HS Advanced Topics Final

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Zen Series High School Advanced Topics
Contents

Introduction
Section 1: Polynomials and Polynomial Functions
12
Section 2: Properties of Logarithms
16
Section 3: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
20
Section 4: Complex Numbers
24
Section 5: Right Triangle Trigonometry
28
Section 6: Trigonometric Equations and Identities
33
Introduction
Purpose
If you are reading this, you probably like
math and enjoy thinking about challenging
problems. The purpose of this book is to
help you develop a robust set of strategies
for solving a broad range of problems. These
strategies are suciently broad-based to be
of value in the course of your education, and
possibly in your career, but our focus will be
on mathematics competitions.
problems are significantly harder than, or

at least dierent from, those that you are
likely to encounter in a homework
assignment. Finally, we assume that you
are willing to commit about an hour a day
for twenty weeks in order to achieve
greater success on the contests.
We assume that you are familiar with the

topics that are typically covered in high
school geometry and first- and secondyear algebra. However, you can still use
this book if there are gaps in your
knowledge. Each section will contain a
list of the tools (i.e. facts, formulas, and
techniques) that you will need to solve
the problems in the section. The internet
abounds with web sites that can help
you develop the needed tools.
If the above is at least somewhat descriptive

of you, then how are we defining success?
Well, to be clear from the outset, we do not
define it as getting a perfect score on a
national math contest. In fact, if you are
among the small group of students for whom
a perfect score is a realistic goal, you are
well beyond the level of what is being taught
here. Of course, if you enjoy the process of
participating and doing your best, you are
already having a successful experience in a
meaningful way. What this book and its
companion volumes can oer you in addition
is an opportunity to develop the techniques
and strategies needed to place among the
top 5-10% of the participants in a typical
contest. We hope you will agree that this is a
significant measure of success in the world
of math contests.
We assume that you have attempted, or

at least seen, a national high school
math contest. If not, you can obtain
mock contests, similar to the American
AMC 10 and AMC 12 contests, at
edfinity.com/catalog. We also assume
that you have had limited success in
solving the problems on the contests.
This is because the majority of contest
Each volume in this series is divided into six

sections, each of which illustrates the
application of a general problem-solving
method to problems in a specific content
area. Because each section is designed to
be mastered in about three hours, you
should be able to finish each volume in
about four weeks by devoting about an hour
a day to it.
Because no book can be appropriate for

students at all levels, we are making a few
assumptions about you:
The volumes can be read in any order, but we recommend the following sequence:
Weeks
1-4
Volume 1 (algebra)
Weeks
5-8
Volume 2 (geometry)
Weeks
9-12
Volume 3 (discrete math)
Weeks
13-16
Volume 4 (number theory)
Weeks
17-20
Volume 5 (advanced topics)
If youre still reading, youre ready to begin. Heres wishing you many hours of hard, but
enjoyable, work.
An Organized Approach to Problem Solving

There is no magical formula that will allow you to solve every mathematical problem that
you may encounter. However, problems are more likely to give up their solutions to you if
you approach them methodically, using thought processes that have proven to be
eective. The general four-step method described here is based on one developed by the
Hungarian mathematician George Polya (1887-1985) and has been adapted to apply to the
types of problems that commonly appear in contests. You should feel free to modify and
add to it as you gain experience with it.
Step 1:
Understand the problem.
In order to solve any problem, you must have a clear understanding of the question you
are being asked to answer. Even when the question is clear to you, but especially when it
isnt, you should take some time to organize your thoughts and focus on the problem
before starting to solve it.
Read through the problem once without focusing too much on the details. Just
recognize the subject area it appears to be dealing with and notice your gut feeling
about how dicult the solution is likely to be. If it seems especially hard, remind
yourself that a systematic approach can make seemingly hard problems easier.
Read the problem again more carefully, and make an eort to understand the
question. At this stage some or all of the following strategies may be helpful.
Break the problem statement down into short sentences or phrases, and
make a mental (or physical) note of the information given by each. A similar
strategy is to break the problem into parts.
Draw a picture. This is helpful in most geometry problems, but sketches are
also often useful for problems that involve graphs or are set in a physical
context.
Substitute numbers for symbols. For example, if the problem statement
contains a complicated condition placed on integers m and n, you might ask,
What does the condition mean when m = 2 and n = 3?
Restate the problem in your own words. Can you ask the question in
language that is easier for you to understand?
Choose a tool. That is, recall the facts and formulas that might be related to the
solution of the problem. If the problem is about right triangles, you may well need the
Pythagorean Theorem. Look for key words and expressions in the problem statement
that might suggest the use of certain tools. Also keep in mind that other tools might
suggest themselves to you as you proceed.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
Sometimes you will be pretty sure that you know how to answer the question. It may be
clear, for example, that you need to create a system of two linear equations in two
variables and then solve the system. If so, then that is your plan. Often, however, there is
no obvious path to the answer. At such times, one or more of the following strategies may
help you to recognize a path to follow.
Look for structures and patterns. This strategy can take several forms, including
the following:
Name the unknowns. If the problem contains several statements that give
information about one or more unknown quantities, give symbolic names to
each unknown. If the problem involves quantities that can vary, name the
variables.
Look for relationships among the given quantities. If some given number is
the sum or product of two others, then how, if at all, might that be important?
Does the problem describe a triangle with side lengths in a familiar ratio such as
3:4:5?
Look for symmetry. Does a geometric figure have lines of symmetry? Do two
or more variables play identical roles in an equation or a system of equations?
Make a table. What sort of relationship exists between two variables in the
problem? Is it linear, quadratic, exponential, or something else?
Make a conjecture. If you observe a pattern in a problem, especially in a sequence
or an iterative process, make an educated guess about how the pattern might
continue. If possible, test your guess by examining a few cases.
Explore a related problem. This strategy can also take several forms, including the
following:
Change the conditions. Have you encountered problems that looked similar,
but with a slightly dierent set of conditions? If so, how did you solve those?
Might some aspects of the solution process be applicable here?
Use smaller numbers. When a problem involves large numbers, such as the
current year, you can often gain insight into the solution by solving the same
problem with a smaller number.
Use simpler expressions. When a problem involves a complicated

