Thesis
for
submitted
degree
Doctor
the
of
of
the
of
Philosophy
University-of
London
by
Jan Karlik
Department
of Phonetics
School
Oriental
of
and Linguistics
and African
1972
Studies
Abstract.
thesis
is
description
of
highlighting
to present
a grammatical
of Portuguese
Chapter
and gives
orthography used.
Chapter 3 is devoted
to the Manjakos,
the results
the phonology
Guinea,
basis
texts
of
of the
used for
Structure
and
Function.
and 6 describe the Sentence and String,
the
Clause, and the Verbal and Adverbial
Groups respectively,
thus
providing
a background, to the function
of the Nominal Group.
Chapters
4,5,
Chapter
8,9,
most frequently
for
Certain
reference
texts
are,
which, have,
are included in
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
I wish to express my thanks to many members of the staff
of the
Department oX Phonetics
at the School of Oriental
and Linguistics
University
Studies,
of London, for their instruction
and African
in classes
and inspiration
to acknowledge my gratitude
his advice and constructive
outside
classes.
to my, supervisor,
In particular
Mr. J. Kelly,
I wish
for
criticism.
in linguistics
I am indebted to the Summer
For my initial
training
both the Australian
Institute
branof Linguistics,
and the British
Studies was
at the School of Oriental
ches. My training
and African
made possible by a Governing Body Award, and subsequent research in
in March and April 3.971 was facilitated
by a grant
from the Central Research Fund of the University
of London. I am
to Dr. C. Day and Mr. A. Shaw of the University
College
grateful
Dakar,
Senegal,
preparing
formation
Dakar for
his
programmes for
the retrieval
of in-
Manjako.
I owe much to many Manjako friends who have helped me to learn
their languagel especially
to Ouep Mendy who has been my informant
and companion over much of the last seven years.
Much of the thesis has been typed by Mrs. K. Sparks whom I wish
I am grateful
to thank for her cheerfulness
and efficiency.
also
to Eversheds Ltd. of St. Albans who arranged for the photo-copying.
The thesis has been completed through the help of
checking and
who has spent long hours proof-reading,
I am indebted to her for many suggestions and ideas,
correcting.
my wife
CONTENTS
A detailed
list
of contents
is
included
at the beginning
of each chaptei
ZM:
Chapter
1.1
Background
1.2
The basis
Chapter
8
of
A Phonological
2.2
Orthogr9phy
3
the
present
description
and Orthograph
Phonology
2.1
Chapter
Introduction
Outline
The Nominal
30
31
41
Grou
43
3-1
Struoture
45
3.2
Function
57
3.3
Nominal Concord
3.4
59
62
Chapter 4
The Sentence'
66
4-1
Structure
68
4-
Function
80
4.3
The String
85
Chater
The Clause
88
5.1
Structure
95
5.2
106
5.3
Transitivity
123
5-4
Punction
147
Chapter
The Verbal
6.1
Verbal
6.2
Adverbial
and Adverbial
Groups
Group
154
155
177
Group
Chapter
The Phrases
7.1
The Numeral
7.2
The Digit
7-3
Concord
7-4
The Demonstrative
Chapter
Phrase
Phrase
The Words
8.1
The Verbs
8.2
The Nominals
8-3
The
8-4
The Particles
Quasi-nominals
The Stem
9,
Chapter
9.1
Structure
9.2
Function
Chapter
10
Phrase
The Morphemes
10.1
The, Roots
10.2
The Derivational,
10.3
The Pronoun
10.4
The Inflexional
Affixes
Suffixes
Affixes
Conclusion
The Texts
Bibliograplxy
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
ontents
page i
7
Map
Background
The Manjakos
1.2
The Manjako
Previous
The basis
land
language
and culture
Reseaxch
of
Theoretical
The Texts
The Manjako
and their
the
present
basis
8
10
13
desoription
16
16'
24
Story
28
CASAMANCE
Key:
Ceograhical
names, e. g. CHULAME
jfain Chieftaincies;
Tribes,
other
.
LtO
BACHUKI
e. g.
'e. g. Balckis
BALACH
BABOIANA
Jr
00,
o
3A
13 0LEBA
L-A CH
Balundo
Babok
KA
'-,,2Ag UJSDSE
A7
-Bayo4,
--,
ESSAU
7
16
1(1)
CHAPTER 1.
1.1.
SECTION 1.
The ManjakoE
:1
The Manjako
language
greater
number
Guinea
between
the
called
The language
is
called
is
spoken
lower
115,000
by about
in
resident
the
Portuguese
North-we'st
the
of
reaches
Manjakos,
Cacheu and
rivers
Geba).
in
several
dialects.
by the
largest
number
spoken
one spoken
language
and their
of whom are
Mansoa (also
and the
Backgrund
oentre
Teixeira
The most
of Manjakosq
This dialect
is
prestigious,
is
uBok,
spoken in and
by the Portuguese
Other principal
and
dialects
Bassarel
are those spoken around the principal
ohieftaincies:
(dialect
spoken: uXaam)p Churo (uChur), Pelundo (uLund),
(ujinjasa),
Calequisse (uLekis)p
Cajinjassa
Canhobe, (uNh6p)
Beniche (uNich),
Cai6 (u.Y8), Jets, (uTer), Pecixe (uLil),
Biangga
(u.Yangga),
Bara. (uRa),
Capual (uPuel).
The speakers of
these "lesser"
dialects
maintain that they are able to understand
the Baboque dialect
without difficulty,
as well as the dialects
spoken
in surrounding areasq but they find it difficult
to communicate with
if those areas
especially
So for example uLill
a dialect
spoken on
the island of Pecixeo although understood by the speakers of other
from neighbouring
dialects
areaso is not understood by the speakers
dialectal
groupsv
Churo.
distant
from
such
dialects
as
areasq
more
of
differences
In spite of these dialectal
and political
organization
(29
in number) rather than on some,
local
based on
chieftaincies
their
Manjakos
the
aware
of
common
are
well
central authority,
have been for
some time,
for
the
membership, and apparently
the
known
'Uanjacoll
name
as
early
as
a
supra-dialectal
as
was
name
the
Bulletin_
Bocand4
Bertrand
last
the
writes'in
century.
middle of
(1849)
XII
in an
Paris,
3e
de
s4rieq
de la SociA4 do G6ographie
tribal
1(1)
axticle
entitleh
"On les
tenue dans la
Manjacosq parce-que dans la conversation
langue de leur pays, ils r4p4tent
souventle mot Manjaco, qui
Idites donc, ' ou: 'je vous dis. 111S. W. Koelle quotes the
signifie:
(1854),
Mands&ko
in
his
Africans,
in the introductions
Polyglotta
name
0
(I.
his
he
the
Saxar
in
Word
List
Kanyop
B. 2
although
uses
names
and
and I. B-4).
appelle
According
to Fernando
Cultural
da Guin6
Manjaco
goes back
us the
information
tribe
Rogado Quintinho
Portugues
to
the
that
24 (1969)9
("Os
Povos
861)
the
da Guin6":
use of
18th
Century.
earlier
the
were
Manjakos
the
also
considered
Boletim
name
gives
to be
together
word lists,
we observe little
lexical
similarity
"Bola (so. Mancanha),
between group IB
Sarar (Manjako), Pepel
lexical
again comparing his Word Lists,
we may establish
a more definite
affinity
of his Group IB with the 0 Group of his Group Kongo Ngola
languages (Group X), or even South-Eastern Languages (Group XI) than
Of course, with no adequate
with the other Sub-groups of Group I.
linguistic
to form a basis for re-classification,
the
evidence available
by
were doubtless influenced
successive generations
of comparativists
(1913;
Koelle's
Migeot
34) gives the grouping
Thus
classification.
