CHAPTER 1.

INTEGERS AND FRACTIONS

1. Monomials and Polynomials
Algebraic expression, such as 4a, -5a2b, 2p + 5, and 6x2 + 3xy 8y
Monomials, such as, 4a, 2p, and 6x2
Binomials, such as, 2p + 5 and 7p2 pq
o The expression 2p + 5 has two terms, 2p and 5
o The expression 7p2 pq also has two terms, 7p2 and pq
Trinomials, such as, 8x 4y + 9 and 6x2 + 3xy 8y
o The expressions 8x 4y + 9 has three terms, 8x, -4y, and 9
o The expressions 6x2 + 3xy 8y has three terms, 6x2, 3xy, and -8y
Polynomials are expressions with a finite number of non-zero terms, such as,
o 2a 5ab + 4c (three terms)
o p3 + 2p2 7p 8 (four terms)
o 9x3 4x2y 5y + 8y 7y2 (five terms)
2. Similar Terms
Consider the algebraic expressions 5a and -7xy + 3!
In the monomial 5a, 5 is called its coefficient and a is called its variable.
In the binomial -7xy + 3, -7 is the coefficient of the variables xy and 3 is called a
constant.
Next, consider the following algebraic expression!
12x2 9x 8y + 7xy 4x2 + 5y
The above algebraic expression has 6 terms, 12x 2, -9x, -8x, 7xy, -4x2, and 5y,
some of which are similar terms :
o
o

12x2 and -4x2

-8y and 5y

Two or more terms are called similar if they have the same variable having the
same value of exponent. In other words, terms are similar if they only differ in
the value of their coefficient
3. Adding and Subtracting Algebraic Expressions
The result of adding and subtracting algebraic expressions are by add or subtract
the coefficients of similar terms.

4. Multiplying Algebraic Expressions

x (x + a) = x2 + ax

x (x + a + b) = x2 + ax + bx

(x + a)(x + b) = x2 + bx + ax + ab

(x + a)(x + y b) = x2 + xy bx + ax + ay - ab

5. Dividing Algebraic Expressions

The quotient of monomial algebraic expressions are by divided the
coefficient with the coefficient and the variable with the same variable.
If the divisor is a binomial or polynomial, then the quotient can be found by
grouping like objects as in the division of positive integers.
6. Exponentiation of Algebraic Expressions
a. Interpreting the Exponentiation of Algebraic Expressions
Exponentiation of a number corresponds to repeated multiplication
of that number. Such as, 52 = 5 x 5 = 25, a x a = a2 a and b x b x b
= b 3.
3a2 is not equal to (3a)2, as for 3a2, it is a which is squared. As for
(3a)2, it is 3a which is squared.
b. Binomial Powers
In the result of expending a binomial power, the coefficients of the
terms can be calculated from Pascals triangle.
The coefficients of the terms in expanded binomial can be derived
from the Pascals triangle.
(a + b)0 = 1
1
1
(a + b)1 = a + b
1
2
1
(a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2
1
3
3
1
(a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3
Note that the exponent of a is descending, while the exponent of b
is ascending!
7. Factoring Algebraic Expressions
Factoring is reducing summation to multiplication of factors.
a. Factoring by Mean of Distributive Law
The summation of terms having the same factor can be factored by
means of distributive law. Such as, ab + ac = a(b + c)
1

b. Factoring x2 + 2xy + y2 and x2 - 2xy + y2

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x y)2 = x2 2xy + y2
x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2
x2 2xy + y2 = (x y)2
c. Factoring the Difference of Two Squares
(x + y)(x y) = x2 + xy xy - y2
= x 2 y2
x2 y2 = (x + y)(x y)
d. Factoring ax2 + bx + c when a = 1
Factoring x2 + bx + c can be accomplised by figuring out a pair of
numbers that satisfies the two following rule.
o The constant c is the product of that pair of numbers.
o The coefficient of x, which is b, is the sum of that pair of
numbers.
Factoring the expression x2 + bx + c :
x2 + bx + c = (x + p)(x + q)
where c = p x q and b = p + q
If the coefficient of x2 is negative, then its factorization can be
accomplised by multiplied by -1.
Example :
12 + 4x x2 = -1(x2 4x 12)
= -1(x 6)(x + 2)
= (-x + 6)(x + 2)
= (6 x)(2 + x)
e. Factoring ax2 + bx + c when a 1
Factoring ax2 + bx + c when a 1 can be accomplised as follows.
axc
ax2

bx

= ax 2 + px + qx + c

8. Operations on Algebraic Fractions

a. Reducing
Fractions
p Algebraic
q
If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction have a common
p + q = b and p x q = a x c
factor, then the fraction can be simplified.
Example :

4 a+12 b
8
=

4(a+3 b)
8

a+3 b
2

Furthermore, to reduce an algebraic fraction, sometimes we have to

use the opposite of that algebraic expression, such as (a b) = b
a, as one of the steps in reduction process.
b. Adding and Subtracting Algebraic Fractions
Fractions having a common denominator can be added or
subtracted by adding or subtracting their numerators. This is also
true for algebraic fractions.
Such as :

2 3 2+3 5
+ =
=
a a
a
a

If the denominators are different, then we have to find their

common denominator. To find the smallest common denominator,
find the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the denominators.
c. Multiplying and Dividing Algebraic Fractions
The product of two fractions can be found by multiplying the
numerators and multiplying the denominators.
Such as :

a c
x
b d

axc
bx d

Dividing two fractions is equivalent to multiplying one fraction and

the inverse of the other fraction.
Such as :

a c
:
b d

a d a xd
x =
b c bxc