expression, you can often gain insight into the solution by solving a similar
problem with a simpler expression.
Look at particular cases. One form of this strategy is to look at extreme
cases. For example, suppose you are told that a point P is located on side AB of
a triangle. If P is not specified as, say, the midpoint of AB or the foot of an
altitude, it might pay to ask what happens if P coincides with A or B.
Choose convenient numbers. If a question asks for the ratio of the areas of two
circles, you are often free to assume that one circle has radius 1. A similar strategy is
to choose convenient units.
Work backwards. Try to form a sentence like, I could answer the question if I
knew the answer to __________ (some other question), Then work on finding the
answer to the other question.
Take a possible step. If all else fails, think of some conclusion you can draw from
the given information, even if it doesnt appear to point toward an answer to the
question. Remember that any step you take allows you to view the problem from a
dierent perspective and may let you see features that were previously hidden.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.
If your activities in Step 2 reveal a sequence of calculations and logical implications that
will lead to the solution of the problem, then carry them out. For more dicult problems,
you may recognize how to begin and then get stuck in mid-solution. When that happens,
you can always reuse some of the strategies in Step 2. The following additional strategies
may also be helpful.
Reread the problem. Make sure you remember the problem statement correctly.
Also be on the lookout for any given information that you have not yet used in your
solution. Any piece of unused information is likely to be an important part of the rest
of the solution.
Know when to hold em, know when to fold em. This line is from an old popular
song, The Gambler. What it means is that there are times when it pays to persevere
with a plan and other times when it pays to cut your losses and formulate a new plan.
Knowing when to do each is largely a matter of experience, but when youre stuck,
try to make a judgment about whether you are on the right track.
Step 4:
Look back.
When you are pressed for time, as you are in most contests, you may be forced to record
your answer and move on to the next problem. However, if time permits:
Check your work. There is a reason that your teachers have always told you to
check your solutions of problems. Even the best students (and teachers!) make
careless mistakes, and because no partial credit is possible in most contests,
mistakes can be expensive.
Make sure your answer makes sense. Did you find that the boy in the problem is
running at a speed of 100 miles per hour? Does the triangle in the problem turn out to
have a negative area? If so, you have probably made a mistake.
The process of checking your work is essentially the same for each problem, so we wont
keep reminding you to do that. Our solutions will refer to Step 4 only if there is a quick way
to see whether your answer makes sense.
The solutions of the problems in these volumes will not always mention every strategy
that is being employed. For example, you should always read through a problem, and
you should always make sure your answer makes sense. However, each strategy that
appears in bold type above will be pointed out often enough to let you see when and
how to apply it.
Please dont misunderstand the purpose of this method. One of the statements from
above is worth repeating: there is no magical formula that will allow you to solve every
mathematical problem that you may encounter. Brilliant mathematicians from Newton to
Einstein often experienced failures, so when your hard work fails to produce a solution,
remember that you are in good company. However, if you use the method and tailor it to
your own learning style, you should find that you are failing at increasingly more dicult
problems and experiencing success more frequently.
Addendum: A Bit of Gamesmanship

If a math contest has a multiple-choice format, the given answer choices sometimes
provide a hint about the solution. If the choices for a geometry problem all involve 3,
chances are that the solution involves a 30 or 60 angle. Also, a bit of thought can
sometimes allow you to eliminate some of the choices. Perhaps you can see that the
answer must be an even integer and all but two of the choices are odd, and perhaps you
can also see that one of the two even choices is too big to be correct. In that case you can
choose the correct answer without ever solving the problem! Of course, you should read
and understand the solution later to improve your problem-solving skills, but in the
meantime you will have disposed of a contest problem with a minimum of eort.
Edfinitys Zen Masters Series

Edfinitys Zen Masters series is a collection of 10 digital titles (5 each for Middle and High
School) created for the modern educator and student. The titles are available only in digital
form and consist of carefully crafted problem collections designed to help students master
problem solving. Each title guides students through the themes of a specific topic (such as
Algebra or Probability), presenting concise expository content, select examples illustrating
specific problem solving techniques, and between 150-200 problems for middle school
and 60-75 problems for high school, expertly arranged to help the user achieve complete
mastery.
The volumes are each accompanied with optional access to an Edfinity digital
companion presenting all the problems in the title as a self-paced, online course with
auto-grading and performance analysis. Educators may enroll their students to track their
progress, or students/parents may enroll individually at edfinity.com/catalog. Access to
the guides provides educators access to rich, supplemental problem collections for
classroom use.
The Zen Masters Series is designed to serve broad usage by educators and students
alike, oering substantive general enrichment, development of foundational skills in
problem solving, and contest preparation. In addition to helping students prepare
eectively for local and major international contests, the problems provide robust attention
to standards and guidelines of the Common Core State Standards in Mathematics (USA),
GCSE (UK), Singapores Math curriculum, Australian Curriculum, and most other
international syllabi.
Zen Masters High School Series

Algebra, by David Wells
Geometry, by David Wells
Discrete Mathematics, by David Wells
Number Theory, by David Wells
Advanced Topics, by David Wells
Solutions Manual for each title by David Wells
10
Zen Masters Middle School Series

