 Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons

unimpeded by the lattice
Free electrons exist in the space between metal ions in the lattice of a metal, and since they
are able to flow in a virtually empty space, they are able to travel unimpeded by the lattice
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However, collisions between electrons and the lattice, as well as between electrons, still
occur
When an electric field or potential difference is applied to a metal, electrons flow between
the layers of the lattice, conducting electricity
4.4 Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of

impurities and scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations
Metals with a low resistance allow electrons to flow with minimal impedance from the lattice
structure of the material
Metals with a high resistance obstruct the flow of electrons, caused by impurities that distort
the lattice structure of a metal and vibrations in the lattice (often caused by heating),
increasing the number of collisions and making it harder for electrons to flow
4.5 Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical

temperature of a population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical
resistance
Phonons are a particular type of quantum particle, representing quantised vibrational states
within a crystal structure
Superconductors are materials that exhibit no resistance as a result of a materials low
temperature, eliminating lattice vibrations
As an electron travels through a lattice, it attracts lattice ions to create a lattice distortion that
acts as a positive space, attracting another electron
These electrons then exchange phonons and bind to form a Cooper pair, behaving as a
single particle
Since the electrons are interacting with each other, they interact less with the lattice, traveling
through the lattice with little resistance
Below a materials critical temperature, Cooper pairs form that are unaffected by electrical
resistance
At higher temperatures, electrons are not capable of forming Cooper pairs
Essentially Cooper pairs are electrons that are weakly attracted to each other, which interact
with phonons which arise from vibrations in the crystal lattice
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4.6 Discuss the BCS theory
The BCS (John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer) theory of superconductivity is
the idea that lattice distortions at low temperatures lead to the formation of Cooper pairs
This theory is successful at explaining the superconductivity of Type 1 superconductors
(materials that have a critical temperature below 30K), providing a clear model of
superconductivity that greatly assisted scientific understanding
However, the BCS theory does not explain the superconductivity of Type 2 superconductors,
which are ceramics that act as superconductors at higher temperatures, as the model
predicts that 30K is the maximum temperature at which Cooper pairs form
Therefore, although the BCS theory is extremely important to understanding Type 1
superconductors, it does little to explain Type 2 superconductors, being considered an
incomplete theory
4.7 Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify

limitations to their use
The main advantages of using superconductors are:

o Operation with extremely high efficiency and negligible losses, such as through heat
o Capable of generating strong magnetic fields per unit length of weight
o Useful in MRI scanners, as well as efficient motors, generators and batteries
The main limitations of superconductors are:
o The difficulty associated with cooling a superconductive material below its critical
temperature, requiring a constant supply of liquid nitrogen
o The difficulty of shaping ceramic superconductors into wires as they are not ductile
Overall, superconductors improve efficiency and reduce size and weight, but are difficult to
manufacture and require constant cooling
4.8 Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and
compounds that have been identified as exhibiting the property of
superconductivity and their critical temperatures
Below is a list of materials known to exhibit superconductor properties, and their respective
critical temperatures
Material
Zinc
Aluminium
Tin
Mercury
Lead
Tin-niobium (Alloy)
YBCO (Ceramic)
Critical Temperature (K)

0.85
1.2
3.7
4.2
7.2
18
92
4.9 Perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation
A small ceramic superconducting disk (YBCO) is placed in a Petri dish and a small magnetic
cube is placed on top of it
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Liquid nitrogen is then poured onto the superconducting disk to cool it below its critical
temperature, making it superconductive
When the disk becomes superconductive, the magnet floated upwards, displaying the
Meissner effect which is a phenomenon whereby magnetic fields are excluded from
superconductors, rather than the formation of eddy currents that would lift the magnet
upwards
Turning the magnet with plastic tongs caused it rotate while floating
As the disk heated up, it lost its superconductive properties, and the magnet stopped
levitating
4.10 Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above

a superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it
is superconducting
Magnets can hover over superconductors due to the following properties

o Superconductors exclude magnetic fields, forcing the magnet to be repelled from the
superconductor, causing it to rise up (known as the Meissner effect)
o Quantum pinning prevents magnets from moving horizontally off a superconductor
The Meissner effect is demonstrated to be different to eddy currents as it is not caused by a
change in magnetic flux
This demonstration involves a magnet being place on top of a material as it is cooled below
its critical temperature
As soon as the material becomes a superconductor, the magnet will rise up immediately,
indicating that the Meissner effect is not an induction phenomenon, rather the levitation is
caused by the exclusion of magnetic fields from superconductors
4.11 Gather and process information to describe how superconductors

and the effects of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev
train
Maglev trains use superconductors for operation as they act as extremely light and strong
electromagnets, making them well suited from levitating heavy loads such as trains
Superconductors are used to levitate a maglev train, and propel a maglev train
A superconductor in the shape of a loop exists on both sides of a train, which are charged
with electric current such that current can flow continuously due to the enclosed loop of the
superconductor
Due to constantly flowing current, a strong magnetic field is produced
Superconducting electromagnets on the tracks are located above and below the trains
magnetic loop, causing the train to levitate
Additional superconducting electromagnets on the sides of the track are used to propel the
train
Magnets in front of the train attract the trains electromagnet whilst magnets behind the train
repel the trains electromagnet
By changing the polarity of magnets in the track, the train is attracted and repelled in the
same direction, allowing the maglev to move along the track at high speed
Physics Notes
P a g e | 17
Superconductors are vital to the development of maglev trains as permanent magnets are
much heavier and produce the same magnetic field strength, and conventional
electromagnets would have too much heat losses
4.12 Process information to discuss possible applications of

superconductivity and the effects of those applications on computers,
generators and motors and transmission of electricity through power
grids
Superconductors can be used in a wide variety of applications as they offer increased

efficiency and performance, in comparison to conventional conductors
However, the main obstacles preventing the use of superconductors in all applications are
the need for extremely low temperatures, and the low ductility of type 2 ceramic
superconductors
Low temperatures are inconvenient due to the need for liquid nitrogen for cooling
Type 2 ceramic superconductors are not very ductile, making electrical circuits and computer
processors difficult to produce, as type 2 superconductors are viable since they only require
liquid nitrogen for cooling, whilst type 1 superconductor have a lower critical temperature
Once these obstacles are overcome, superconductors can be used instead of traditional
conductors, providing a variety of benefits
In computers, heat produced during operation can affect how processors operate, altering
the properties of silicon within processors
In semiconductors, there is negligible waste heat, allowing for faster processors
By replacing transistors in a processor with superconducting quantum switches
(superconducting quantum interference device), they can operate even faster
In motors and generators, superconductors can be used to operate at high currents with no
losses or heat production, significantly improving efficiency
According to Ohms Law:
=
Current, at a given voltage, increases as resistance decreases, therefore allowing currents
to produce higher currents than traditional conductors
For the transmission of electricity, significant amounts of energy are lost through heat,
decreasing efficiency
By using superconducting wires instead, energy loss in the power grid can be eliminated,
improving transmission efficiency, and causing social impacts such as reduced cost of
electricity and reduced need for additional generators to meet demands for electricity
Physics Notes
P a g e | 18

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1.0 Describe cathode rays and cathode ray tubes

1.1 Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays

Properties of Cathode Rays

Maksim Stojkovic 2016