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Lecture 13
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you can see energy move to the right while individual particles vibrate to the left and right about
fixed points.
The places when the particles cluster together are volumes of high pressure so these waves are
also called pressure waves. Sound waves are an example of pressure waves and they can move
through gases, liquids and solids. For sound waves, the denser the medium the faster the speed.
Speed through air (1atm, 200) =344 m.s-1
Speed through sea water = 1531 m.s-1
Speed through iron = 5130 m.s-1
Transverse waves
When waves transfer energy by pulling neighbours sideways to the direction of travel, the waves
are called transverse waves. In the simulation below (also from Dr. Daniel A. Russell) you can
see energy move to the right while individual particles vibrate up and down about fixed points.
Electromagnetic waves (X-rays, light, radio, radar and TV waves) are examples of transverse
waves formed by electric and magnetic fields vibrating together at right angles to the wave's
motion. They don't need any medium so they can move through a vacuum, (good for us or we
wouldn't see the Sun!). They all move at the same speed of 300,000 km.s-1 when they travel
through vacuum. They slow down when they travel through a medium (this is an average speed
between interactions).
Mechanically twisting or pulling a medium sideways is called shearing so waves formed this
way are also called shear waves.
Longitudinal and Transverse waves together
Sometimes longitudinal and transverse waves occur together. Ocean waves are a combination of
longitudinal and transverse waves because the surface of the water can be pulled sideways as
well as pushed longitudinally. In the simulation below (also from Dr. Daniel A. Russell) you can
see energy move to the right while individual particles move clockwise in circles or ellipses.
When ocean waves get to a shelving beach the speed of the waves changes relative to each other
and circles go to ellipses and then the wave breaks.
Seismic waves are formed when there is a sudden movement (or slip) between layers in the
Earth's crust. This may happen anywhere between several km and several 100s km down from
the surface. The wave motions that occur through the crust have Pressure ("P") components and
Shear ("S") components.
The P waves move at 5 - 14 km. s-1
The S waves move at 3 - 8 km. s-1
When they reach the surface an Earthquake occurs, and the timing between the arrivals of the
The S and P waves and their sizes at different places will enable the epicentre to be determined.
(Note: seismic waves can also have "surface" waves. Again see Dr. Daniel A. Russell's excellent
pages for details.)
Example W1
Seismic Shear waves travel at 4000 m.s-1 and they have a period of 0.12s. Find the wavelength of
these waves.
Answer W1
At time t s later:
From Dr. Daniel A. Russell's transverse wave diagram above, while the wave moves at constant
speed in the +x direction (to the right), the vibrating particles which make up the wave, move
with simple harmonic motions in the y direction .
In concentrating on the particles, it is seen that neighbouring particles have slightly different x
values which appear as slightly different initial phases in a Simple Harmonic Motion.
At position x1, the equation y = A sin (kx1 - t + ) is effectively y = A sin (1 - t), i.e. an SHM.
Notice that displacement and particle speed are 90 out of phase (sines and cosines). When the
particle is at its largest displacement, there is zero particle velocity. Maximum transverse particle
velocity occurs as the particle crosses the axis.
Example W2
A sinusoidal wave has a wavelength of 1.4m. Find the phase difference between a point 0.3m
from the peak of a wave and another point 0.7m further along from the same peak.
Answer W2
Example W3
The equation of a transverse sinusoidal wave is given by:
.
Find
(a) the amplitude of the wave,
(b) the wavelength,
(c) the frequency,
(d) the wave speed, and
(e) the displacement at position 0 m and time 0 s.
(f) the maximum transverse particle speed.
Answer W3
Amplitude, A is 2 mm.
The wave energy comes from the simple harmonic motion of its particles. The total energy will
equal the maximum kinetic energy.
The Impedance of the medium (called the Specific Acoustic Impedance in Acoustics) is defined
by the product of density and wave speed.
In symbols: Impedance, z = c with a unit of Pa.s.m-1.
The quantity A is the maximum transverse speed of the particles, so it has m.s-1.