8 Tips to Solve Any Problem, by James Tanton

Numbers and the Number System, by James Tanton
Structure, Patterns and Logic, by James Tanton
Counting and Probability, by James Tanton
Relationships and Equations, by James Tanton
Geometry, by James Tanton
Solutions Manual for each title by James Tanton
11
1. Polynomials and Polynomial Functions

Prerequisites
Facts and formulas
(Remainder Theorem)
If P(x) is a polynomial and r is a real number, then the remainder when P(x) is divided by
x r is P(r).
(Factor Theorem)
If P(x) is a polynomial and r is a real number, then x r is a factor of P(x) if and only
if P(r) = 0.
(Rational Root Theorem)
Let P(x) = an x n + an1x n1 + + a1x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coecients.
p
If p and q are relatively prime integers and is a root of P(x), then p is a factor of a0,
q
and q is a factor of an.
(Vietas formulas, special case)
Let r, s, and t be the roots of the cubic polynomial P(x) = a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1x + a0. Then
r +s+t =
a2
,
a3
rs + st + tr =
a1
, and
a3
rst =
a0
.
a3
(For the sake of completeness, Vietas formulas are stated below in their full generality,
but they will not be used in this volume.)
Let r1, r2, r3, , rn be the roots of the polynomial P(x) = an x n + an1x n1 + + a1x + a0,
a
counted according to multiplicity. Then
ri1ri2ri3rik = (1)k nk .
an
1i <i <i <<i n
1
12
Basic skills
Before beginning this section, you should be able to do all of the following.
Describe the behavior of the graph of a polynomial function around a root of the
function.
Describe the end behavior of the graph of a polynomial function.
Divide one polynomial by another, and identify the quotient and the remainder.
Tools for Solving Contest Problems

When a problem involves polynomial division, the Remainder and Factor Theorems are
likely to play a part in the solution.
EXAMPLE 1: Let P(x) be a polynomial such that when P(x) is divided by x 20, the remainder is
15, and when P(x) is divided by x 15, the remainder is 20. What is the remainder when P(x) is
divided by (x 20)(x 15)?

A. 300B. x + 5C. x + 5D. x + 35E. x + 35
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
Understand the problem
Read through the problem to identify the question. Then read the problem again,
focusing on the given information. You are given the remainders when P(x) is divided
by x 20 and by x 15, and you need to find the remainder when P(x) is divided by their
product. Will it just be the product of the two given remainders? Probably not. At least
you can understand the question.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
The question is about the remainder of a polynomial division, so it is natural to choose a

tool and see what the Remainder Theorem can tell you. The theorem says nothing directly
about the remainder when P(x) is divided by the quadratic polynomial (x 20)(x 15).
It does tell you that the remainder when P(x) is divided by x 20 is P(20), so P(20) = 15,
and similarly, P(15) = 20. In order to see how these facts can help you get to the answer,
you can name the unknowns and let Q(x) and R(x) be the quotient and remainder when
13
P(x) is divided by (x 20)(x 15). Then P(x) = Q(x)(x 20)(x 15) + R(x). Take a possible
step and see what happens when you substitute the values 20 and 15 into this equation.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Substitution tells you that R(20) = P(20) = 15 and R(15) = P(15) = 20. Now recall that
because the divisor in the problem is quadratic, the remainder R(x) must be a constant
or linear polynomial. (If you dont recall this fact, a glance at the answer choices should
remind you.) Again name the unknowns and let R(x) = m x + b. Then 15 = R(20) = 20m + b
and 20 = R(15) = 15m + b. Solving this system of equations gives (m, b) = (1, 35),
so R(x) = x + 35.
Step 4:
Look back
Even if time doesnt permit you to check your work, take a moment to make sure
your answer makes sense. Your answer does not seem to depend on Q(x), so it
should be correct when Q(x) = 0. In that case, P(x) = x + 35. Division by x 20
gives P(x) = (x 20) + 15, and division by x 15 gives P(x) = (x 15) + 20,
so your answer does in fact make sense.
If a problem involves a polynomial equation, and the given information implies that at
least one of the roots is rational, the Rational Root Theorem can be useful.
EXAMPLE 2: A polynomial P(x) = 2x 3 + m x 2 + n x 57 has integer coecients and roots r, s,
and t such that 1 < r < 2, 3 < s < 4, and 5 < t < 6. Given that exactly one of the roots is rational,
what is P(10)?

A. 493B. 503C. 513D. 523E. 533
Answer A
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. You need to find the value of P(10),
where P(x) is a cubic polynomial. Then read the problem again and draw a (mental)
picture of the graph of P(x). The left tail points down, the right tail points up, and it
crosses the x-axis three times. The largest x-intercept is between 5 and 6, so P(10) is
probably pretty large. How will it help you know that exactly one of the roots is rational?
Keep that fact in mind for possible later use.
14
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Since you are told that exactly one root of P(x) is rational, you might choose a tool and
see what the Rational Root Theorem has to say about P(x). You know that the roots
are all positive, and each lies between two consecutive integers, so none is an integer.
p
The Rational Root Theorem says that if p and q are relatively prime integers and is a
q
root of P(x), then p is a factor of 57 and q is a factor of 2. The only possible positive
1 3 19
57
3
rational roots that are not integers are , ,
, and
. Of these, only is within
2 2 2
2
2
3
one of the given intervals. Therefore r = , and s and t are irrational. Now what?
2
3
The Factor Theorem tells you that x must be a factor of P(x), so take a possible
2
step and see what that tells you about other factors of P(x).
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Before exploring further, you might choose convenient numbers. Recall that
3
P(x) has integer coecients, and notice that if x is a factor of P(x), then so is
2
3
2 x
= 2x 3. The other factor of P(x) must be quadratic, so you can name
(
2)
the unknowns and write P(x) = (2x 3)(a x 2 + bx + c). Now how can you find
a, b and c? Look for structures and patterns and notice that if you multiply the right
side out, the coecient of x 3 is 2a, which must equal 2, so a = 1. Similarly, the constant
term is 3c, which must equal 57, so c = 19. Now you have P(x) = (2x 3)(x 2 + bx + 19).
In order to find b, reread the problem and recall that the roots of x 2 + bx + 19 must lie in
the open intervals (3, 4) and (5, 6). The quadratic formula tells you that the roots are
9 5
b b 2 76
= 4.5 0.5 5.
, so b 9. If b = 9, then the roots are
2
2
Because 2 < 5 < 3, the roots are within the required intervals. If b 10,
then the larger root exceeds 6, so b = 9. Therefore P(x) = (2x 3)(x 2 9x + 19),
so P(10) = (2 10 3)(102 9 10 + 19) = 17 29 = 493.
Exercises
Solve problems 1 to 10 in the Edfinity problem set Zen Series High School Advanced
Topics Section 5.1 Polynomials and Polynomial Functions (edfinity.com/catalog).
15
2. Properties of Logarithms
Prerequisites
Definitions
For all positive numbers x and all positive numbers b 1, the logarithm of x with base b,
written as logbx, is the power of b that is equal to x. That is, the statement y = logbx is
equivalent to the statement x = b y.
The common logarithm of a positive number x is log10x, sometimes written as logx.
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+ is denoted by e. The number e is
0! 1! 2! 3!
irrational and has an approximate value of 2.718.
The sum of the infinite series
The natural logarithm of a positive number x is logex, sometimes written as lnx.
Facts and formulas