.1
Pepel,
(1)
Bola, "Sararl,
6+17
Kanyo'p,
which use
...
and Westermann and Bryan (195f; '15) place Manjako among the West
Languages, in which Group are also e. g. Fulani,
Atlantic
Serer and
Greenberg (1955; 10) repeats Koellets
Wolof.
Sub-group IB with
("Bolaaa,
change
Sarar,
slight
as Koelle
Pepel,
Kanyop")
and leaves
it
grouped
larger
patible
tidal
its
which
creeks
mangrove
land
and cultur
the Manjakos
and rivulets,
swamps which
just
immediate
present
The Manjako
2
The land
with
inhabit
eis
surrounded
when reclaimed
neighbours.
flat,
watered
in'their
serve
a few'feet
estuaries
Their
settlements
are small,
is fertile
grass,
by extensive
rice
as excellent
above sea-level,
,
is over-groymwith
not cultivated
vegetation:
The Manjakos build their clay huts near their
plantations.
by numerous
fields.
and where
scrub or jungle.
rice-fields
or ground-nut
of one
consisting
the ments house,
buildings:
usually
and Dolyeynous, so the household may consist of a man and his wife or
wives, his unmarried children,
and his married sons together with their
(but
and
children
vives
not, of course, married daughters, unless divorced).
However Greenberg 1963; P-8 mentions I'Mandyak" deleting
Sarar and
Kanyop. Homburger 1957; 54 remarks: I'Dans les lles on signale...
le papel, le brame ou mancania, le manjoco, etc. " same as in the
earlier
edition
of 1941.
10
It
is usual
that
their
establish
after
several
years of marriage,
the married
(1)
sons
with
away, where they settle
While they live-together
with the father
their
continue
in economic co-operation.
is his heir,
A man's younger
son as next in
centre,
Cai6,
Calequisse
and Pelundo.
The population
of Portuguese
and lesser
towna
The Mmjakos who..find employment in'the
officials.
administrative
on the outskirts,
as they prefer to continue with their farming
settle
as well, and they do not mingle much with the rest of the Africanof the townships, who are mostly Mandingo, Fula, or
population
de-tribalized
Creole speakers
these townships
normally
*air
axe within
by all-weather
owing to guerilla
roads,
but of late
tribal
Pinto,
areas.
.-All
accessible
only by river-transport
or
activity.
sorghum, millet,
and cassava.
maize, sweet-poiatoes
With a matchet they do the clearing
and when no farming is to be done,
they Go to the jungle to get the few remaining necessities
of lifes
palm-nuts for the extraction
of oil,
palm-branches for roPe-making and
fencing,
and palm-wine
as a part-payment
for
to the, ancestral
or to use
spirits
Such cash as is needed comes'
price.
libations
of the bridal
). l
1(1)
mainly
and palm-nuts.
situated
to fishing
of a few professional
Deep sea
sites.
fishermen who daily
''River fishing,
kinds of fish.
supply the markets with many different
is
Manjakos
and
on the other hand, is the spare time pursuit
of many
in various ways: damming tidal rivulets,
fish-traPs)
building
practised
This
catching the fish in circular
netsq' or even by line-fishing.
helps to supplement their diet for, of their livestockj
chickens I goats'
and pigs are seldom, and cows never, killed
except on ceremonial and
occasions.
ritual
The Manjakos are,
however,
cosmopolitan
in their
It is
outlook.
to go to the Casamance
their
12
of illiterates
The percentage
as the estimated
a government
official.
and disciplined
fluent
readers
the first
average
i high,
(1)
although
Portuguese
efforts
of French or English.
It
is
especially
of Scripture
portions
and of Manjako Reading books.
The books published so far are: Gospel o
have found wide acceptance.
(Scripture
Parables
Mark (duplicated
Lord
Gift Mission),
the
edition),
of
productions
Manjako Fables,
Readers I,
II,
aids
III,
Previous
Sto
Gospel of
Let us Write,
Christmas
of
and'a revised translation
by the British
and Foreign Bible Society:
Research
Bassarel,
seems that nearly a century elapsed before the name Manjako was again
(*).
linguistic
In 1947 a joint work by Ant6nio
in
writing
mentioned
barreira
and Jo5o Basso Marques was published as Monograph No. 3 by the
Centro de Estudos da Guin4 Portuguesa under the name "Subs:rdios para o
It
rnpua
1:
da
manjacall.
estudo
often
quite
unnecessary
of the cat, the 2nd person being given as --iu, 3rd person as -iul,
while
The "Churo dialect"
the coxTect forms are -u and -ul.
of the same
paradigm has been enriched by the accidental
a4dition
and so
of "this",
The whole is rather
once again the Possessive Pronoun paradigm is faulty.
io
intended
by
the
be, namely "Helps in the
authors
was
Study of the Hanjako Language".
There axe nevertheless
helpful
things
11
Except for the restatements
of Koelle's
work, as mentioned above.
13
less
than it
(1)
distinguishing
Reference
names in Portuguese.
to it,
for
several
/i/.
and
caution,
/j/
/wl
"Llensemble
Manjaku:
Dialectes
(pages
15 to 27) of a larger
part
des langues de Casamance (Centre de Linguistique
Manjako phonology
is
discussed
Appliqu&de
Dakar; 1967)
apel
the phonology of
and Mancanha.
(ii)
"Le Ibmjakup
Paxis
form,
Nominales
et
Questions
L'Alternance
sur
in
La classification
dans
a symposium called
nominale
(Centre
National
de la Recherche Scientifique,
africaines;
Consonantique"
lantrues
Classes
n4gro
1967v
les
a revised
in
the
near
future.
(iii)
"Essai
Comparative
(iv)
Mxjana
which
in
France.
of
the
and Mancanhal
Trifkovic
to
de la
langue
appear
shortly.
du f'ranais
1971),
workers
The analysis
Papel
is
Linguistics,
"Llapprentissage
(CLA, Paris,
Manjako
de reconstruction
other
deals
les
ouvriers
phonological
two languages
has also
analysed
with
par
*manjaku"
in
this
which
manjakus
readjustment
linguistic
is- a study
enTrance"
of
sub-group,
the phonology
and morphology
of the Mancanha,
in
language
(IFAN,
in
Dakar,
unpublished
also
a book,
1969).
paper,
translated
4tude
"Le Mancagne,
The Papel
1964)
language
and reduced
phonologique
et morphologique",
(in an
has been analysed
to writing
portions
and published'various
by Lily
of
15
(1)
the
Gaynor,
Bible
in
who has
Papel.
CHAPTER 1.
.
1.2
Theoretical
:1
the
of
description.
present
Basis
to linguists,
This analysis
of Manjako draws on concepts long familiar
the limits
but does not attempt to remain rigidly
within
of one particla, -t,
It uses those techniques of description
considered mos-L
school or model.
(1949;
Manjako,
Martinet
description
p. 35)t
af.
of
useful in the
should never forget that it is not for a language to meet
the requirements
method, but for the method to adapt
of a descriptive
inspiration
" The greatest
to the whims of linguistic
itself
reality.
and,
description,
been
found
in
the
however,
has
for
this
present
usefulness
(1964
Halliday
listed
in the
M.
A.
K.
and various articles
work of
"Linguists
i3ibliography),
"Systemic
Grammar".
The
description
,
possible,
in
order
is
written
familiar
using
to make it
training,
in
material
presented.
simply
terms
useful
linguistics
from
traditional
to-missionaries
who are
to
find
only
with
as
appropriate
grammar where
and others
likely
"jargon"
as little
and with
limited
use for
a practical
the
isp
The
that
Syntax
Morphology,
jr,
analysis
concentrates
grammar
and
on
the more restricted
sense of the word as it has been used throughout the
(1971;
6):
Systemic
Grammar,
by
Hudson
tradition
of
recently
a use upheld
"In systemic terminologyj
grammar is the name of the level of language
which includes syntax and morphology, but it does not include either
the
hand,
lexis
the
the
nor
or
semantics
on
other ....
one
an
phonology
to
be
deep
enough
make contact with the
must
account
grammatical
to
deep
both
enough
make contact with the
and
surface
and
phonology,
lexis.
