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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

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lining in large-diameter pipes will be cracked due to handling or other

problems prior to installation. If these cracks remain small and unbonding does not take place, the lining will continue to perform its intended
functionthe prevention of tuberculation. A phenomenon called autogenous healing takes place in Portland cement exposed to water. This phenomenon in combination with swelling due to water absorption will tend
to close cracks. Therefore, it is more reasonable to define performance
limit as spalling of the lining or general unbending, whichever occurs
first. Ring deflection, per se, ceases to be a performance limit.
During a test in 85 percent Proctor density soil, the performance
limit of the 36-in pipe was reached at a vertical soil pressure of 18,000
lb/ft2 when the bell on the full-length test piece suddenly cracked.
Upon visual examination, the crack was found to be completely
through the bell wall, extending approximately 15 in back from the
face of the bell. On two other tests similar failures occurred. These
were installed in soil of 75 and 67 percent average Proctor density,
respectively. It appears that a bell deflection of 6 percent is the lower
limit for bell failure. This corresponds to a deflection at the midspan of
the barrel of approximately 10 percent. Photomicrographs made from
specimens taken from these bells all indicate the material to be a
pearlite matrix with nodular graphite. Tensile tests made from samples also indicated a pearlitic structure.
Methods of design

The stress theory of design allows a structure to be designed analytically by setting the performance limit of the structure at a stress level less than the yield point strength of a simple tensile specimen.
Analytical equations for determining the stress level can be used for
most structures, thus eliminating costly experimental work in the
design stages. So long as the structure and the load are fairly simple
and dependable, a reliable structure can be designed by the so-called
stress theory of design.
It is well known, however, that some structures can fail before the
yield point stress has been reached (elastic buckling) while other
structures continue to perform their function long after the yield point
of the outer fibers has been reached (plastic design of structures, see
AISC Manual of Steel Construction). Therefore, the design methods for
many types of structures have been formulated by the more reasonable approach of relating the variables or parameters governing the
performance of the structure through experimentation and then limiting the parameters to conservative values.
In the case of an internally pressurized pipe, the performance limit
can be the bursting of the pipe wall or leakage of the joint. If bursting
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Chapter Six

is the performance limit, the pertinent variables can be related using

the stress theory of design. The pertinent variables are

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Pi internal pressure, lb/in2

D = pipe diameter, in

A = pipe wall cross-sectional area per unit length (in2/in)

= thickness t

The allowable hoop tension stress is

2A

where St = strength of pipe wall in tension, lb/in2, and N = safety factor.

For design purposes, at is limited to values below the bursting
strength of the pipe by some safety factor N. If the bursting strength
is not known, a conservative performance limit to choose is the yield
point (strength) of the pipe material.
In the case of a pipe externally loaded, the important variables are

1. EI/D3 = ring stiffness, lb/in2. Since E is a constant (24,000,000

lb/in2) for ductile iron, in this case ring stiffness can be reduced to
D/A or D/t, where t is the wall thickness.
2. E' or p = a measure of soil stiffness, where E' = soil stiffness and p
= density of soil (% compaction).
3. P = apparent vertical soil pressure (unit weight of soil, times height
of cover plus effect of surface loads at level of top of pipe).
4. Ay/D = ring deflection, where Ay = vertical decrease in diameter
and D = diameter.
5. Performance limit.

Ring stiffness, soil density, and vertical soil pressure are independent variables which are set by specification, etc., for each installation.
The performance limit and Ay/D are dependent variables depending
upon various combinations of ring stiffness, soil density, and vertical
soil pressure.
Ring stiffness and vertical soil pressure can be combined in the convenient parameter PD/(2A). This parameter is very useful in the
stress theory of design for external hydrostatic pressure and is widely used in the design of corrugated culvert pipe under external soil
pressure. Therefore, it is easily understood and simplifies design calculations. This form will be used to relate the independent variables.
For design, the value of PD/(2A) should be limited to a value well
below the performance limit; PD/(2A) has been related to soil density,
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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

367

performance limit, and Ay/D through the tests. This relationship is

shown in Fig. 6.49.
rr compression
stress a =
PD- -=
Sc=-.
Ring
c
J.\

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U\.