Let b, x, and y be positive numbers with b 1. Then:
logbx = logby if and only if x = y
logbx y = logbx + logby,
logb
x
= logbx logby,
y
logbx r = rlogbx for all real numbers r, and

(change of base formula)
logbx =
logcx
for all positive numbers c 1.
logcb
Caution: The properties of logarithms do not allow you to express logb(x y) in any
other form.
16
Basic skills
Use the definition of logarithm to write a logarithmic equation in its equivalent
exponential form, or vice versa.
Use properties of logarithms to express a sum or dierence of logarithms as the
logarithm of a single quantity, or vice versa.
Use properties of logarithms to express the logarithm of a power of a real number as a
constant multiple of a logarithm, or vice versa.
Use the change of base formula to express a logarithm as a quotient of logarithms with
a dierent base.

A logarithmic equation can often be solved by using properties of logarithms to write it
in the form y = logbx, then writing the equation in its equivalent exponential form x = b y.
EXAMPLE 1: Two positive real numbers dier by 3000, and their base-5 logarithms dier by 2.
What is the sum of the digits of the smaller of the two numbers?

A. 5B. 7C. 8D. 11E. 13
Answer C
Solution
Step 1:
focusing on the given information. You are given 2 pieces of information about 2 unknown
real numbers, and you will probably need to find the numbers in order to answer the
question.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Name the unknowns. Let x and y, respectively, be the smaller and larger of the two
numbers. The given information allows you to write a system of 2 equations in x and y,
and you should be able to answer the question by solving the system.
17
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The numbers x and y dier by 3000, so y x = 3000. The base-5 logarithms of x and y dier
by 2, so log5y log5x = 2. Solving the first equation for y and substituting the result into
the second equation gives
log5(x + 3000) log5x = 2.
Now you can choose a tool and use properties of logarithms to write the equation as
x + 3000
= 2,
(
)
x
log5
and the exponential form of that equation is

x + 3000
= 52 = 25.
x
Solving gives x = 125, and the sum of the digits of x is 8.
Step 4:
Look back
It takes only a moment to check your work. If x = 125, then y = x + 3000 = 3125. Because
125 = 53 and 3125 = 25 125 = 55, it follows that log5y log5x = 5 3 = 2.
If a problem involves two or more logarithms with dierent bases, the change of base
formula is usually useful in the solution.
EXAMPLE 2: Real numbers x, y, and z, all greater than 1, satisfy the equation
(logy 4x)(logz 4y) = logx 4z.
What is the relationship of x to z?

A. x =
zB. x =
zC. x = zD. x = z 2E. x = z 4
Answer D
18
Solution
Step 1:
focusing on the given information. You are given only one equation. Is that enough to let
you find the values of x and z? Maybe you dont need to find their actual values in order to
answer the question. Keep that thought in mind.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
The equation involves several logarithms with dierent bases, so a likely strategy is to
choose a tool and use the change of base formula to rewrite the equation. Take a
possible step and do that.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The change of base formula allows you to rewrite the equation as

logx logy
logz
=
,
logy 4 logz 4
logx 4
where all the logarithms have base 10. Using properties of logarithms, you can rewrite it
again as
logx
logy
logz
,
=
4logy 4logz
4logx
and simplifying gives
(logx)2 = 4(logz)2.
Therefore logx = 2logz. Do you need to consider both cases? Reread the problem and
recall that x and z are both greater than 1, so their base-10 logarithms are both positive.
That means that logx = 2logz = logz 2, so x = z 2.
Exercises
Topics Section 5.2 Properties of Logarithms (edfinity.com/catalog).
19
3. Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Prerequisites
Facts and formulas
If f (x) = logbx, where b > 0 and b 1, then:
the domain of fis the interval (0, ) and the range is (, ),
f (1) = 0,
f is increasing if b > 1 and decreasing if 0 < b < 1, and
the y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
If g(x) = b x, where b > 0 and b 1, then:
the domain of g is the interval (, ) and the range is (0, ),
g(0) = 1,
g is increasing if b > 1 and decreasing if 0 < b < 1, and
the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of g.
The graph of f (x) = logbx is the reflection of the graph of g(x) = b x in the line y = x.
Basic skills
Sketch the graph of a function of the form f (x) = b x or f (x) = logbx with reasonable
accuracy.
Use graphical transformations to sketch the graph of a function of the form
f (x) = a b c(x+h) + k or f (x) = alogbc(x + h) + k.
20

An expression of the form loga(logbx) is defined if and only if logbx > 0, which requires
that x > 1 if b > 1 and 0 < x < 1 if 0 < b < 1.
EXAMPLE 1: How many integers n satisfy
log3(log4(log5n)) < 0 < log5(log4(log3n))?