11 This is
the structure
chapter
examples
of
In keeping with
of each item described.
are made from time to time to semantic categories,
this
of
on Phonology
The description
little
in the description
analysis
and function
aim, references
frequent
this
lexical
is
are
given,
and a separate
short
included.
necessarily
has previously
groupings
attempts
been written
about
to
cover
it,
the whole
but, the
languaget
Nominal
since
Group has
1(2)
is
This
partly
special attention.
boncord
is
the syptem of
and in particular
languages, and partly
tb-students
of African
been selected
struture
interest
for
to be of
because the
in
the
Clause
to
Group
Nominal
the
enters
seem
which
(Chapter
the
thesis
5.
large
A
field
section of
of study.
of transitivity
given over to the description
Roles (using the term as Halliday
the Participant
ther; for
3) is
in Manjako examining
does (e. g. 1970; 146,147))
Clause.
likely
internal
into
-relationships
be a fruitful
Section
because its
The analysis
Utterances
of the constituent
is based on grammatically
complete utterances.
(although they may be
incomplete
Lyons (1969;
to only occasionally.
in
discourse
categories
and system,
the work
of
Syntagmatic
linguists,
andthat
school.
incorporated,
used but
Halliday's
other
Tagmemic school,
with
from
recognized
are
following
sometimes
but
sentences
which
the
of
utterances
connected
axe derived",
The four
class
the
of
The three
by Halliday,
with
(1961).
modifications
own later
unit,.
described
structuret
belowo
of
work,
the
implicitly
1961 article
axe also
''
and rank'explicitly,
modifications.
choice,
not
as-Polarity
30
Unit
"The unit
(Halliday
is
the stretch
of langdage
that
carries
grammatical
patterns"
196,
units
The Units
identified
for
this
analysis
set of
of Manjako ares
SENTENCE
(STRING)
CLAUSE
GROUP
(PHRASE)
WORD
(STEM),
MORPHEME
Structure
"The category
is the Category
of structure
that
accounts
for
the
various
Each Unit
(except
more-or-less
fixed
In this
description,
units
having
of several
Elements in'
the Elements.
For instance,
the first
division
Class e. g. Noun or
on which particular
Pronoun, manifests
the Head Elementl which in turn influences
the
Elements.
Thus Surface
of the optional
possibility
of co-occurrence
Constituent
Structure,
The String,
depending
status
as Units.
1 '(2)
Structure
relates
to the syntagmatic
relates
to the paradigmatic
axis.
axis
and Constituent
Where there
Structure
is no choice
of different
Constituent
Structure
is not described separately
classes,
manifesting
to express
from Surface Structure.
is retained
The term "constituency"
the traditional
structuralist
sense where necessary, for instancep to
the manifestation
of the various Nominal Groups in cases of
Most of the Units at the Word Rank are described as having a
embedding.
Source Element and a System Element.
These terms follow Bolinger's
(1968;
56), 1
Source
System
into
division
of morphemes
morphemes
morphemes and
describe
pointed
out that
since
Systemic
Grammar emphasizerji
it
should
be possible
can
explicit",
aim at being "fully
and secondly because. the concept
to
"optional"
seems to be a very useful one, particularly
with reference
Elements of the Major Nominal Groupt without it, a proliferathe optional
tion of Types would be needed to account forlevery
possible oo-occurrence
hardly
optional
Elements.
Class
"A class is any set of items having the same possibilities
(Halliday 1964; 29).
in structure"
of operation
below).
II
19
1 (2)
Svstem Halliday
describes
of relations
on the
in a given environment"
a set of features contrastive
and goes on to show how systems of features may represent
'
simultaneous choices or may be ordered.
paradigmatic
(1965; 60),
a.-Js,
Halliday
envisages
together
giving
a systemic
a full
description
grammatical
and a structural
description
of each item.
description
However,
in this
structural
A systemic
description
Hudson
useful in the case of simultaneous sub-divisions,
particularly
(1971; 56) sees this as a special
contribution
of Systemic Grammar:
'Whenever vie set up a grammatical class we do so by sub-dividing
some
larger class with respect to some Idimensiontof
classification
.....
This means that each class is contrasted with at least one other class
from the same sub-division
resulting
and it is this relation
of contrast
between the classes
which'we
allow
refer
corresponding
to as alsystem"',
cross-classification".
between Types(ldimension'
Function)-has
4)-'
In practice
useful to describe-stractural
Components mentioned above.
Units
Units
has generally
proved mostl
realizations
of features of the various
Different
systems have been described for
a systemicAescription
is projected
Projection
as a
1 (2)
An attempt
analysis
in the gramm
Transitivityv
the Surface
together
of the Components.
in
identification
Grammar
the
Deep
and
The Components identified
to bring
Semantic Class,
Theme,
Lexical
in Units
Class,
at various
Ranks,
diagram:
Theme-
Transitivity
Tense
Ifood
Polarity
Semantic Class
Class
Lexical
Number
Person
Aspect
following
The systems are diagrammed with bracketting
Only the following
need be mentionedi
practice.
a or b
selection
of either
a
b
selection
of both a and b
a0
b
prior selection
of either
the selection
on c
a0
b
Note:
prior selection
of a
selection
letters
may represent
the established
a or b is a condition
a single
feature
for
for
the
or a system
of
features
further
cross-cutting
sub-divisions
are required
in addition
to the
1 (2)
Function
-
Structure
but diagrams
classifications,
in the form of
possibilitiest
representation...,
Rank
Halliday
envisaged
to Halliday's
earlier
in a hierarchy,
model,
and ante-
the
Unit
(cf.
Pickett:
"Phrase")p
for
example,
the Pronoun,
but a word
the Head of a Nominal Group with other Elements manifested;
which is not expandable in this way is not a Group and functions
in the Clause, for example the Adverb, or in the Sentence,
directly
examplep the Introducer,
Rank
Clause
the
also.
case
for
recent
developments
"skipping"
tend to consist
hypotactic
(1970;
186)
recursion.
Embedding an rankshifting
are described
1 (2)
in the body of the thesis
in providing
The concept
to simplify
areas of abstraction
convenient
of the Surface
where relevant.
of Rank is useful
the description
Structure,
the
and as regards Deep Grammar facilitates
I
to' a
of that part of a Component which is relevant
identification
Unit.
particular
analysis
are,
like
the Units,,
Sentence,
therefores
used in this
Utterance-could
differentiation
There are also
Clausel
three
Sub-ranks
recognized,
to the Ranks:
intermediate
these axe the String Sub-rank between the Clause and the Sentence, the
Phrase Sub-rank between the Word and the Group, and the Stem Sub-rank
between the Morpheme and the Word.
to only
part
of the
An Element in a Unit
further
grammatical
classes,
may be realized,
The featu=es
are first
selected
described
at primary
Structure
delicacy
for
the Classes.
"I,
1 (2)
The Texto
1.2 :2
The
is based on texts
description
1967 in Portuguese
during
collected
Others
contain
childhood
reminiscences,
of recent
happeningsp descriptions
to marriage and divorce,
of customs Ielating
funerals
and funeral
axd
ceremonies, property rights
and inheritancep
the political
organization
of the tribe.
to in this
The Texts most fcequenQy referred
informants:
recorded by the following
accounts
description
have been
Louron2o Correia,
literate,
a young man in his early twentiesl
Cabienque, about three miles from Teixeira
(Texts A, B, C, Dp Ej F, G)
San Gomes
Pinto.
of Teixeira
.
Oue2a Mendy
All
of
Pinto..
these informants
(also
called
costa de Baixo). The vocabulary which they used gave the impression
that their speech was representative
of the Manjako spoken by the
(which
free
from
by
the
archaisms used
elders
younger generation,
may often
foreign
A
vary
from village
admixtures.
text
the
of
portion
in order to highlight
cases the reference
but also
to village),
referred
to
is
free
sometimes
abridged
the point
In such
it
At times an example appears without a reference following
This is so in the case of utterances
recorded in the course of
or in the case of a point of grammar being illustrated
a conversationj
text
in
found
be
every
many times, so that a reference to
may
which
text may be misleading
rather than
place in a certain
one particular
enlightening.
Notes on the texts
iaost frequently
used for
24
illustration
follow:
1 (2)
and a Boy
An unfair
chief is mocked by a little
A. A Chief
to share his
lemon
ly.
B. Hyena and
because of refusing
to share
provokes
Hare
and Vulture;
to
Mosquito
to
take;
an unfair,
contest,
but
loses
his
finds
that
his
life.
and Bush-fowl
Hare is
able to deceive
is no match
cleverness
F.
Hime-wanted.
and Grass-fly
Graso-fly
E. Hare
to himself
the name whioh
brings
him poverty.
the. Vulture
for Bush-fowl.
easily,
but
G. Childhood
with
a Demon which
does not
bring
him'-apy
reminiscences
from LourenpIs
A sad recollection
childhood when his mother is sent
house, while he, a child of about 4 or 5, has
away from his father's
to stay.
Ha. An Epic about Mporta Kninki
A miracle child Mporta Kninki becomes a hero and a chief because he
human and non-human alike from the tyranny of Ble Kabgmb.
delivers
Hb. Hare
and Bush"fowl
In a series
very cause
the deceitful
of episodes,
of his own downfall.
superior
Hare
finds
his
deceit
to be'the
match
strength
vias not
is not sufficient
over an
dead
25
.1
Chl.
avarice
nearlycosts
Customs
relating
him his
to
Ouega, although
when to leave
fishing,
off
but Hare's
life.
marria_pe
and
divorce
only a teenager,,
to forgive
asks his in-laws
and to lot his wifo ret =
and funeral
CR. Childhood
Sickly,
diet
for
a rice-harvest
can be counted
the Manjakos.
reminiscences
abnormal,
among the
little
ceremonies
to his wi. Ce
cruelty
which is
on to provide
his
to him again.
to funerals
an explanation
him for
or
Manjakos.
even unusual
This
b4bies
was neariy
the
are
fate
thrown
which
away
Ouejals
befell
sister.
squirrels
Squirrel
boys' lives.
catching is one of the excitements in little
Many things must be rerambered to bring the siege to a desired end.
-SG.
Story
about
No matter
count
a Goblin
what
beyond
the
Goblin
may be able
to
do,
he certainly
cannot
four.
26
him off
into
slavery.
1 (2)
and a free
A literal
English
r
translation
axe given
below
each
line
of text
(OP)
completive
(ot)
continuous
(dem)
demonstrative
derived
Marker
QU(r/p)
question
(SP)
The romaining
e. g.
imp.
from
real/Positive
supervening
abbreviations
"imperative'll
subj.
("came to"
("eventually"
used
are
self-explanatory
"subjunctive",
in
context,,
etc.
27
1
r
The Manjako
2- :3
Story
Stories include
is rich in stories and myths.
Manjako oral literature
The
Myths
are
genealogical.
mainly
leGands, fables,
anecdotes.
epics and
told
While
is
myths
only
are
story-telling.
usual means of entertainment
funerals,
drummers
storyat
e.
g.
by specialists
occasions,
on
and
special
but
story-tellers,
is not the prerogative
of semi-professional
telling
to
tell
be
However,
a
tell
able
will
not.
everyone
a story.
anyone may
story
well.
mus.t follow
a definite
have
an
must
pattern.
11
is
"This
the
by
story
or
a
about
Introduction,
words
usually
.....
the
to
thing
important
the
However,
about
remember
words.
similar
first.
by
him
the
identify
it
is
that
naming
anti-hero,
Introduction
must
Firstlyit
Secondly,
it
Conclunion,
Didactic
must have a
usually by the words "It
is
finished"
or by a
or a quiz. Finally,
may have an
Asidej by which the narrator
aims at a closer contact with the audience
by securing their mental assent to an undisputed truth,
e. g. "Fly, you
(Text
be
there"
B), or: "At the
fly
the
know, wherever you may cat,
will
it
is,
how
it
know
nobody will
well, you
(Text
Ha).
head"
pot on your
your waterI
is the fable.
The Idanjako fable
the most popular of all stories
tribes
in the choice of
from the fables of many West African
differs
frequently
The
appearing axe Hyena, Hare,
most
characters
characters.
The characters
by
of these axe fixed extra-contextually:
and Bush-foril.
By far
their
frequent
appearance
Hare of a selfish
cheat,
they acquire
and Bush-fowl
a "tag",
Hyena of a brainless
of a gentlemanly trickster.
bully,
Of the three
Bush-fowl
anti-hero,
him a I'modiator"of
consider
The vice
the opposition)
shoym up in nearly
is
This
in
fact
is
-fables
(and
the
trait
the
by
Manjakos,
worst
of character
considered
apparently
by other African peoples Ls.well .accor#ng
to P. Bohannan (1969'; 336)). By
social
used here,
himself
selfishness.
cheating
comparison,
entail
all
rather
often
a trickster,
term "trickster".
The hero is
Thematil
first
a
c role
of naming the anti-hero
-has
in the "given".
the Utterance in that the "new" is anticipated
The device
story
in
could
-a
CHAPTER 2.
PHONOLOGYAND ORTHOGRAPHY
onten
A Phonological
2.1
Outline
Consonants
2
Vowels
CVC Patterning
Irregular
3.1
Root Patterns
Prenasalization
Morpho-phonemics
5-1
Assimilation
5.2
Vocalic
5-3
Mutation
5-4
Elision
5-5
Dissimilation
Fusion
Orthography
2.2
I
/
(1)
CHAPTER 2.
2.1
:1
SECTION 1. A Phonological
Outline
Consonants
consonant
/t/v
/b/I
/p/t
/t/I
/ntj/,
/mp/9 /nt/I
t 1.1
/d/p
/d
/w/9/j/.
/Ok/;
/9/;
31P
ATI,
/ntr/;
/nd/,
/nd3/,
19gl.
Deacription
The description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5-
/tr/;
and affricates
plosives
2.1
/k/;
phonemes:
representation
phonological
sub-members of the phoneme
by three-term
labels
description
representation
orthographic
in orthography
examples written
comprise:
with
the
relevant
phoneme underlined
/p/
[p]
viless
bilabial
plosive
/t/
Et]
viless
alveolar
plosive
5
p6n
u2i
t ay
tan
Kato
MJ
/tS/ Etr,
-]
vIless
alveolo-palatal
affricate
Irl-I
fricative
alveolo-palatal
viless
[tr-]
in free fluctuation
with
in all positions
except
following
nasals
/k/
Ek]
viless
velar
/tr/
Et4I
viless
post-alveolar
plosive
affricate
ch
"bind"
"house"
"feel
better"
man-chi
"I am"
"bell
chi
ra-chet'"harvest"
faTc h "white's
k
ka "have"
zCo "animal's
,a
"lay hand"
X8P
axa.
paZ
31
11goout"
"goat"
"hit"
11goll
"younger
sibling"
"separate"
(1)
/b/
/d/
'2
Cb3
voiced
"come"
EP3
fricative
voiced bilabial
3
in free fluctuation
with
inter-vocalically
and wor
3 finally
kabol
laTb-
"sacrifice"
"rescue "
Cd3
voiced
Ti
"in"
C-C]
Cr3
/9/
15
bi
initially
/d3/
4'
3
'b:l abiaL-plosive
alveolar
plosive
and-following
voiced
alveolar
inter-vocalically
finally
nasals_
irig
tap
tor
with
C-C]
voiced
CZJ
fricative
voiced
alveolo-palatal
CdZ.
]
in free fluctuation
with
in all
except followpositions
ing nasals
193
voiced
affricate
plosive
EY3
fricative
voiced
velar
Cg],.
in free fluctuation
with
inter-vocalically
and wordfinally
/M/
voiced
/n/
[n]
alveolar
voiced
nasal
initially
and inter-vocalically
homorganic
nasal
before
plosives
and affricates
nasalization
of the preceding
vowel elsewhere
[m, njj1jq]
Eul
bilabial
voiced
palatal
voiced
velar
nasal
nasal
nasal
32,
eat".
(rare)
Cd;.]
alveolo-palatal
"I
"ricefields"
'"fill"
and word-
I
voic ed alveolar
roll
in free fluctuation
word-finally
velar
ian-re
"I
man-ja
ja
kaji
laj
llsa: 11,
"wound"
A'suck"
gar
"scatter"
say"
1Ok "chicken"
11cryll
ruz
"know"
me
"rabbit"
umaal
11swimil
lam
,
"be rotten"
n8k
Kan8 "autumn"
maZ-bi, "I came"
banhaan
nh
nhaan
;; IJU
raanh
ng
njEAl
imi
=aang
"people"
"pray"
"bait
"stop
raining"
"like"
"clothes
"poke"
11
2 (1)
2
A/
If]
viless
labio-dental
/s/
[a]
viless
alveolar
fricative
voiced
alveolar
lateral
fricative
fet
11de-husk"
*fab "cinders 11
c7haaf "spear
fish"
"pound"
Ro
sn
kasa "cloud"
$'drum"
las
/W/
Ewl
voiced
labio-velar
/j/
CJ]
voiced
palatal
Prenagalized
Consonantst
semi-vowel
positions
counterpart
las
11drum"
tJ
"sheet"'
11spillil
wet
iwel
gal
"sweep"
"hair"
"chase"
ya
kaya
kay
"go',
"song"
11CITY11
Kalenj
semi-vowel',
in initial
the non-prenasalized
occurs.
4'
/Mp/
CMP]
pren.
vIlees
bilabial
plosive
MP
nal-081i.
leM
figirlif
"work"
/nt/
Cntj
pren.
viless
alveolar
plosive
nt
naatpy
rant
"man"
"click
tongue"
/nt/
Cptq]
pren.
vIleas
alv. -pal.
nch
Kanchung8
Pinto"
"Teixeira
pnk8nch "middle"
/9k/
[9k]
pron.
viless
velar
nk
"dusk"
kankuel
"cut hair"
p6nk
/ntr/
CutJ]
pren.
vIless
post-alv.
nx
/mb/
Cmbj
pren.
voiced
bilabial
mb
kambach
affricate
ploaive
affricate
plosive
bamb
11circumcision"
"carry
on
back"
(1) '
/nd/
End]
pren.
voiced
alveolar
plosive
nd
kand6nd "crowd"
'
'
"be
half
gEd:
fullil
/nd3/
[p d:p]
pren.
voiced
alv. -pal.
plosive
nj
tnj&k "field
.
rat"
umbaaj "knife"
ngg
nanLff-Euran llshamexP
I'same"
ganga
[ug]
2.1
voiced
velar
plosive
Vowels
:2
lianjako
pren.
vowel
A/
Al
as followss
/o/
IAI
/0/
/a/
These have the approximate
values indicated
on the following
Cardinal
Vowel diagram:
I
The following
vowels
may occur
longs
/u: /
/a:
/A/
9/
Note -Idl vowels except'/,
and
(see
2.1 : 5).
boundaries
morpheme
34
may be lengthened
by fusion
across
diphthongs,
Aa/
/UV/
IiAl
/UA/
all
Description
2.1
[i]
'close front
[L]
half-olose
[C]
half-open
[a]
[0]
open central
unrounded
half-open
back rounded
/o/
[V]
half-close
/U/
Eu]
Ea3
U
a
yuk Iffitil
lal
/A/
CV]
:al "'deceive"
/u: /
CUU]
close
uu
/a: /
Caa]
open central
aa
ymih "fear"
naam "seem"
ie
liet
"arrange
is,
li
"spread
ue
suel
"pick
us,
sual
"incite"
/e/
/a/
/iq/ DO?
IiAl
Eie]
/UD/
[ua]*
/UA/
Eue],
Note:
unrounded
front
front
unrounded
unrounded
back rounded
unrounded long
close front
half-close
unrounded to
centml u=unded
close front unrounded to
half-open central unrounded
close back rounded to
Iralf-close central unrounded
close back rounded to
open central unrounded
some fluctuation
some fluctuation
with
Cee]
with
Coo]
p1ch "sing
pich
e
B.
P.!t "peel"
0
8
pak "deny"
fal
praises"
"write"
"out"
b8k "give
birth"
b9k "bury"
wood"
cloth"
up fruit"
2 (1)
CVC Patterning
-_
_. _3
21anjako roots have a predominan
2.1
including
't
CVC pattern
(where C-
any consonant
plosives
and affricates,
and V- any vowel).
V, VC, and CV also occur, but in the absence
the patterns
prenasalized
Roots with
have a predominant
pref
suff
An
naj6kan
"teacher"
pntingu
"your
nA
jok
Cv CvC v
nteg
N CvC VC
I
E. g. z
root
Cv OvC VC
v CvC v
When lal
V or VC pattern.
bok
d-b8ka
tAW
C.
Md/
mtawind
fetish"
milk"
in prefixes
it exhibits
harmony with the
a limited
(almost
[a]
E6])
it
the
is
fronted
before
root:
of
realized
as
a
vowel
the front vowel in the root (Example 1); as [a] before a central vow el
,
Eal (almost M)
before a
in the root (Example 2); and as a retracted
occurs
(Example 4).
Note:
containing
prefixes
(see Orthography
2.2)
/a/
are
written
with
the
Examples:
1.
/Pati/ Ep9til
ptl
"rainy
2. /pgb@k/ [pabgk]
3. /PDgod/ CP290-01
pb8k
"gravel'
paor
"heart"
4- /P-IdBk/
pr5k
"river"
[PrOkI
season"
1-1
consonant
letter
only
(1)
2.1
Root Patterns,
Irregular
t 3.1
des'cribed
are few;
a different
of those are:
Stems,
Fossilized
stituent
although
lost
parts
of
two Roots
either
one or both
their
may be hypothetically
which
of
these
mobility
positional
or
of a Root
and cannot
con-
and a Suffix,
#'morphemes"
smaller
into
analyzed
have
be assigned
largely
any
is
"scorpion"
Such
the
themselves.
by
case
of,
utifar
e.
g.
meaning
(10.2
Root
tif,
benefactive
a
:-2.2-3)
and
suffix
a
of
consisting
-ar
"sniff
lost.
Similarly
has
been
smelling"
nhilef
meaning of whicb
derived.
from
is
Root
nhal
nhil
which
a
of
consists
isuncertain.
the
meaning
of
which
suffix,
a
and
-ef
(see
Onomatopoeia
Ideophones
(see
for
out odour"
8-4 :
8-4.: 5)
"give
reasons
degrees
stated
uDaata "duck"
(fm.
of assimilation
in
10-4
Port.
: 1.2.2.
pato)
do not
E. g.:
have
the
usual
the
(1)
2.1
Prenanall-.
:4
in
As mentioned
2.1
following
positions
having
: 1,
all
plosives
pause
(viz.
consonants
pronaaalized
in Manjako
and affricates
Prenasalization
pronasalized.
occur
rl
ation.
is
never
"breath-group"
initially
in
however
realized
initial).
their
following
thovIo"Laaalizod
countorpartwhen
pause,
"'Pr
/g0bos no 90pe/
gb8n ni gDi "dogs and goats"
/gape
but;
no qgaboa/
jMi ni gb82 "goats and dogs"
Possibly
with
phenomenon is
this
radicals
being
free
the fact
have
in vorb-forms
do not normally
(the most notable restriction
occuring
initially
verbal
linked
in
Thus prefixes-
basic
with
may
formsj
occur
e. g.:
that
prenasalized
on distribution
radicals
consonants
of phonemes),
pause. However,
initial
in verb-forms
of radical
plosives
and affricates
prenasalization
/m/
(phonologically)
in a'prefx
initial
manifesting
after an
occurs
I) -, or Class *4 (Ibc. 2)(10-4 : 1.2)
Concord with a Noun of Class 50 '(Example
.
Mumplen:
l. a mam - p8ni
& iC=C-out
(and it (o. g. water)
2. a man - chax
died
& they
(and they (c. g. troes)
Note:
(*)
tion
e. g mlik
"water"
came out)
11
It
1111mko "trees"
died)
For morphological
prenasalization
lot person singular
Bee 6.2 t'l
For explan
with
agreeing
of orthography
throughout
.
see 2.2
38
the Verbal
Group in
(1)
Morpho-phonemics.
2.1 :5
The morpho-phonemic
in the previous
of gra=ar
heading. The remaining
point
Assimilation
2.2 : 5.1
The vowelsof
quality
/-Atr/
ares
to the
These are s /-Ad/
suffixes
are progressively
/e/
/C/
/o/
lol.
of a preceding
Or
,
I
/-An/ and /-Dl/.
For example:
,
certain
/dj e/ + /A d/
/Atr/
/te/
+
lAnl
/do/
+
/do/
Furthermore,
/tE/
/d3 ee,d/
/teetr/
/doon/
/An/
/cb, 2n/
/e/
is assimilated
/e/
/tEc/
djr
assimilated
"laugh
at"
teex
/6/,
e. g. x
"who-hears"
Vocalic Fusion
2.1 : 5.2
2.1 : 5.3
The Suffixes
if
/-Atr/,
/-An/
and
change into
E. g. s
Suffix.
/-td/
preceded by another
/-atr/,
/-ad/
I-anl
and
I
3OD-t-/
j6nRax
30A d-3tl'r-/
*8ngaxexl
(1)
/ja dAd/
2.1
yerar
"to
fall
for"
yerler
"to
fall
for
/jadAn/
yeran
"to
all
in. "
/jadlan/
yerlen
"to
agree"
each other"
: 5. A- Elision
by suffixes
is followed
ending in any nasal
occurs when a syllable
/end3A/
/a9k/.
/-end
The vowel of the suffix
and one of the nasals
or
e/ ,
E.
this
is
being
first-nasal,
the
this
g.:
except
where
are elided,
/-Cnd3e/
/-md3e/
"my
katiria.
ii
+
name"
/-nd3e/
/q/ + /-ondje/
baxongji
"my guests"
/-nd3A/
/n/ + /-endjA/
"our mother"
aninja
=
/n/ +.
/-DJC/
8nk "thus"
Elision
Diosinilation,
2.1
Dissimilation
A root-final
/l/
occurs
/I/
/-19d/.
where:
is
followed
/(119 d/
by a*suffix-initial
s6rler
40
/1/,
e. g. -.
2 (2)
CHAPTER 2.
The texts
and examples
n Manjako
however
letters
in
linguistic
Orthography
are
this
indicated
is
in
the
the
orthography
practical
basically
a phonemic
preceding
a few minor
orthography
and practical
in
written
This
publications.
the
using
SECTION 2.
orthography
(2.1).
There
section
based
adjustments
These relate
considerations.
used
axe
on socio-
tos
/a/.
1. The -phoneme
Prefixes
/a/
containing
are-written
the consonant
with
in the phonetic
exception
realization
to this
is
letter
only
lal
of the
ng- "3rd
the prefix
ideal"
to avoid confusion with the syllabic
secondary,
singular,
person
161
Thuss/b8lEk/
blek.
1'ricefield".
the
In suffixest
homorganic nasal.
161
byt
is
diacritic,
the
represented
without a
never
phoneme
phoneme
occuring
in suffixes
morpheme boundaries
2.
Prenasalized
Prefixes
without
of
having
fusion
except as a result
of vocalic
(see 3, below). Thust /bafelan/
across
bofelen "mix together"
consonants.
a prenasalized
of
representation
the
following
prenasalization
/ndA/
/nda/
consonant
at their
(because
nasality
of
pause).
/ndo/
the
These prefixes
A gal
g-
/nd3A/
3. Vocalic
non-realization
are:
da- 2 L- 9 d8"we(incl.
are written
onset
)"
"you (pl) 11
or
"Concord
Pref.
2ndCl'
fusion.
in cases of'fusion.
not phonemically.
/djA/
IAI
/u/,
+-/e/ or
-pf
words are written
(See 2.1 8 5.2). For examples
/en/
.
/jo-en/
JR3:.
n "tells
morpemically,
me"
A. H.VDhen'.
In the orthography a hyphen is inserted
in verb
before the radical
forms other than infinitive
for the native
as a reading aid, in context,
speaker,
e. g. na-lemp
"let
him work",
41
but:
nalemp "workman".
2 (2)
5. Acute Accent
is used in the orthography
(10-4
by
marked
stress
t 2.1).
An acute accent
difference
to indicate
a tense
Example, t
ma I
fing
killed
md I-shall
fing
kill
Circumflex
Accents
OHAPTER3.
3.1
Contents-
page:
Structure
45
46
47
1.2
The Head
47
1.3
The Relator
47
1.4
The Qualifier
49
1.5
The Quantifier
49
1.6
The Demonstrative
49
1.7
The Modifier
50
2
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
50
51
51
52
53
2.2.3
2.2.4
54
2.2.5
IIe Infinitive
54
2.2.6
IIf
2.2.7
55
2.2.8
Iih
56
Head NG
Concord Prefix
Head NG
Adverb Head NG
'I'anction
3.2
53
55
57
57
NG Class 0
Class
NG
1
NG Class 2
58
NG Class 3.
58
3.3
Nominal Concord
59
3.4
62
I. Appositional
58
NG Complex
63
3 (1)
3.4
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
2.1
2.2
NG Complex
Is, Attributive
Ib Evocative
NG Complex
NG Complex
Ic Distributive
11 Additive
IIa
IIb
NG Complex
Enumerative
Deprecatory
63
64
64
64
NG Complex
64
NG:Complex
65
3 (1)
CHAPTER 3.
CHAPTER 3.
SECTION L
The Structure
Structure
is the following:
NOMINAL GROUP
1
1
1
1
1
1
Det Head Rel Qual Quant Dem Mod
Elementst
Manifesting
Determiner
Article
Head
Relator
For the
Classest
(8.2
s 2.1)
(8.2
Qualifier
Adjective
Quantifier
Demonstrative
Demonstrative
Modifier
status
: 2-4)
Phrase (7-4)
45
3 (1)
According
to the differences
in its
into
the following
Structure,
types:
Noun Head
Pronoun Head
Possessor Head
Gerund
Head
Infinitive
Head
Concord
Prefix
Head
Demonstrative Word-Head
Adverb Head
Tajor
-I.
CITATION PlaOIGM
(Nominal
Minor
GrouD
Tvpe I)
a-chi
nalon
"it
was another"
a-chi
ninx
"it
was a man"
lyi
"it
was you"
uminh
"it
was mine"
(b)
Pronoun Head
(c)
Possessor Head
(d)
Gerund Head
a-chi
EXongga unS
"it
(it
(e)
Infinitive
a-chi
pxis
"it
(f)
Concord I)xefix
a-chi
naTam
"it
(g)
Demonstrative
a-chi
bki
(h)
Adverb Head
3.1
:1
a-chi
a-chi
Head
Head
Head
the
of
the
Nominal
However,
a Nominal-Group
is
Pone occurs
rare.
to a large
depends
and is
is
indicated
based
possibilities
Jon
in
Structure
diagram
Group
the
on Nominal
the
with
data.
diagram
Groups
co-occitrence
of
Type pf
7 Elements.
3 Elements
The Status
on the
extent
in
of
Tam"
of
man
a
was
"they were the people
of John"
The Elements
Structure
sun"
was rising
was at sunrise)"
was to return"
of
occuring
of Elements
the Elements
the Nominal
on page 50.11rhile
actually
manifested
in
were
Group
the
the
description
texts,
tested
in
further
elicited
examples.
46
: 1.1
3.1
The Doterminer
The Determiner
is
having
Class
Example:
only
manifested
by the Article
the Article
one member,
which is a closed
(see 8.2- : 2.1)
Word (na)-lon
Classi
nalon ninx
one
man
. (a
certain man)
3.1 : 1.2
The Head
to the difference
3.1
The Relator
Clause
Pronoun
the
For the
place.
Types of Nominal Group. cee 3.1 : 2.2.
proper
Class
(10.3).
notional
by:
manifested
2'3-1);
4a*(5-4-:
Suffix
following
is
Element
The Relator
relations.
Group Class
Nominal
Element
In
the
of the relationship
a free inzerpretation
is given in brackets
may indicate,
examples
Objecto
(Ex. 6)
physical
Temporal (Ex. 10)
(a.
8) or notional
47
on the
: 3);
or
among others,
following
page
2 (3.2
(Ex. 9)
3
ExaMDles*(taken
1.
from
namp6li
girl
3-
uyamax
unkambe,
meat
P3.g
4-
=aaj
maize
kanchupa
porridge
5.
kato
house
Dxonpg
visiting
6.
kanggOngg
cheating
pig
porridge
(is
visiting
(takes
hare
umaal
hare
(consists
to)
a house
of)
meat
maize
made of)
(practises)
cheating
cleverness
things
the
cause
pchar
string
Sombasombo
Sombasombo
Sombasombo (is
tied
to)
examples
texts
are
other
usages
of
but
the Relator
only
nalon ninx
a certain
man
a certain
story
ukam
viar
baneki
last year
last
(ras the
H
gko
things
embeddings
Rel
Rel
blipal
cleverness
cleverness
the Relator
Dem
gon
those
(that
in
Ellis
Ivu
of his)
48
a string
be quoted:
could
(is
man
may be successive
the
of)
representative.
kat6tan
story
year
a house
in)
place
gko
things
There
ii.
girl
(is
From other
10.
(belongs
a bag
blipal
cleverness
These
9.
(owns)
bushfowl
use
house
8.
Hb'Text)
kamaanh xj&ku
bushfowl
bag
2.
7-
the
the
hero
time
Element:
of)
of)
the
a
war
3 (1)
3.1 : 1. A
The Qualifier
(Ex.
the
Adjective,
2) which
that
be
there
use of
so
an ambiguity
will
to semantic or contextual
may be sometimes resolved by having
recourse
(Ex3 and 4)
considerations
Examples:
Hb 82
Rb 105
The Quantifier
Element is manifested
A Complex consisting
of two identical
The Quantifier
(EX-1)
role
(Ex. 2)
ExamDles:
kchar kt8b
1. ai - la
&-(sp) twisted =opes two
(and then he twisted tvio =opes)
bkul bat8b bat6b
2. a na-yel
& he sent them two
two
(and he sent them two by two)
3.1 : 1.6
Hb 89
The Demonstrative
Tho-Demonstrative
Element is manifested
(7. VA Complex does
not occur. E. g. t
uyamaxinji
vran
that
meat-my
(that
meat of mine)
by the Demonstrative
Phrase Class
Hb 132
3 (1)
3.1 : 1.7
The Modifier
(4.2
3
Element
Class
Modifier
Sentence
is manifested by
The
: 3)
(see diagram on p. 84)) or by a Clause Class 4b (5.2 : 24) (Example 1).
(Example 2).
A complex with two Clauses as its members may'occur.
The role
of the Modifier
one important
with
is non-restrictive
the Modifier
describes
Element is similar
to that
of the Qualifierg
distinction:
while
(viz. the Adjective,
the expondnt
8.2 : 2.4),
of
merely
which is to say, the Adjective
characteribtic,
while the Clause Class 4b makes.
is restrictive,
a certain
'that
characteristic
a point of'difference
possessing it and others not possessing
3)-
it(Example
Examples:
Hb 81
1. nhnon nan-rein
r.=aaj
-i --parson who eat-me who maize
(the one who ate my maize)
2. XkO xi
n_x xi
u
unchaam wina xi
xi
he stood where
seen where
placewhere
where money
(the place where he stood, where the money was found)
3- ninx nan-xaf i
of.
ninx naxafal
man who old who
man old
(the old man, i. e. there
(an old man)
were others who viere not old)
Types of 11ominal Group
.y
diagram illustrates
The following
CF 9
3.1 :_2
IIa
x+
Quant
X.
x.
IIC
IM
it
IIe
x+
IIg
Ilh
Dem Mod
Qual
IIb
lif
the Status
x
X-
50
Key:
+ obligatoz7
x optional
unacceptable
3 (1)
3.1
Nominal
Minor
- 2.1
(Nominal
Group consists
Nominal
The Minor
Group
or
of
the Relator
Group Ty-ne
other
than
Element.
ExaMD10G:
(o-uali: cicr
Ait
)
only:
Ilb 92
chi usemnatel.
was stoolW-built.
)
oal=.
AurWca ivrazuix
left
three
& it
(and there were three
(Quantifier
Ra 68
)
left.
)
only:
i'
jej
ng
n6l
na take
who likes who he-will
(let him who likes take (it/some))
(Modifier
)
only,:
nalon a- baand
he arrived
one
(a certain-man
arrived)
(Determiner
2.2
Vajor
Nominal
The Major
manifeated.
further
No Minor Nominal
in the texts.
Note:
Nominal
Group is
According
divided
Group
into
to
the
(Nominal
a Nominal
the
different
following
one Element
occurs
Group which
manifesting
Sub-types:
has its
Head Element
Classes,
it
may be
3(1)
3.1
t 2.2.1
Noun Class
Nominal
of
more than
with
for
exampleg
: 2.2).
Gioup
All
although,
three
the
optional
Elements
as was mentioned
Elements
following
manifested
Nominal
may occur
above,
would
by the
manifested
in
Group
a Nominal
be rare.
In
Type
this
the
Hb Text,
one Element
were
found:
References
Det.
Read Relator
Number of
ocourenoes:
1xx
56
2xx
12
3xxx4
4xx3
5xx3
6xx2
7xxx1
Exampless
(Numbers of Examples correspond
1. bfexar
to Reference
gul
their
friendship
(their
friendship)
43;
2. Baxong bki
r ests these
Guests)
blipal,
3. gko
wul
his
things
cleverness
(his underhandedness)
and elsewhere
4; also
g8n
that
4- ben bjenx
head clean
(skull)
105;
5. pre
upi
re
pi
food which he ate which
(food which he had eaten)
83;
52
also
also
12,95,80
82,90
81,115-116
6.
kchar kteb
ropes two
( two ropes)
7-
ifetar mmaaj ii
m- me iOnk
husks maize which you know which
(the maize husks which as you know... )
3.1 1 2.2.2
71
The Pronoun Head Nominal Group has the Head manifested by the
Pronoun Class (8.2 : 2.9). All optional Elements except the Determiner,
the
Qualifter and the Relator Element may occur in this Type of Nominal Group.
