Applied Physics

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APPLIED PHYSICS
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MEASUREMENT UNITS & DIMENSIONS
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Wave Motion
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APPLIED PHYSICS
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is the radiant energy released by
certain electromagnetic processes. Visible light is one type of electromagnetic
radiation; other familiar forms are invisible to the human eye, such as radio waves,
infrared light and X-rays.
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Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are

synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed
of light through a vacuum. The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to
each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation,
forming a transverse wave. Electromagnetic waves can be characterized by either
the frequency or wavelength of their oscillations to form the electromagnetic
spectrum, which includes, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing
wavelength: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible
light
,ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
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Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated,

and these waves can subsequently interact with any charged particles. EM waves
carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle
and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact. Quanta of EM
waves are called photons, which are mass less, but they are still affected
by gravity. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are
free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the
moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient
distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field.
In this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that
directly produced them, specifically, electromagnetic induction and electrostatic
induction phenomena.
In the quantum theory of electromagnetism, EMR consists of photons,
the elementary particles responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. Quantum
effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to
lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of an
individual photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This
relationship is given by Planck's equation E = h, where E is the energy per
photon, is the frequency of the photon, and h is Planck's constant. A single
gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single
photon of visible light.
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The effects of EMR upon biological systems (and also to many other chemical
systems, under standard conditions) depend both upon the radiation's power and its
frequency. For EMR of visible frequencies or lower (i.e., radio, microwave,
infrared), the damage done to cells and other materials is determined mainly by
power and caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer
of many photons. By contrast, for ultraviolet and higher frequencies (i.e., X-rays
and gamma rays), chemical materials and living cells can be further damaged
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beyond that done by simple heating, since individual photons of such high frequency have
enough energy to cause direct molecular damage.
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As a waves wavelength increases, the frequency decreases, and as waves

wavelength decreases, the frequency increases. When electromagnetic energy is
released as the energy level increases, the wavelength decreases and frequency
decreases. Thus, electromagnetic radiation is then grouped into categories based on
its wavelength or frequency into the electromagnetic spectrum. The different types
of electromagnetic radiation shown in the electromagnetic spectrum consists of
radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, Xrays, and gamma rays. The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we are able to
see is the visible light spectrum.
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OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES
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Sub-Atomic Particles
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A typical atom consists of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and

electrons (as seen in the helium atom below). Other particles exist as well, such as
alpha and beta particles (which are discussed below). The Bohr model shows the
three basic subatomic particles in a simple manner. Most of an atom's mass is in
the nucleusa small, dense area at the center of every atom, composed of
nucleons. Nucleons include protons and neutrons. All the positive charge of an
atom is contained in the nucleus, and originates from the protons. Neutrons are
neutrally-charged. Electrons, which are negatively-charged, are located outside of
the nucleus.
Introduction
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The Bohr model is outdated, but it depicts the three basic subatomic particles in a
comprehensible way. Electron clouds are more accurate representations of where
electrons are found. Darker areas represent where the electrons are more likely to
be found, and lighter areas represent where they are less likely to be found.
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Protons
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Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1919, when he

performed his gold foil experiment. He projected alpha particles (helium nuclei) at
gold foil, and the positive alpha particles were deflected. He concluded that
protons exist in a nucleus and have a positive nuclear charge. The atomic number
or proton number is the number of protons present in an atom. The atomic number
determines an element (e.g., the element of atomic number 6 is carbon).
Electrons
Electrons were discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in 1897. After many
experiments involving cathode rays, J.J. Thomson demonstrated the ratio of mass
to electric charge of cathode rays. He confirmed that cathode rays are fundamental
particles that are negatively-charged; these cathode rays became known as
electrons. Robert Millikan, through oil drop experiments, found the value of the
electronic charge.
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Electrons are located in an electron cloud, which is the area surrounding the
nucleus of the atom. There is usually a higher probability of finding an electron
closer to to the nucleus of an atom. Electrons can abbreviated as e-. Electrons have
a negative charge that is equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the protons.
However, their mass is considerably less than that of a proton or neutron (and as
such is usually considered insignificant). Unequal amounts of protons and
electrons create ions: positive cations or negative anions.
Neutrons
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Identification
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Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, when he demonstrated that