A. 12B. 117C. 130D. 543E. 959
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
Even if you cant see a clear path to the answer, the question is clear.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Recognize that the chain inequality in the problem represents two separate inequalities.
Break the problem into parts and focus on one inequality at a time. The left hand
inequality asks for all integers n such that log3(log4(log5n)) < 0. Look for structures and
patterns to see that you can probably solve this inequality by working from the outside in.
That is, recognize that if log3(something) < 0, then (something) < 30 = 1. In this case you can
conclude that log4(log5n) < 1. Notice that you have now eliminated one of the logarithms
from the inequality. You should be able to continue in the same manner to eliminate all the
logarithms from both the left hand and right hand inequalities. Having done that, you
should be able to answer the question.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
By the same reasoning you used in Step 2, you can conclude from the left hand inequality
that log5n < 41 = 4, and then that n < 54 = 625. Applying the same reasoning to the right
hand inequality 0 < log5(log4(log3n)) gives log4(log3n) > 50 = 1, then log3n > 41 = 4, and
finally n > 34 = 81. Therefore the chain inequality in the problem is equivalent to the chain
inequality 81 < n < 625. The number of integer solutions is 625 81 1 = 543.
21
In order to solve a problem, you may need to make use of some graphical feature of
an exponential or logarithmic function, such as the fact that logbx is an increasing function
of x if b > 1.
EXAMPLE 2: A vertical line intersects the graph of y = log2x and y = log2(x 2 + 6) in points P
and Q, respectively. What is the shortest possible length of PQ?

A. log2 6B. log23C. log22 6D. log26E. log212
Answer C
Solution
Step 1:
Draw a picture. Begin by sketching the graph of y = log2x. Do you need to figure out
what the graph of y = log2(x 2 + 6) looks like? Maybe, but see how useful a picture you can
draw by making a few observations. Notice that x 2 + 6 > x for all real x, and the base-2
logarithmic function is increasing, so log2(x 2 + 6) > log2x for all x > 0, implying that the
graph of y = log2(x 2 + 6) will be some sort of curve above the graph of y = log2x. Now you
can draw a picture that allows you to understand the question. Imagine some vertical line
segments that extend from one graph to the other. You need to find the length of the
shortest such segment.
y
Q
P
Step 2:
Devise a plan
In order to answer the question, you will probably need to find an algebraic expression
that describes the length of a vertical line segment between the two graphs. You can
create the expression by looking at your picture. Each vertical line in the coordinate plane
has the equation x = a for some real number a. For a > 0, the line intersects the two
22
graphs at the points P = (a, log2a) and Q = (a, log2(a 2 + 6)), so the length of PQ is
log2(a 2 + 6) log2a. Now you need to find the minimum value of this expression for a > 0.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
It would probably be easier to minimize the expression in Step 2 if it didnt involve

logarithms. Can you eliminate the logarithms? Choose a tool and use properties of
x2 + 6
logarithms to write the expression as log2
. Then once again recall that the base-2
x
x2 + 6
logarithmic function is increasing, so this expression is minimized when the value of
x
is minimized. There are several ways to find the minimum value of this fraction. One way is
6
to begin by rewriting it as a sum of two terms, a + . Then notice that the two terms have
a
a product of 6 regardless of the value of a. You know that when two numbers have a fixed
product, their sum gets smaller as the numbers get closer together, so the sum is
minimized when the terms are equal. (See also Note 1.) In this case the sum is minimized
6
6
when a = , that is, when a = 6. Therefore the minimum value of a + is 2 6, and the
a
a
shortest possible length of PQ is log22 6.
6
illustrates a
a
special case of the arithmetic mean-geometric mean (AM-GM) inequality. If x and y are
x+y
positive numbers, the AM-GM inequality states that their arithmetic mean
is at least
2
equal to their geometric mean x y, with equality occurring if and only if x = y. In this case
Note 1: The argument shown in Step 3 to find the minimum value of a +
it states that
a+
2
6
a
6
=
a
6, with equality if and only if a =
6
=
a
6.
Exercises
Topics Section 5.3 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions (edfinity.com/catalog).
23
4. Complex Numbers
Prerequisites
Definitions
Let z be a complex number a + bi with a and b real.
The conjugate of z, denoted by z, is the number a bi.
The modulus, or absolute value, of z, denoted by z , is the real number
a2 + b2.
The expression a + bi is referred to as the Cartesian form of z. The number z can also
be written in a unique way in polar form as r(cos + isin), where r > 0, 0 < 2,
a = rcos, and b = rsin.
Facts and formulas

For every integer n, i 4n = 1, i 4n+1 = i, i 4n+2 = 1, and i 4n+3 = i.
For every complex number z = a + bi,
z is the reflection of z in the real axis of the complex plane,
z is the distance of z from the origin in the complex plane,
z + z = 2a,
2
z z = a 2 + b 2 = z , and
1
1
z
.
= 2
a
bi
=
(
)
2
z
a + b2
z
(DeMoivres Theorem)
If z = r(cos + isin), then for every integer n, z n = r n(cosn + isinn).
If z = r(cos + isin), then for every integer n > 1, the distinct n th roots of z are the
+ 2k
+ 2k
n
+ isin
for 0 k n 1.
n numbers r cos
(
)
n
n
24
Basic skills
Perform the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on
complex numbers.
Represent a complex number z as a point in the complex plane.
Convert a complex number from its Cartesian form to its polar form, and vice versa.
Use DeMoivres Theorem to express all of the n th roots of a complex number in polar
form.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both their real parts and their imaginary
parts are equal. This fact can be used to rewrite a single equation in a complex unknown
z = a + bi as a system of two equations in the two real unknowns a and b.
2
EXAMPLE 1: The complex number z satisfies z + z = 2 + 8i. What is z ?

A. 68B. 100C. 169D. 203E. 289
Answer E
Solution
Step 1:
The question is clear. In order to answer it, you will probably need to find the value of z.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Recall that a single equation in a complex variable z can often be solved by turning it into a
system of 2 equations involving the real and imaginary parts of z. Choose a tool and write
z = a + bi. Then z =
a 2 + b 2 , so you should be able to answer the question by creating
and solving a system of equations in a and b.
25
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Look for shortcuts to recognize that the imaginary part of z is 0, so the 8i on the right
side of the equation must come from the z on the left side. That is, b = 8. Now you can
write the equation as (a + 8i) +
a 2 + 64 = 2 + 8i, from which a 2 + 64 = (2 a)2. The unique
solution is a = 15, so z = 15 + 8i, and z
= (15)2 + 82 = 289.
The solutions of an equation of the form z n = z0 are represented in the complex plane as
n points equally spaced around the circle of radius
z0 in the complex plane.
EXAMPLE 2: The six solutions of z 6 = 64 can each be written in the form a + bi, where a and b
are real. What is the product of those solutions with a > 0?

A. 2B. 2iC. 2iD. 4E. 4i
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. It is about the solutions of a
polynomial equation of degree 6. Read the problem again to recognize that you need to
consider both real and non-real solutions. In particular, you are asked to find the product
of the solutions whose real part is positive. In order to answer the question, you will
probably need to find all 6 solutions of the equation.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Look for structures and patterns to see that the equation can be written as z 6 = 26.
Therefore z = 2, implying that the solutions of the equation all lie on the circle of
radius 2 centered at the origin of the complex plane. This observation suggests that you
should write the equation in its polar form (rcos + irsin)6 = 64 = 64(cos + isin).
(However, see Note 1 for a path to the answer that uses the Cartesian form of the
equation.) Then choose a tool and use DeMoivres Theorem to rewrite it as
r 6(cos6 + icos6) = 64(cos + isin).
26
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
If you look for shortcuts, you might find a path to the answer without finding all 6
solutions of the equation. See Note 2 for that approach. However, if you cant find the
shortcut, DeMoivres Theorem still allows you to find the 6 solutions. The solutions with a
positive real part will be those for which is an angle in the right half-plane, so they can be
written with < < . The positive solution for r is 2, and must satisfy the equation
6 = + 2k for some integer k, so = + k . The values of with < < are ,

6
3
6
so the solutions of the equation with positive real part are z = 2 cos isin
= 3 i.
(
6
6)
The product of those 2 solutions is 4.
Note 1: Another way to begin is to factor the equation as
0 = z 6 + 64 = (z 2 + 4)(z 4 + 4z 2 + 16) = 0. If z 2 + 4 = 0, then z = 2i, and if z 4 4z 2 + 16 = 0,
then z 2 = 2 2 3i. Setting (a + bi)2 = 2 2 3i gives a 2 b 2 = 2 and ab = 3. The
solutions with a > 0 are (a, b) = ( 3, 1), and the conclusion follows as above.
Note 2: DeMoivres Theorem implies that the solutions are equally spaced around the
circle z = 2 in the complex plane. If you notice that the solutions z = 2i are on the
imaginary axis, you can conclude that exactly 2 of the remaining solutions are in the right
half-plane. Because the equation has real coecients, these solutions must be conjugates
of each other. That is, they have the form z = a bi for the same values of a and b, so their
product is a 2 + b 2 = z
= 4.
Exercises
Topics Section 5.4 Complex Numbers (edfinity.com/catalog).
27
5. Right Triangle Trigonometry

Prerequisites
Definitions
Let x and y be the leg lengths of a right triangle, let h be the length of its hypotenuse,
and let be the angle opposite the side of length y. Then:
the sine of is sin =
y
,
h
the cosine of is cos =
x
,
h
y
the tangent of is tan = ,
x
x
the
cotangent
of
is
cot
=
,
y
the secant of is sec =
h
, and
x
the cosecant of is csc =
h
.
y
Facts and formulas

For 0 < < 90,
csc =
1
,
sin
sec =
1
,
cos
tan =
sin
, and
cos
cot =
1
cos
=
.
tan
sin
(Each formula can be extended to all real values of for which all quantities are defined.)
28
(Sine formula for the area of a triangle)

The area of a triangle is equal to half the product of the lengths of any two sides
multiplied by the sine of the included angle.
Basic skills
Find all trigonometric functions of an angle in a right triangle with given side lengths.
Find all side lengths of a right triangle, given one side length and the value of any
trigonometric function of either acute angle.
Find all trigonometric functions of an acute angle in terms of its sine and cosine.
Use the sine formula to find the area of a triangle.

The solutions of many trigonometric problems involve diagrams, whether given with the
problem or constructed by you. In order to solve the problem you often need to add one or
more line segments to the diagram to create one or more right triangles.
EXAMPLE 1: In right A BC, the point F is the foot of the altitude to the hypotenuse BC, and
FC = 1. Point D is on AC such that BD = DC = 1. What is AC?
A.
2B.
3C.
2D.
3E.
Answer A
Solution
Step 1:
The diagram makes the question clear, even if there is no obvious path to the answer.
29
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You know that AF partitions ABC into FBA and FAC, each of which is similar to
ABC. Can you use those triangles to answer the question? Maybe, but a moments
thought should convince you that the segment BD needs to play a role as well. If that
segment were not in the diagram, then you could construct the rest of the diagram to
make x equal to any real number greater than 1.
Any path to the answer will probably use the fact that BCD is isosceles. One way to
use that fact is to draw a picture, letting G be the foot of the altitude from D to BC.
(See Note1 for a dierent path to the answer.) Then GDB and GDC are congruent,
and each is similar to the three right triangles mentioned previously. You know at least
some of the side lengths in those triangles, so take a possible step and see if you can
use them to answer the question.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Name the unknowns by letting x = AC and y = CG. For convenience you can also let
= ACB. Then FAC, GDC, and ABC are each right triangles with an angle of .
1
1
Focusing on FAC gives sec = x, and focusing on GDC gives sec = , so y = .
y
x
BC
2y
2
2
3
Then focusing on ABC gives sec =
=
= 2 . Therefore x = 2 , so x = 2.
x
x
x
x
Step 4:
Look back
Even if time doesnt permit you to check your work, take a moment to make sure your
answer makes sense. The diagram suggests that AC is slightly longer than DC, so x is
3
slightly greater than 1. Your value of 2 supports that observation, so your answer is
reasonable.
30
Note 1: You can avoid drawing DG and introducing y if you look for shortcuts. Notice that
ADB = 2 by the Exterior Angle Theorem, and AD = x 1. Therefore x 1 = cos2 and
1
cos = . Choose a tool and use the identity cos2 = 2cos2 1 to conclude that
x
2
1
x1=2
1,
(x)
and as before, the solution is x =
2.
You can sometimes avoid the need to construct right triangles in a diagram by using the
sine formula for the area of a triangle.
EXAMPLE 2: In square A BCD, points M and N are the midpoints of BC and CD, respectively.
What is sin?
A.
B.
3
C.
5
10
5
D.
2 5
4
E.
5
5
Answer B
Solution
Step 1:
The diagram makes the question clear.

Step 2:
Devise a plan
The diagram does not include any triangle with an angle of . You could create one by
drawing the segment MN, although it wouldnt be a right triangle. Can you use MAN
to answer the question? See Note 1 for a solution that does this. Alternately, look for
symmetry to notice that the diagram does include two congruent right triangles. You can
find all the trigonometric functions of the equal angles BAM and DAN, and you can
express in terms of these angles. Having done that, you might be able to use a
trigonometric identity to answer the question.
31
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Name the unknowns and let = BAM = DAN. Then = 90 2, so sin = cos2.
Work backward to see that you can use a double-angle identity to answer the question
if you can find cos. In order to find cos, you can choose convenient numbers and let
square ABCD have side length 2. Then the Pythagorean Theorem applied to ABM gives
2
3
3
AM = 5, so cos =
, and cos2 = cos2 1 = . Therefore sin = as well.
5
5
5
Note 1: You can also draw a picture by adding segment MN to the diagram.
Then AM = AN = 5, so you can choose a tool and express the area of MAN
1
5
as AM AN sin = sin. You also know that the area of ABCD is 4, the area of
2
2
1
MCN is , and ABM and ADN each have area 1. Therefore MAN has area
2
1
3
5
3
4 2(1) = . Setting this equal to sin gives sin = .
2
2
2
5
Exercises
Topics Section 5.5 Right Triangle Trigonometry (edfinity.com/catalog).
32
6. Trigonometric Equations and Identities

Prerequisites
Facts and formulas
In each formula below , a, and b are real numbers for which the appropriate trigonometric
functions are defined.
(reflection and rotation identities)
sin() = sin, tan() = tan, cot() = cot, csc() = csc
cos() = cos, sec() = sec
sin( + 2) = sin, cos( + 2) = cos, sec( + 2) = sec, csc( + 2) = csc
sin( ) = sin, csc( ) = csc
cos( ) = cos, sec( ) = sec
tan( ) = tan, cot( ) = cot
= cos, cos
= sin
sin
(
(
2)
2)
= cot, cot
= tan
tan
(
(
2)
2)
= csc, csc
= sec
sec
(
(
2)
2)
cos = sin
cot = tan
, sin = cos
(2
)
(2
)
, tan = cot
(2
)
(2
)
, sec = csc
csc = sec
(2
)
(2
)
33
(Pythagorean identities)
sin2 + cos2 = 1
tan2 + 1 = sec2
1 + cot2 = csc2
(sum and dierence identities)
sin(a b) = sinacosb cosasinb
cos(a b) = cosacosb sinasinb
tan(a b) =
tana tanb
1 tanatanb
(double angle identities)

sin2a = 2sinacosa
cos2a = cos2a sin2a = 2cos2a 1 = 1 2sin2a
tan2a =
2tana
1 tan2a
Basic skills
Find the values of all trigonometric functions of an angle when given the value of one
function and the quadrant in which the angle lies.
Use sum and dierence formulas to find the values of all trigonometric functions of
where k is any integer.
k
,
12
Find all solutions of an equation T(x) = k, where T is any of the six trigonometric
functions and k is a real number.

The solution of a problem may require you to recognize an expression that forms the
right side of a sum, dierence, or double angle identity.
34
EXAMPLE 1: Lines l and m are parallel and 50 units apart. Point P is 18 units from l and 32 units
from m. Points A and B are on l and m, respectively, and APB = 90. What is the smallest
possible area of APB?