It can be seen that the intensity of a wave increases with its wavespeed c, amplitude A, and
frequency .
Multiplying top and bottom by c:
P0 is called the pressure amplitude, because when the unit for Impedance (Pa.s.m-1) is combined
with A, a transverse speed term (m.s-1), it has the unit of Pressure (Pascal). It is useful when
dealing withpressure waves.
Example W4
A wave of frequency 1000 Hz travels in air of density 1.2 kg.m-3 at 340 m.s-1. If the wave has
intensity 10 W.m-2, find the displacement and pressure amplitudes.
Answer W4
Intensity Level
The intensity of a sound is given by power/area. It is an objective measurement and has the unit
of W.m-2. Loudness is a subjective perception. For a long time it was thought that the ear
responded logarithmically to sound intensity, i.e. that an increase of 100 in intensity (W.m-2)
would be perceived as a loudness increase of 20.
The Intensity Level was defined to represent loudness. It was accordingly based on a logarithmic
scale and has the unit of Bel (after Alexander Graham Bell, not the Babylonian deity).
The deciBel () is commonly used as the smallest difference in loudness that can be detected.
The reference intensity I0 = 10-12 W.m-2 is the (alleged) quietest sound that can be heard. Only
about 10% of people can hear this 0 dB sound and that only in the frequency range of 2kHz to
4kHz. About 50% of people can hear 20dB at 1kHz. (The frequency response will be looked at
later.)
Approximate Intensity Levels
Type of sound
Threshold of hearing
Rustle of leaves
10
20
Average room
40
Conversation
60
Busy street
70
Loud radio
80
90
Riveter
100
Threshold of discomfort
120
threshold of pain
140
160
Example W5
The average intensity level for each of two radios is set to 45dB. They are tuned to different
radio stations. Find the average intensity level when they are both turned on.
Answer W5
Here the Intensity doubles but the Intensity Level goes up by only 0.3 dB.
Example W6
Sound radiates in a hemi-sphere from a rock band. If the sound level is 100 dB at 10 m, then find
the sound level at 4 m.
Answer W6
First find the Intensity from the Intensity Level.
Calculate the new Intensity. The key is that the radiated power is fixed and as it spreads out over
greater areas the Intensity decreases in accordance with the following relationship.
and
The lines give a unit called the phon. 100Hz at 71dB has the same apparent loudness as 60dB at
1kHz and hence it is 60 phons. The important range for speech is 300Hz - 3000Hz. Loud noise
and age cause the high frequency response to decline.
D.W. Robinson and R.S. Dadson, re-did these lines in 1956 in an article titled: 'A redetermination of the equal-loudness relations for pure tones', British Journal of Applied Physics,
7, 1956, 166-181. These data are generally regarded as being more accurate than those of
Fletcher and Munson.
Both sources apply only to pure tones in otherwise silent free-field conditions, with a frontal
plane wave etc.
Pitch
Frequency is measured objectively in Hertz. The subjective sensation of frequency is called the
pitch of the note. The ear is not linear with frequency (Hertz). There is a "S" shaped curve
between frequency and pitch. The ear is reasonably OK in the range 400Hz to 2.4kHz, but
outside this range perception is pitch and frequency differ. For example, 300Hz is perceived as
500Hz, but 10kHz is perceived to be 3kHz. The subjective determination of frequency has a unit
called the mel, and is thought to be due to the variable elastic properties of the basilar membrane
in the ear.
Summarising:
Waves move energy through a medium without moving the whole medium.
In longitudinal waves the vibration is in the same orientation as the wave movement.
In transverse waves the vibration is at right angles to the wave movement.
Amplitude: A, is half the wave height.
Wavelength: , is the distance between successive maxima (or minima).
Frequency: , is the number of maxima (or minima) that pass per second and the reciprocal of the
Period, T.
Wavespeed:
Angular frequency:
Wave Number:
Phase Angle:
Sinusoidal wave:
Intensity:
Pressure Amplitude:
deciBel:
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