penetrating radiation incorporated beams of neutral particles. Neutrons are located
in the nucleus with the protons. Along with protons, they make up almost all of the
mass of the atom. The number of neutrons is called the neutron number and can be
found by subtracting the proton number from the atomic mass number. The
neutrons in an element determine the isotope of an atom, and often its stability.
The number of neutrons is not necessarily equal to the number of protons.
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Both of the following are appropriate ways of representing the composition of a

particular atom:
Often the proton number is not indicated because the elemental symbol conveys
the same information.
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PPLIED PHYSICS
Consider a neutral atom of carbon:
The atomic mass number of Carbon is 12
amu, the proton number is 6, and it has no charge. In neutral atoms, the charge is
omitted.
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12
6C.
Above is the atomic symbol for helium from the periodic table, with the
mass indicated.
atomic number, elemental symbol, and mas
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Every element has a specific number of protons, so the proton number is not
always written (as in the second method above).
# Neutrons = Atomic Mass Number - Proton Number
a A.
Atomic mass number is abbreviated as
Proton number(or atomic number) is abbreviated Z.
# Protons = Proton Number or Atomic Number
In neutral atoms, # Electrons = # Protons
In ions, # Electrons = # Protons - (Charge)
Charge is written with the number before the positive or negative sign
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Other Basic Atomic Particles

Many of these particles (explained in detail below) are emitted through radioactive
decay Also note that many forms of radioactive decay emit gamma rays, which are
not particles.
Alpha Particles
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Alpha particles can be denoted by He2+,2+, or just . They are helium nuclei,
which consist of two protons and two neutrons. The net spin on an alpha particle is
zero. They result from large, unstable atoms through a process called alpha decay.
Alpha decay is the process by which an atom emits an alpha particle, thereby
becoming a new element. This only occurs in elements with large, radioactive
nuclei. The smallest noted element that emits alpha particles is element 52,
tellurium. Alpha particles are generally not harmful. They can be easily stopped by
a single sheet of paper or by one's skin. However, they can cause considerable
damage to the insides of one's body. Alpha decay is used as a safe power source for
radioisotope generators used in artificial heart pacemakers and space probes.
Figure: Alpha Decay involves the emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus
Beta Particles
Beta particles () are either free electrons or positrons with high energy and high
speed; they are emitted in a process called beta decay. Positrons have the exact
same mass as an electron, but are positively-charged. There are two forms of beta
decay: the emission of electrons, and the emission of positrons. Beta particles,
which are 100 times more penetrating than alpha particles, can be stopped by
household items like wood or an aluminum plate or sheet. Beta particles have the
ability to penetrate living matter and can sometimes alter the structure of molecules
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they strike. The alteration usually is considered damage, and can cause cancer and
death. In contrast to beta particle's harmful effects, they can also be used in
radiation to treat cancer.
Beta - ( - ) or Electron Emission

Electron emission may result when excess neutrons make the nucleus of an atom
unstable. As a result, one of the neutrons decays into a proton, an electron, and
an anti-neutrino. The proton remains in the nucleus, and the electron and antineutrino are emitted. The electron is called a beta particle. The equation for this
process is given below:
- Decay
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n = Neutron
p+ = Proton
e- = Electron (beta particle)
e = Anti-neutrino
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01n11p++e +e10n11p++e +e
Beta + ( + ) or Positron Emission

Position emission occurs when an excess of protons makes the atom unstable. In
this process, a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino. While
the neutron remains in the nucleus, the positron and the neutrino are emitted. The
positron can be called a beta particle in this instance. The equation for this process
is given below:
11p+01n+e++e11p+10n+e++e
n = Neutron
p+ = Proton
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+ Decay
e = Positron (beta particle)

e = Neutrino
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Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are

Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated,

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

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As a waves wavelength increases, the frequency decreases, and as waves

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PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT