body
as a
(4.5)
(4.6)
Equation 4.5 represents the vector displacement of the moving body at any time t,
while equation 4.6 represents the velocity of the moving body at any time. These
vector equations are used to describe the motion of a moving body in two or three
directions.
In the study of kinematics we found that the displacement and velocity of a moving
body can be determined if the original velocity v0 of the body and the acceleration a
acting on it are known. The displacement of the body was given by
r = v0t + 1 at2
2
(4.5)
v = v0 + at
(4.6)
These two equations completely describe the resulting motion of the body.
As an example of two-dimensional kinematics let us study the motion of a
projectile in two dimensions. A projectile is thrown from the point 0 in figure 4.2
with an initial velocity v0. The trajectory of the projectile is shown in the figure.
4-2
(4.7)
the x-component of the initial
that v0x is the x-component of
v0y is the y-component of the
is written in terms of the unit
(4.8)
The acceleration vector a in equation 4.5 could also have two components: ax, the xcomponent of the acceleration, and ay, the y-component. Hence the acceleration
vector a can also be written in terms of the unit vectors as
Equation 4.5 can now be written as
a = iax + jay
r = v0t + 1 at2
2
ix + jy = (iv0x + jv0y)t + 1 (iax + jay)t2
2
(4.9)
(4.10)
If we take the dot product of the unit vector i with equation 4.10 we get
i (ix + jy) = i (iv0x + jv0y)t + 1 i (iax + jay)t2
2
Since all i i = 1 and all i j = 0, only the x-components will be nonzero and we get
the equation for the x-component of the displacement to be
x = v0x t + 1 axt2
2
(4.11)
Similarly, if we take the dot product of the unit vector j with equation 4.10 we get
j (ix + jy) = j (iv0x + jv0y)t + 1 j (iax + jay)t2
2
In this case all j j = 1 and all j i = 0. Hence only the y-components will now be
nonzero and we get the equation for the y-component of the displacement to be
y = v0yt + 1 ayt2
2
4-4
(4.12)
1 gt2
2
(4.14)
(4.15)
vx = v0x + axt
j v = j v0 + j at
j (ivx + jvy) = j (iv0x + jv0y) + j (iax + jay)t
4-5
(4.16)
(4.17)
(4.18)
gt
(4.19)
Equation 4.18 gives the x-component of the velocity vx. Note that it does not contain
the time t, and therefore is independent of time and is a constant. Equation 4.19
gives the y-component of the velocity vy, at any time t. These two equations show
that the projectile motion consists of two motions: accelerated motion in the ydirection and motion at constant velocity in the x-direction.
We can completely describe the motion of the projectile using the four
equations, namely,
(4.13)
x = v0xt
(4.14)
y = v0yt 1 gt2
2
(4.18)
vx = v0x
(4.19)
vy = v0y gt
Now let us apply these equations to the projectile motion shown in figure 4.2.
We essentially look for the same information that we found for projectile motion in
one dimension. Because two-dimensional motion is a superposition of accelerated
motion in the y-direction coupled to motion in the x-direction at constant velocity,
we can use many of the techniques and much of the information we found in the
one-dimensional case.
Let us find (1) the time for the projectile to rise to its maximum height,
(2) the total time that the projectile is in the air, (3) the range (or maximum
distance in the x-direction) of the projectile, (4) the maximum height of the
projectile, (5) the velocity of the projectile as it strikes the ground, and (6) the
location and velocity of the projectile at any time t.
To determine this information we use the kinematic equations 4.13 through
4.19.
To determine the maximum height of the projectile we use the same reasoning used
for the one-dimensional case. As the projectile is moving upward it has some
positive vertical velocity vy. When it is coming down it has some negative vertical
velocity vy. At the very top of the trajectory, vy = 0.
Therefore, at the top of the trajectory, equation 4.19 becomes
4-6
0 = v0y
gtr
(4.20)
Note that this is very similar to the equation for the one-dimensional case, except
for the subscript y on v0. This is an important distinction between the two motions,
because the initial velocity upward v0y is now less than the initial velocity upward
v0 in the one-dimensional case. Solving equation 4.20 for the time to rise to the top
of the trajectory tr, we get
tr = v0y
(4.21)
g
Since we know v0 and hence v0y, and because g is a constant, we can immediately
compute tr.
(4.22)
But using equation 4.21 for the time to rise, tr = v0y/g, the total time that the
projectile is in the air is exactly double this value,
tt = 2v0y = 2tr
g
(4.23)
The range of a projectile is defined as the horizontal distance from the point
where the projectile is launched to the point where it returns to its launch height.
In this case, the range is the maximum distance that the projectile moves in the xdirection before it hits the ground. Because the maximum horizontal distance is the
product of the horizontal velocity, which is a constant, and the total time of flight,
the range, becomes
range = R = xmax = v0xtt
(4.24)
4-7
cos
= sin 2
(4.25)
We derived equation 4.25 based on the assumption that the initial and final
elevations are the same, and we can use it only in problems where this assumption
holds. This formulation of the range is particularly useful when we want to know at
what angle a projectile should be fired in order to get the maximum possible range.
From equation 4.25 we can see that for a given initial velocity v0, the maximum
range depends on the sine function. Because the sine function varies between 1
and +1, the maximum value occurs when sin 2 = 1. But this happens when 2 =
90 , hence the maximum range occurs when = 45 . We obtain the maximum range
of a projectile by firing it at an angle of 45 .
ymax = v0y2
2g
the maximum height of the projectile.
The velocity of the projectile as it hits the ground vg can be described in terms of its
components, as shown in figure 4.4. The x-component of the velocity at the ground,
(4.28)
The y-component of the velocity at the ground, found from equation 4.28 with t = tt
is
vyg = v0y gtt
(4.29)
= v0y g(2v0y)
g
vyg = v0y
(4.30)
The y-component of the velocity of the projectile at the ground is equal to the
negative of the y-component of the original velocity. The minus sign just indicates
that the projectile is coming down. But this is exactly what we expected from the
study of one-dimensional motion. The magnitude of the actual velocity at the
ground, found from its two components, is
vg
v xg
v yg
(4.31)
vg
v 0x
v 0y
v0
(4.32)
The speed of the projectile as it strikes the ground is equal to the original speed of
the projectile. The direction that the velocity vector makes with the ground is
4-9
v0y =
v0x
The angle that the velocity vector makes as it hits the ground is the negative of the
original angle. That is, if the projectile was fired at an original angle of 30 above
the positive x-axis, it will make an angle of 300 below the positive x-axis when it hits
the ground.
Solution
The x-component of the initial velocity is
v0x = v0 cos
4-10
60.0
f. To find the position and velocity of the ball at t = 4 s we use the kinematic
equations 4.13 through 4.19.
1.
4-11
y = v0yt
1 gt2
2
= (26.0 m/s)(4 s)
= 25.6 m
4.
vy = v0y gt
= 26.0 m/s (9.80 m/s2)(4 s)
= 13.2 m/s
At the end of 4 s the x-component of the velocity is 15.0 m/s and the y-component is
13.2 m/s. To determine the magnitude of the velocity vector at 4 s we have
v
v
vx
vy
13.2 m/s
15.0 m/s 2
= 20.0 m/s
Example 4.2
A projectile is fired horizontally from the roof of a building. A projectile is fired
horizontally from the roof of a building 30.0 m high at an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s,
as shown in figure 4.6. Find (a) the total time the projectile is in the air, (b) where
the projectile will hit the ground, and (c) the velocity of the projectile as it hits the
ground.
Solution
4-12
1 gt2
2
1 gt2
2
Solving for t,
2y
g
t
However, when t = tt, y = 30.0 m. Hence,
tt
2y
g
2( 30.0 m )
9.80 m/s 2
= 2.47 s
b. To find where the projectile hits the ground, we use equation 4.13,
x = v0xt
Now the projectile hits the ground when t = tt, therefore,
x = v0xtt = (20.0 m/s)(2.47 s) = 49.4 m
4-13
The projectile hits the ground at the location y = 30.0 m and x = 49.4 m.
c. To find the velocity of the projectile at the ground we use equations 4.28, 4.29,
and 4.31:
vxg = v0x = v0 = 20.0 m/s
vyg = v0y gtt = 0 (9.80 m/s2)(2.47 s) = 24.2 m/s
vg
v xg 2 v yg 2
24.2 m/s
20.0 m/s 2
= 31.4 m/s
The direction that the velocity vector makes with the ground is
= tan vyg = tan
vxg
The velocity vector makes an angle of 50.4 below the horizontal when the projectile
hits the ground.
Example 4.3
A projectile is fired at an angle from the roof of a building. A projectile is fired at an
initial velocity of 35.0 m/s at an angle of 30.0 above the horizontal from the roof of a
building 30.0 m high, as shown in figure 4.7. Find (a) the maximum height of the
4-14
Solution
The x- and y-components of the original velocity are
v0x = v0 cos
v0y = v0 sin
1 gt2
2
17.5 tt
1 (9.80 m/s2)tt2
2
30.0 = 0
The units have been temporarily left out of the equation to simplify the following
calculations. This is a quadratic equation of the form
with the solution
x
ax2 + bx + c = 0
(4.33)
b2 4ac
2a
(4.34)
4-15
tt
17.5
4 4.90
30.0
2(4.90)
= +17.5 29.9
9.80
= 4.84 s
The total time that the projectile is in the air is 4.84 s. If we had solved the equation
for the negative root, we would have found a time of 1.27 s. This corresponds to a
time when the height is 30.0 meters but it is a time before the projectile was
thrown. If the projectile had been thrown from the ground it would have taken 1.27
seconds to reach the roof.
d. To find the velocity of the projectile at the ground we use equations 4.28, 4.29,
and 4.31:
vxg = v0x = 30.3 m/s
vyg = v0y gtt = 17.5 m/s (9.80 m/s2)(4.84 s)
= 29.9 m/s
vg
vg
vxg
30.3 m/s
vyg
29.9 m/s
= 42.6 m/s
The speed of the projectile as it strikes the ground is 42.6 m/s. The angle that the
velocity vector makes with the ground, found from figure 4.8, is
= vyg
vxg
4-16
tan
vyg
tan
vxg
29.9
30.3
= 44.6
The velocity vector makes an angle of 44.6 below the horizontal when the projectile
hits the ground.
e. To find the range of the projectile we use equation 4.24:
xmax = v0xtt = (30.3 m/s)(4.84 s)
= 147 m
Example 4.4
The time for the projectile to be at a certain position. A projectile is fired at an initial
velocity of 30.0 m/s at an angle of 65.0 above the horizontal from the roof of a
building 40.0 m high, as shown in figure 4.7. Find (a) the time when the projectile is
at a height of 15.0 m above the top of the building, (b) the value of the x-coordinate
at this time, (c) the x-component of the velocity of the projectile at this time, and
(d) the y-component of the velocity of the projectile at this time.
Solution
The x- and y-components of the original velocity are
v0x = v0 cos
v0y = v0 sin
a. The height of the projectile at any instant of time is given by equation 4.14:
y = v0yt
1 gt2
2
v0yt
y=0
ax2 + bx + c = 0
4-17
b2 4ac
2a
tt
voy
voy
4 g/2 y
2( g / 2)
or
tt
voy 2
voy
2 gy
(4.35)
tt
27.2
27.2 m/s
9.80 m/s2
t = +27.2 21.1
9.80
Because this is a quadratic equation, there are two roots or solutions to the
equation. The first solution occurs for the negative root and gives
t = 0.622 s
That is, it will take 0.622 s for the projectile to rise to a height of 15.0 m. The second
solution occurs for the positive root and gives
t+ = 4.93 s
This is the time it takes for the projectile to rise to its maximum height and then
descend until it is 15.0 m above the top of the building on its way down. Thus, the
negative root gives the time it takes for the projectile to rise to the given height and
the positive root gives the time it takes for the projectile to be at that same height but
now it is on its way down.
b. Because of the two roots of the quadratic equation, there will be two values of x
associated with the times. The first value of x corresponds to the negative root t
when the projectile is on its way up. That is
x = v0x t = (12.7 m/s)(0.622 s) = 7.90 m
4-18
d. The value of the y-component of the velocity is given by the kinematic equation
vy = v0y - gt
The first value of vy corresponds to the negative root t when the projectile is on its
way up and is found as
vy = v0y
The second value of vy corresponds to the time t when the projectile is on its way
down, i.e.,
vy = v0y gt = 27.2 m/s (9.80 m/s2)(4.93 s) = 21.1 m/s
a
and rewrite it in the following form
dv
dt
dv
(4.36)
adt
dv
t
0
adt
(4.37)
(4.38)
At the beginning of the motion the time is t = 0 and this becomes the lower limit in
the second integral. At this same time the velocity of the moving body is v0, which
4-19
dv
(4.39)
v v0
v v0
(4.40)
adt
In general the acceleration term a in equation 4.40 could vary with time. If it does
we would have to know that functional relation before we can solve equation 4.40.
On the other hand, if the acceleration of the moving body is a constant, then it can
be taken out from under the integral sign to obtain
t
v v0
or
adt
a dt
0
v0
at
v0
at
at
(4.41)
Equation 4.41 gives the velocity of the moving body at any instant of time, when the
acceleration of the body is a constant. Notice that this is the same equation we
obtained in equation 4.6.
The velocity at any time was given by equation 4.2 as
dr
dt
v
which becomes
dr
Upon integrating
r
r0
dr
dr
dt
v0
v0
t
0
at
at dt
v 0 at dt
At the time t = 0, the lower limit in the second integral, the displacement of the
moving body is r0, which becomes the lower limit in the first integral. At the time t
= t, the upper limit in the second integral, the displacement of the moving body is r,
which becomes the upper limit in the first integral. Separating the two terms on the
right into two separate integrals we get
4-20
dr
v 0 dt
atdt
Since v0 and a are constant they come out of the integral sign to yield
r r0
or
v 0 dt a tdt
r
r0
v 0t
v 0t
1
2
2 at
1
2
at 2
(4.42)
(4.43)
Equation 4.43 gives the displacement r of the moving body at any instant of time for
a body that is undergoing constant acceleration. Equation 4.43 looks like equation
4.5 except for the term r0, which represents the position of the moving body at the
time t = 0. In our derivation of equation 4.5, we assumed that the body was at the
origin of our reference system and hence r0 = 0 in that equation. Equation 4.43 is
more general in that it allows for the moving body to be at some place other than
the origin at t = 0.
In summary equation 4.41 gives the velocity of the moving body at any time t
while equation 4.43 gives the displacement of the moving body at any time t.
v v 0 at
r r 0 v 0 t 12 at 2
(4.41)
(4.43)
Both equations are vector equations and the x- and y-component equations can be
obtained by dot multiplying each equation by i and j respectively, as we did in
equations 4.10 through 4.17, to yield
x = x0 + v0xt + 1 axt2
2
y = y0 + v0yt 1 ayt2
2
vx = v0x + axt
vy = v0y ayt
(4.44)
(4.45)
(4.46)
(4.47)
The terms x0 and y0 represent the initial coordinates of the body at the time t = 0. In
most of the analysis we did so far we assumed that the moving body was at the
origin of the coordinate system at the time t = 0 and therefore we set x0 = 0 and y0 =
0 and they were not in our kinematic equations. For the case of projectile motion we
can let ax = 0 and ay = g and we then obtain the equations for projectile motion
4.13, 4.14, 4.18, and 4.19.
It should now be obvious that the kinematic equations, 4.44 through 4.47,
hold only for motion at constant acceleration. Fortunately, most of the physical
problems that we will encounter in this course will be for motion at constant
acceleration and the standard form of the kinematic equations can be used. For
4-21
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.9 Uniform circular motion.
The first thing we observe in figure 4.9 is that the direction of the velocity
vector has changed in going from the point A to the point B. Recall from equation
4.36, that the acceleration is defined as the change in velocity with time, that is,
a = dv
dt
4-22
(4.36)
To determine the direction of the centripetal acceleration, let us start by moving the
vector v, located at the point B in figure 4.9, parallel to itself to the point A, as
shown in figure 4.10. The difference between the two velocity vectors is v v0 and
points approximately toward the center of the circle in the direction shown. But this
difference between the velocity vectors is the change in the velocity vector v, that
v=v
v0
v=a t
This is a vector equation, and whatever direction the left-hand side of the equation
has, the right-hand side must have the same direction. Therefore, the vector v
points in the same direction as the acceleration vector a. Observe from figure 4.10
that v points approximately toward the center of the circle. In the limit, if the
angle , between the points A and B, were made very small, approaching zero, then
v would become dv and would point exactly at the center of the circle. Then
dv = adt
4-23
Figure 4.11 The centripetal acceleration always points toward the center of the circle.
In addition to the usual unit of degrees used to measure an angle, an angle can also
be measured in another unit called a radian. As the body moves along the arc s of
the circle from point A to point B in figure 4.12, it sweeps out an angle in the time
t. This angle , measured in radians (abbreviated rad), is defined as the ratio of the
arc length s traversed to the radius of the circle r. That is,
4-24
(4.48)
Thus an angle of 1 radian is an angle swept out such that the distance s, traversed
along the arc, is equal to the radius of the circle:
= s = r = 1 rad
r
r
Notice that a radian is a dimensionless quantity. If s is measured in meters and r is
measured in meters, then the ratio yields units of meters over meters and the units
will thus cancel.
For an entire rotation around the circle, that is, for one revolution, the arc
subtended is the circumference of the circle, 2 r. Therefore, an angle of one
revolution, measured in radians, becomes
= s = 2 r = 2 rad
r
r
That is, one revolution is equal to 2 rad. The relationship between an angle
measured in degrees, and one measured in radians can be found from the fact that
one revolution is also equal to 360 degrees. Thus,
and solving for a radian, we get
Similarly,
4-25
(4.49)
(4.52)
is
=
4-26
(4.53)
Figure 4.14 The angle between the velocity vectors v and v0 is the same as the angle
out in moving from point A to point B.
swept
2
Hence,
Thus, the angle between the velocity vectors v and v0 is the same as the angle
swept out in moving from point A to point B.
4-27
(4.54)
If the angle is relatively small, then the arc of the circle s is approximately equal
to the chord of the circle |v v0| in figure 4.13. 1 That is,
arc chord
|v v0|= |a|t
s
In the limit
v v0
at
hence,
s = at
Substituting this result into equation 4.54 gives
= at
v
(4.55)
Thus we have obtained a second relation for the angle swept out, expressed now
in terms of acceleration, speed, and time. Return to equation 4.51, which gave us
the angle swept out as the moving body went from point A to point B along the
circular path, and compare it to equation 4.55, which gives the angle swept out in
the velocity circle. Because both angles
are equal, equation 4.55 can now be
equated to equation 4.51, giving
=
at = vt
v
r
Solving for the acceleration we obtain
a = v2
r
Placing a subscript c on the acceleration to remind us that this is the centripetal
acceleration, we then have
Note that |v v0| is the magnitude of the difference in the velocity vectors and is the straight line
between the tip of the velocity vector v0 and the tip of the velocity vector v, and as such, is equal to
the chord of the circle in figure 4.13.
4-28
(4.56)
Solution
The centripetal acceleration, found from equation 4.56, is
ac = v2
r
= (5.00 m/s)2
10.0 m
= 2.50 m/s2
(4.56)
Example 4.6
The special case of the centripetal acceleration equal to the gravitational
acceleration. At what uniform speed should a body move in a circular path of 8.50 m
radius such that the acceleration experienced will be the same as the acceleration
due to gravity?
Solution
We find the velocity of the moving body in terms of the centripetal acceleration by
solving equation 4.56 for v:
v
ra c
To have the body experience the same acceleration as the acceleration due to
gravity, we set ac = g and get
rg
v
ra c
8.50 m 9.80 m/s 2
= 9.13 m/s
4-29
If the body that is moving in a circle is not moving at constant speed, then there is
an additional term that must be considered because the speed is changing with
time. If the speed is changing with time this means that there is a tangential
acceleration aT given by
(4.57)
aT = dv
dt
This means that the body is speeding up or slowing down as it moves in the circle.
This acceleration is a vector that is tangential to the circle whereas the centripetal
acceleration ac is a vector that points toward the center of the circle and is
perpendicular to the tangent. For this nonuniform circular motion, the resultant
acceleration of the moving body becomes the vector sum of the tangential
acceleration and the centripetal acceleration, as seen in figure 4.14. That is,
with the magnitude
a = ac + aT
a 2c a 2T
(4.58)
(4.59)
Figure 4.15 The total acceleration of a body in nonuniform circular motion point is
equal to the vector sum of the tangential acceleration and the centripetal
acceleration.
The angle
found as
and
= aT
ac
4-30
(4.60)
aT
ac
(4.61)
Example 4.7
A body moving in nonuniform circular motion. At the instant that a car is traveling
at 3.50 m/s in a circle of radius 8.50 m, it undergoes a tangential acceleration of
2.50 m/s2. Find (a) the centripetal acceleration of the car, and (b) the magnitude of
the resultant acceleration of the car, and (c) the angle that the acceleration vector
makes with the radius of the circle.
Solution
a. The centripetal acceleration, found from equation 4.56, is
ac = v2/r
= (3.50 m/s)2/(8.50 m)
= 1.44 m/s2
b. The resultant acceleration is found from equation 4.59 as
(a c ) 2 (a T ) 2
a
1.44 m/s 2 2 2.50 m/s 2
= 2.89 m/s2
c. The angle
is found as
(4.61)
4-31
4-32
Average velocity
Acceleration
r1
t1
(4.1)
a = v = v v0
t
t
a = dv
dt
Instantaneous velocity
r
t
lim
t
(4.3)
(4.4)
dr
dt
(4.2)
v = v0 + at
(4.6)
r = v0t + 1 at2
2
x = v0xt
(4.5)
x-displacement
y-displacement
y = v0yt
x-component of velocity
vx = v0x
y-component of velocity
vy = v0y
gt
R = v02 sin 2
g
v v0
r r0
Centripetal acceleration
Nonuniform circular motion
(4.19)
vy2 = v0y2
Range
Arc length
(4.14)
(4.18)
1 gt2
2
(4.13)
t
0
t
0
(4.26)
(4.25)
(4.40)
adt
v 0 dt
2gy
t
0
atdt
(4.42)
= s
r
s=r
(4.48)
ac = v2
r
a = ac + aT
(4.56)
4-33
(4.49)
(4.58)
a 2c a 2T
(4.59)
4-34
4-35
4-37