where P = calculated or apparent vertical soil pressure at level of top

of pipe
= height of cover times unit weight of soil plus effect of surface loads
D = diameter of pipe
A = wall cross-sectional area per unit length of pipe
=' wall thickness t for cylindrical pipe
Sc = compression strength of pipe wall
N = safety factor

For design purposes, ac must be limited to the ultimate compression

strength of the pipe wall and must be reduced by some factor of safety
N. This ultimate compression strength is simply the ring compression
stress PD/(2A) at performance limit as determined by actual tests. Two
examples of design follow.
Example 6.5 A 36-in ductile iron pipe is to be used to function with an internal pressure of 200 lb/in2 working pressure with a 100 lb/in2 surge pressure
allowance and is to be buried under 30 ft of cover. What is the required
thickness for the internal pressure, and what should be the method of
installation, i.e., compaction of surrounding soil?
1. Calculate the required thickness.

2A

,=

.2*(lin)

2St

where Pt = 200 + 100 = 300 lb/in2

D = 38.30 in
N= 2.5
St = 42,000 lb/in2
300 (38.30) (2.5)
2(42,000)

_ .

=a84m

2. What is the soil density or percent of compaction required for this pipe to
withstand 30 ft of cover without spalling of the cement lining?
P = 30 ft X 120 lb/ft3 = 3600 lb/ft2

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Chapter Six

12 in/ft

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A = 0.34 in X 12 in/ft = 4.08 in2/ft

PD
2A

3600 lb/ft2 (3.2 ft)

= 1412 lb/in2
2 (4.08 in2/ft)

Entering Fig. 6.49 at PD/(2A)=1412 lb/in2, we can see that if the density
of the soil is between 80 and 90 percent standard Proctor density, the deflection can be kept between 2.5 and 4.5 percent. A safety factor against cementlining spalling can be calculated as follows. At PD/(2A) = 1412 lb/in2, the
cement lining would spall at about 5.2 percent. Therefore, the safety factor
is between 1.2 and 2.1. A 90 percent Proctor should be specified. A 90 percent Proctor density can be obtained with a moderate amount of work on
ordinary soils by placing the soil in 1-ft lifts and passing over it with a rammer-type compactor.

Example 6.6 A 36-in ductile iron pipe is to be designed for an internal pressure of 200 lb/in2 working pressure and 100 lb/in2 surge pressure. It is to be
installed under 5 ft of cover under a roadway. Calculate the required thickness for internal pressure, and recommend an installation procedure.
1. This is identical to Example 6.5. The required thickness is 0.34 in.
2.
P = 5 ft X 120 lb/ft3 + (live load)
= 600 + 340 = 940 lb/ft2

PD _ 940 lb/ft2 (32 ft) _ 3 6 9 1 b ,2

2A " 2(4.08in 2 /ft) ~ 369 lb/m

See Fig. 6.49.

If it is installed in loose soil (60 to 70 percent standard Proctor density),

the deflection is 1.8 to 2.5 percent. Therefore, the safety factor against
cement-lining spalling is about 2.3 to 3.1.
Note: Tamping is not required in this installation unless it is required to
protect the roadway pavement from damage.

Prequalification Testing of Pipes Used in

Underground Heating Distribution Systems
Introduction

For large institutions with multiple buildings, often there is a central

heating plant. The pipes used to carry the hot fluid to the buildings
and to return the condensate to the plant are insulated and are frequently actually two concentric pipes (a casing pipe and a carrier pipe)
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with insulation in the annulus between them. Such pipe must be tested to demonstrate that the pipe system meets the criteria specified by
the Federal Agency Pre-Qualification Procedures for Underground
Heat Distribution Systems. The testing program is carried out in
accordance with a set test protocol. Test equipment to meet the protocol was designed and constructed by the Buried Structures Laboratory
at Utah State University.
The test apparatus is described in the test protocol; however, photographs and diagrams are included here to give the reader some visual perception of the actual test setup. Sample results of some tests are
also given. See Figs. 6.51 to 6.66.
Test protocol

System classification. The thermal pipe and the condensate pipe must
be described and qualified for use in the specific site conditions such
as follows:

Groundwater conditions: Class Bbad. The water table is expected

to be occasionally above the bottom of the system, and surface water
is expected to accumulate and remain for short periods (or not at all)
in the soil surrounding the system, or the water table is expected
never to be above the bottom of the system, but surface water is
expected to accumulate and remain for long periods in the soil surrounding the system.
Soil corrosiveness: corrosiveall the soil resistivities.
Soil pH: Soil pH down to 4.5 for the hot pipe and 2.0 for the condensate pipe. Both systems can be used in soil up to pH 12.
Soil stability: Both systems can be used in all soils where thrust
blocks are required, by direct bearing against undisturbed or satisfactorily tamped soil; where friction block can be used; where unstable soil can be replaced by ballast of sufficient size and weight to
resist thrust; or where tie rods or piling can be used.
Operating temperature: Continuous operating temperatures of 200
to 450F for hot pipe and 100 to 250F condensate return piping.

Test procedures for the hot pipe. The purpose of the tests specified in
this section is to demonstrate that the hot pipe system meets the criteria specified by the Federal Agency Pre-Qualification Procedures for
Underground Heat Distribution Systems. The following tests will be
performed:
1. Resistance to groundwater infiltration
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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

Hydraulic
/Cylinders^

Test Box

3 feet

Soil

Soil

4 feet

Test Pipe

(L-

Figure 6.52 Cross-sectional view of the soil loading test cell.

a. Apparatus is a test box or tank 3 ft wide and 4 ft deep with a cover that can be bolted in place to make the tank pressure tight up
to 10 Ib/in2gage. The foundation is capable of supporting 600 lb/ft2.
The tank has a drain fill plug at its lowest point and a vent at its
highest point. Manhole terminals are centrally located on the two
end plates. This tank, its appurtenances, and all other apparatus
needed are shown in Figs. 6.51 to 6.54.
b. Two electric water heaters, 500 W each, a watthour meter, and a
circulation pump.

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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

Figure 6.57 Soil load cell showing the insulation used on return piping.

c. A 200 lb/in2gage water pressure pump and a 500 lbhnzgage water

Pump.
d . A 0 to 500F thermometer input temperature recorder.
e. A temperature controller capable of handling the electric heater
load and controlling a temperature of 450F 2 3 percent.
f: A surge tank (l-gal capacity). The static pressure capacity must
be at least 500 lbhnzgage equipped with suitable pressure gage.
g. Thermocouples shall be mounted as shown on the drawing.
2. Procedure: A 4-in system consisting of 500 ft of test pipe with at
least three 13-ft sections, one 90" ell, one anchor at the ell, and one
short section with a field joint installed in the tank in a gravel soil.
(The field joint used in this test is the same joint that will be used
on the casing of a 20-ft length of pipe.) Each joint is misaligned with
its mate by 1.5", with at least two of the misalignments in the horizontal plane. The installation shall be made in strict accord with
installation guidelines except for these misalignments.
The power input to the heater will be measured and the heat loss
from heaters to outside ambient calibrated so that the net electrical energy input to the test sections can be accurately measured.
The pipe system shall have a 5 percent slope, with the lower exit
being the low point of the system. After the installation is completed, the tank cover is bolted in place. A water source is attached to
the drain/fill, and a &gal surge tank is attached to the vent with a
tee fitting. The surge tank shall have a water sight glass and a 0 to
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376

Figure 6.58 System control center with the following features: (1)temperature controller, (2) temperature fail-safe
circuits, (3) pressure controls, (4)pressure fail-safe circuits,
(5) dual control timer (concealed in photo), ( 6 ) flowmeter
readout, (7) power meter with digitized output for data system, (8) associated warning lights for system operation.
Safety controls were necessary because the system was
operated at 500 lb/in2 and 450F.An electronically operated
pressure relief valve was controlled by the fail-safe circuits.
In addition, a manual pressure relief valve was incorporated into the system.

15 lbhn2gage static pressure gage. The other tee line shall contain
a shutoff valve on the side open to the atmosphere. With the vent
shutoff valve open, water is admitted into the tank through the
drairdfill until the tank is full and water spills from the open vent.
The vent valve is then closed and filling continues until the pressure reaches 9 lblinzgage (the surge tank should be about twothirds full as observed in the sight glass). Tank pressure shall be

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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

Figure 6.59 Looking down on the heating section located

between the two test cells. Note the following: (1)Tops of
two 5000-Wimmersion-type heaters (center right of photo).
A third heater is concealed from view. (2) Motor that runs
the circulation pump (center left of photo). (3) Insulation
applied to external piping to conserve energy.

maintained for 48 h, and water up to 450F shall be circulated

through the carrier pipe to 24 h and drained. The hot water system
shall be disconnected, and pipe ends shall remain open for the
remaining 24 h. The lower end of the carrier pipe shall be monitored for water leakage during the next 24 h. At the end of the 48
h, the pressure is relieved by opening the vent valve, and the water
is drained from the tank through the vent draidfill fitting.
a. Results: At no time during the test period shall water be
observed coming from the low end of the open pipe to indicate
water has entered the insulation through the pipe or end seals.

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378

Figure 6.60 High-temperature pipe installed in the test cell. Note the following: (1)joints
misaligned by 1.5",(2) thermocouple wire running along pipe, (3) fitting and hose for
water damage test.

Figure 6.61 Elbow with steel anchor plate before concrete thrust block was cast in corner.

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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products

Figure 6.66 Condensate pipe in test

cell.

3. Resistance t o water damage

a. Apparatus: The same system configuration used for the ground-

water infiltration test shall be used for the water damage testing, except no pressure will be applied to simulate groundwater.
A zero groundwater pressure will produce a more critical test
situation for water damage. After the 48-h groundwater infiltration test has been inspected and approved, a system similar to
the system used in the groundwater infiltration tests, except for
the 0.25-in NPT female fitting, shall be set in the outer casing of
one of the sections and firmly epoxied and mechanically
anchored. The system will be connected externally with the
heater, pump, and valving system. The 0.25-in water line shall
be connected to the 150 lb/in2gagewater system. Thermocouples
shall be set, as shown on the drawing, to record the surface temperature of the conduit and water temperature entering and
leaving the carrier pipe.

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b. Procedure: Circulation is begun, and the heater is turned on. After

24 h the heater is turned off for 24 h. This cycle is repeated for 14
days. The cycle is continued, except that 150 Ib/in2gage water-dye
solution is introduced into the 0.25-in pipe and "leaked" into the
insulation cavity between the core and casing. This test is continued for 14 days or until water is flowing from the casing relief
valve or end seal. At the conclusion of the test, the leak is stopped.
The tank is drained, the pipe water system is drained, and each
section is examined for migration of leaking water.
c. Results: The spread of the "leak" at which the dyed water is
introduced shall be confined to one section of pipe. It shall be
understood that water leakage through the casing or end seals
does not constitute a failure.
4. Resistance to mechanical or structural damage (balance loading test)
a. Apparatus: A 3-ft-wide by 4-ft-deep by 11-ft-long steel tank is
equipped with vertically sliding panels in the end plates.
b. Procedures: A steady and constant vertical load of 200 lb/ft2 is
applied to a 13-ft length of buried conduit system for 14 days. A
13-ft conduit system with a field joint in the center of the length
(the field joint is the same as will be used in the casing of a 20ft length of pipe), pipe anchor, pipe supports, and a 4-in carrier
pipe and end seals will be anchored at one end of the tank with
carrier pipe lengths protruding from the sliding panels. This system is installed on at least 12 in of firmly tamped soil over 6 in
of sand. Soil surrounds the conduit and comes to within 4 in of
the tank top. The soil used in this test is a fine blow sand and
has been selected because of the relative ease with which it can
be handled and because it can be used to simulate clay soil. A
steel plate lid is placed on top of the soil. The lid dimensions are
10 ft 10 in by 2 ft 10 in (allowing a 1-in clearance on all sides
between the lid and the tank perimeter). Hydraulic jacks are
used to apply a steady loading to the steel plate lid of 2000 lb/ft2.
This load is maintained for 14 days. During the 14-day loading
period, ambient and water up to 450F, 500 lb/in2 are alternately circulated through the carrier pipe at 24-h intervals. The vertical positions of the two end pipes are recorded every 8 h during
the 14 days.
c. Results: The differential deflection shall not have been sufficient
to allow conduit or system to be damaged or deformed enough to
impair functioning of the system. The conduit envelope shall not
rupture or deform. The pipe supports shall not be crushed,
cracked, or abraded. Pipe anchors shall not fail.
5. Resistance to mechanical or structural damage (unbalanced loading)
a. Apparatus: The test tank, conduit section, and jacking apparaCopyright 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies

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tus used in the loading test, a steel plate 3 ft by 2 ft 10 in and a

source of 500 Ib/in2gage water.
b. Procedures: With one end of the protruding carrier pipe capped,
introduce 500 Ib/in2gage dyed water into the other protruding
end. Place the 3-ft by 2-ft 10-in steel plate at one end of the tank
over the buried conduit system. Apply a steady load of 2000 lb/ft2
to the plate for 5 min. After removing the load and draining the
carrier pipe, uncover the conduit system. Disassemble the conduit and insulation at the field joint, and inspect the joint area
for water leaks. Inspect the entire system for mechanical or
structural damage.
c. Results: No water leakage from the carrier pipe to the surrounding insulation shall occur. Casing and insulation integrity must
be maintained.
6. Joint leakage test
a. Apparatus: Same as used in water damage test.
b. Procedure: The joint leakage test is performed simultaneously
with the water damage test. Each joint is misaligned with its
mate by 1.5, with at least two of the misalignments in the horizontal plane. As with the water damage test, water up to 450F
is circulated in the system for 24 h, at which time the heater is
turned off for 24 h. This cycling is continued for 14 days. At the
conclusion of this period, the tank is drained and the outer casing is removed.
c. Results: With the exception of field joints connecting the one section with the 0.24-in female fitting, no other joints shall have
allowed any of the circulating water to leak into the surrounding
insulation.
7. Expansion/contraction test
a. Apparatus: Same as used in the joint leakage test.
b. Procedure: The expansion/contraction test is performed simultaneously with the joint leakage tests. Each joint is misaligned
with its mate by 1.5, with at least two misalignments in the horizontal plane. As with the other tests, water up to 450F is circulated in the system for 24 h, at which time the heaters are
turned off for 24 h. This cycling is continued for 14 days. With
anchors at the ends and at the elbow, the carrier pipe will
expand and contract at the joints. There is sufficient space
between each carrier pipe and on the machined surface of the
ends to allow an uneven distribution of the expansion/contraction. A schematic of the test setup is shown in Fig. 6.53.
c. Results: With the expansion/contraction caused by the cycling
above, the system shall have performed satisfactorily without
any damage to the joint or leakage into the insulation.
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Test procedures for condensate return piping

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1. Purpose: To demonstrate that the condensate return piping meets

the criteria specified by the Federal Agency Pre-Qualification
Procedures for Underground Heat Distribution Systems. The carrier pipe shall meet MIL-P-28584 with one exception: The joint to be
supplied and tested in this protocol is a rubber ring joint not covered by MIL-P-28584. For that reason only, the following tests shall
be performed.
2. Joint leakage test and expansion/contraction test
a. Apparatus: Same as used for joint leakage tests for the high-temperature pipe.
b. Procedure: A 3-in system consisting of 40 ft of insulated test pipe
and a 90 ell installed in the tank in gravel soil. Each joint is misaligned with its mate by 1.5, with at least two misalignments in
the horizontal plane. The installation shall be made in strict
accord with installation guidelines, except for misalignments.
Water shall be alternately passed through the carrier condensate pipe at a temperature of 65F (5) for a minimum of 2 min
and 300F (5) for a minimum of 3 min. Time intervals at each
temperature level shall begin when the temperature of the water
reaches the required range. The test shall continue until a minimum of 100 cycles shall be completed.
c. Results: No joints shall have allowed any of the circulating water
to have leaked into the surrounding insulation or soil.
3. Resistance of groundwater infiltration
a. Apparatus: The same apparatus as used for the groundwater
infiltration and water damage tests for high-temperature pipe.
b. Procedure: A 3-in system consisting of 40 ft of test pipe with at
least two 20-ft sections, a 90 ell, and one anchor at the ell
installed in the tank in a gravel soil. Each joint is misaligned
with its mate by 1^ with at least two of the misalignments in
the horizontal plane. The installation shall be made in strict
accord with installation guidelines, except for the misalignments.
The pipe system shall have a 5 percent slope with the lower
exit being the low point of the system. After the installation is
completed, the tank cover is bolted in place. A water source is
attached to the drain/fill, and a 5-gal surge tank is attached to
the vent with a tee fitting. The surge tank shall have a water
sight glass and a 0 to 15 Ib/in2gage static pressure gage. The other tee line shall contain a shutoff valve on the side open to the
atmosphere. With the vent shutoff valve open, water is admitted
into the tank through the drain/fill until the tank is full and
water spills from the open vent. The vent valve is then closed,
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and filling continues until the pressure reaches 9 Ib/in2gage (the

surge tank should be about two-thirds full as observed in the
sight glass). Tank pressure shall be maintained for 48 h and
water up to 300F shall be circulated through the carrier pipe for
24 h and drained. The hot water system shall be disconnected,
and pipe ends shall remain open for the remaining 24 h. The
lower end of the carrier pipe shall be monitored for water leakage during the next 24 h. At the end of the 48 h, the pressure is
relieved by opening the vent valve, and the water is drained
from the tank through the vent drain/fill fitting.
c. Results: At no time shall water leaks be allowed at the end seals
or shall water be observed coming from the low end of the open
carrier pipe.

References

1. American Association of Civil Engineers and Water Pollution Control Federation.

1982. Gravity Sanitary Sewer: Design and Construction.
2. American Iron and Steel Institute. 1971. Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway
Construction Products. New York: Donnelley.
3. Armco Drainage and Metal Products, Inc. 1955. Handbook of Drainage and
Construction Products. Middletown, Ohio.
4. American Water Works Association. AWWA Standards Mil, M9, M23, C150, C200,
C206, C300, C301, C303, C400, C401, C402, C403, C900, C901, C905, and C950.
Denver.
5. Bishop, R. R. 1983. Course Notebook. Logan: Utah State University.
6. Boscardin, M. D., E. T. Selig, R. S. Lin, and G. R. Yang. January 1990. Hyperbolic
Parameters for Compacted Soils. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 116(1).
7. Burns, J. Q., and R. M. Richard. 1964. Attenuation of Stresses for Buried Cylinders.
In Proceeding of the Symposium on Soil Structure Interaction, pp. 378-392. Tucson:
University of Arizona.
8. Concrete Pipe Division of U.S. Pipe and Foundary Company. Bulletin No. 200.
Birmingham, Ala.
9. Devine, Miles. 1980. Course Notebook. Logan: Utah State University.
10. Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association. 1984. Thrust Restraint Design for Ductile
Iron Pipe. Birmingham, Ala.
11. Duncan, J. M., P. Byrne, K. S. Wong, and P. Mabry. 1980. Strength, Stress-Strain
and Bulk Modulus Parameters for Finite Element Analyses of Stresses and
Movements in Soil Masses. Department of Civil Engineering Report UCB/GT/80-0.
University of California, Berkeley.
12. Dunn, I. S., L. R. Anderson, and F. W. Kiefer. 1980. Fundamentals of Geotechnical
Analysis. New York: Wiley.
13. Federal Aviation Authority (FAA). Aircraft Pavement Design and Evaluation. AC
150/5320-6C.
14. Federal Aviation Authority (FAA). Aircraft Data. AC 150/5325-5C.
15. Howard, Amster K. 1977. Modulus of Soil Reaction (') Values for Buried Flexible
Pipe. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE 103(GT). Proceedings
Paper 127000.
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Co
py
rig
hte
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ate
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