A. 512B. 560C. 576D. 600E. 625
Answer C
Solution
Step 1:
Draw a picture of the parallel lines l and m. Before you draw APB, it will be helpful to
draw a segment CD perpendicular to l and m with C on l and D on m. Then locate P on
CD so that the ratio CP : PD is about 18 : 32. Finally, draw APB with A on l, B on m,
and APB = 90. Look at extreme cases to see that if AC is small, then BD must be large,
and vice versa. In both cases the area of APB will be large. The minimum value of the
area should occur when AC and BD are comparatively close in value.
l
Step 2:
Devise a plan
1
AP PB, so you can answer
2
the question if you can find both AP and PB. In order to do that you should name the
unknowns, but which unknowns should you name? One possibility is to let x = AC and
y = BD. Then applying the Pythagorean Theorem to ACP and BDP gives
Work backwards by noticing that the area of APB is
AP =
x 2 + 182 and PB =
y 2 + 322 . In order to answer the question from here, you will
probably need to find an equation that relates x and y. You might be able to do that, but
before you invest too much energy in the attempt, you should probably see whether there
is an easier approach.
35
If you let = APC, then AP =
18
32
. Also BPD = 90 , so PB =
. Now you
cos
cos(90 )
can at least express the area of APB in terms of the single unknown . Take a possible
step and do that, then see if you can find the minimum value of the resulting expression.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The area of APB is

1
18
32
288
=
.
2 cos cos(90 )
(cos)(cos(90 ))
The minimum value of the area occurs when the denominator is largest, so now you need
to find the maximum value of (cos)(cos(90 )). You can simplify this expression by
1
recognizing that cos(90 ) = sin. Then recall that (cos)(sin) = sin2, which has a
2
1
maximum value of when sin 2 = 1. The corresponding area of APB is 576.
2
If a problem that calls for the use of trigonometry involves only triangles with no right
angles, a solution can often be found by using the Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines.
EXAMPLE 2: The lengths of the sides of a triangle are consecutive integers, and the largest angle
is twice the smallest angle. What is the cosine of the smallest angle?

A.
7
3
9
2
3
B.
C. D.
E.
5
14
3
4
10
Answer E
Solution
Step 1:
Draw a picture of the triangle, trying to make the largest angle approximately twice the
size of the smallest. Dont worry too much about getting the side lengths just right, but just
remember that the side lengths are consecutive integers.
B
36
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Let the triangle be ABC, letting BAC and BCA be the smallest and largest angles,
respectively. Then name the unknowns by letting the side lengths be BC = n, AC = n + 1,
and AB = n + 2. Also let BAC = , so BCA = 2. One possible first step is to create two
right triangles by drawing the altitude BD to AC in ABC. Letting h = BD, you can use the
two right triangles to form two equations relating h and n to sin and sin2. The two
equations involve three unknowns, so you will still need to create an additional equation in
the same unknowns, but this seems like a reasonable first step. However, if you look for
shortcuts, you can streamline this step. The Law of Sines allows you to create a single
equation in the unknowns n and without drawing BD. Take a possible step and do that,
and then think about how to create an additional equation in the same two unknowns.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The Law of Sines applied to ABC implies that

sin
sin2
.
=
n
n+2
You can use a double-angle formula to rewrite the equation as
sin
2sincos
=
.
n
n+2
Because sin 0, this equation is equivalent to
1
2cos
,
=
n
n+2
n+2
. This looks promising, since cos is what you need to find. Can you
2n
create another equation involving n and ? Reread the problem to notice that you havent
yet used the fact that AC = n + 1. One way to make use of that fact is to notice that
ABC = 180 3, so sin(ABC ) = sin3, then use the Law of Sines again to conclude
sin
sin3
that
=
. This might be a feasible path to the answer, but before investing a lot
n
n+1
of energy in finding a useful expression for sin3, look for other alternatives. If you use the
Law of Cosines, your equation will involve only cos and n. If you can solve that equation
for cos in terms of n, you should be able to answer the question from there.
so cos =
37
The Law of Cosines implies that

(n + 1)2 + (n + 2)2 n 2
,
cos =
2(n + 1)(n + 2)
n 2 + 6n + 5
(n + 1)(n + 5)
and the right side can be rewritten as
, and then as
,
2(n + 1)(n + 2)
2(n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 5)
and
. Now you know that
2(n + 2)
(n + 5)
n+2
,
= cos =
2(n + 2)
2n
and the unique solution is n = 4. Therefore cos =
4+2
3
= .
24
4
Exercises
Topics Section 5.6 Trigonometric Equations and Identities (edfinity.com/catalog).
38

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Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

Section 1: Polynomials and Polynomial Functions

Section 2: Properties of Logarithms

Section 3: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Section 4: Complex Numbers

Section 5: Right Triangle Trigonometry

Section 6: Trigonometric Equations and Identities

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

problems are significantly harder than, or

We assume that you are familiar with the

If the above is at least somewhat descriptive

We assume that you have attempted, or

Each volume in this series is divided into six

Because no book can be appropriate for

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

Volume 3 (discrete math)

Volume 4 (number theory)

Volume 5 (advanced topics)

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

An Organized Approach to Problem Solving

Understand the problem.

Use simpler expressions. When a problem involves a complicated

Carry out the plan.

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

Addendum: A Bit of Gamesmanship

Edfinitys Zen Masters Series

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Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

1. Polynomials and Polynomial Functions

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

Tools for Solving Contest Problems

A. 300B. x + 5C. x + 5D. x + 35E. x + 35

Understand the problem

The question is about the remainder of a polynomial division, so it is natural to choose a

Carry out the plan

A. 493B. 503C. 513D. 523E. 533

Understand the problem

Carry out the plan

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

The natural logarithm of a positive number x is logex, sometimes written as lnx.

Facts and formulas

logbx r = rlogbx for all real numbers r, and

Zen Series High School Advanced Topics

Tools for Solving Contest Problems

A. 5B. 7C. 8D. 11E. 13

Understand the problem

Carry out the plan

and the exponential form of that equation is

zC. x = zD. x = z 2E. x = z 4