Formula:
NG
IIb
it;
(Quant)
(Dem)
(Mod)
ExamDlest
Head
Inji
I
(You
Modifier
m- laang on uyamax.
ni
who you deny who meat
)
to
me
meat.
give
refused
A 17
Head Quant-Demonstrative
bl: 6n
batdb bam&nx
bicul
those
the-said
those two
(those
two said people)
3.1 s 2.2.3
The Possessor Head Nominal Group has the Head manifested by, the
Possessor Class (8.2 : 2.8). All optional Elements may occur in this
Type of Rominal Group, except the Determiner.
The Relator is obligatory.
Formula:
NG
lie
mH
Rel
(Qual)
(Quant)
(Dem) (Mod)
D-xamDles:
a ujeku
& Bush-fowl
(Bush-fovil
Lle ad
Rel.
ja
kuma, k1ch
Babi. '
Hb 5
ivul ka - jas,
said that belonging
him. will
be-called
You-viho-came
said that his name would be You-viho-caine. )
53
3(1)
Rel
Qual
wul pyampal
pich
him long
belonging
(that
long (e. g. stick)
Rel
Dem
p8n.
that
of his)
Mod
The Gerund Head Nominal Group has the Head manifested by the Gerund Class
(8-3: 1.2.2)The only other Element in this Type of Nominal Group is the
optional
Relator
Formulas
NG
IM
Element.
'
H (Rel)
ExamDle:
Rel
H
un8
ukhtai
sun
rising
(at sunrise)
3.1
: 2.2.5
11b 35
Infinitive
Head Nominal
Elements
Formula:
NG
IIe
ExamDle:
Rel
Dem
H
bkul
p8n
pxon
their
that
visiting
(the place which they
Note:
(Rel)
(Dem)
(Mod)
Eb 12
were visiting)
Potentially,
Clause may function
an Infinitive
as Head of
the Nominal Group, but no example of thia
occurs in the text.
Head
A Nominal Group occurs in Ha 63 where-the
Infinitive
has a Complement Pronoun'Suffix
examples having
and parallel
the Complement ranif9sted
by a Nominal Group have been elicited:
Head
lodi ier
FHEgin
fier
or:
pfing
pOn
pi
n-ro
-napax...
killing-me
killing
child..
which I did which need
(I ought to have been killed)
3 (1)
3.1
: 2.2.6
Concord
Prefix
Group
Head Nominal
: 2.2.1.1).
(Det)
NG
iif
Formula:
H Rel
(Qual)
(Quant)
(Dem)
(Mod)
ExamDles:
Det
Talon
some
(certain
H Rel
6
Teople-of-cai6
four
Quant
babaakex
four
of Cai6)
people
Qual
H Rel
Dem
nayampal n8n
naTam
The
that
man of Tam tall
(that
tall
man of Tam)
H Rel
Modifier
kan-jipana
wi
wi
ri kaY8mex
(ct)
of Cai6
which
spoken which in Caiomet
of Cai6 which is spoken in Caiomet)
UY8
he dialect
(the dialect
3.1
Demonstrative
: 2.2.7
Group
The Demonstrative
RG
iig
mH
Rel
(Qual)
(Quant)
(Dem) (Mod)
ExamT)les:
H
Rel
and his
Rel
friends
Quant
Dem
55
4b 90
in the yard)
3 (1)
3.1 : 2.2.8
The Adverb Head Nominal Group consists of trio Elementst The Head,
(8.3
the
Modifier.
Adverb
Class
by
7
2.2-7)
an
:
and
manifested
NG
IIh
Formulat
2H
Ito d
Examples:
H Mod
ja
ron
mri
onk
so as you said as
(This is what you said)
Mod
An
baand
fan
no ri
to-morrow when he'll
come when
(ItIB
to-morrow he'll
come)
56
CHAPTER3. SECTION 2.
0
3.2
Function
Introduction
The Function
by the following
diagram:
SENTENCE
Intri Inv
ISetI
Nuel P=p
CLAUSE
0(
All
S1 P1A21C1A31A4FA5
-Ile
lb
ILlid
ADVERBIAL GROUP
1
Preposit. Specifi
OMIN
2(
I
1.2
-1
Nominal
The Nominal
Headl Rel
Groun Class
Group Class
AL
IQI
GROUP
I
0 manifests
the
Invocator
Element
of
the
Sentence.
ExamT)le:
NampOli nauyak,
inji
Girl
big
I
(33ig girl,
am I the
8n
k
ji
ni
-a?
laugh the-one(Qn)
who you'll
)
laughing
one whom you are
at?
57
D 18
3(2)
it
manifests,
that
is
(Example 1),
NG manifesting
lb
the Complement (Example 3),. NG manifesting
Id
the Adjunct 5 (Example 5).
NG manifesting
le
the Adjunct
NG manifesting
Ic
theAdjunat
3 (Example 4),
ExamT)les:
kawet
niaj
ukhtai unS, namp6li ro
uniew
(cp)-enter
to-sweep house
sun girl
rising
(at sunrise,
the girl
came into sweep the house)
6n
2. nul ka - niajhe will
enter the-one
(he will be the one to enter)
itim
3. wundka - faar
divide names
we-shall
(we shall each take a name)
Hb 35
Hb 51-'
Hb 43
6nk
kri m- me ron
chag
you'. 11 fencethus as you know as
(youIll
make' a dam the way you know)
5. a
brem
for
and slept night
and spent the night)
4.
Hb, 34
manifests
the Relator
Element
Exam-ole:
bkul
kato
-oxong
pon
house visiting
their
that
(the house which they were visiting)
3.2
Nominal
:4
The Nominal
Group
GrouD Class
Group Class
Hb 12
3 manifests
the
Specific
Element
of
the
Adverbial
(6.2).
Ey-anDle:
a nai
x-i uxaand
- xenk ujgku
& she(SP) found Bush-fowl in outside
(and she found Bush-fowl-outside)
58
Hb 23
and
3 (3)
CLASS AND TYPE CORRELATION.
Type
Class
IIdjh
I, IIa, b, c, d, e, flg
11 11
la,
lb
lo
I,
IIa
I, IIa, d
I, lIa, b, c, d, e, f, g
ld
le
2
1, IIa, b, c, e, f
CHAPTER3. SECTION 3.
Nominals
Most
to
potential
the
Component
the
Within
rules
and the
their
function,
the
agreement
Thus the
are
Nominal Concord
Concord
agree
with
Nominal
each other
Group this
exponents
the
ofv
of
of
the
Concord
lexical
features
may-be
Elements
have,
ic
the
Class.
by a set
governed
of. agreeing
have
two Components:
is
Elements
the
by virtue
with
or of
must agree
Head Element
or semantic
into
Qualifier,
of'
of
enforcing
Quantifier,
the
with
will
and internal
be called
specified
three
lexical
as overt
systems
or
of
exponents
may be further
arranged
of
say they
agreement
Determiner,
Therefore
may be lexical
respect
to
of Lexical/Semant.
either
is
Nominals,
and Modifier
in
that
Component
certain
property
other
(*),
Carriers
exponents
Demonstrative
b, f
IIa,
external
or covert.
the
be cal-led
The
,.
These
as followas
overt
covert
semantic
i nternal
external
The exception to this are the Proper Nouns (8.2 : 2.2.1.1),
Simple Pronouns (8.2 : 2.9.1.1)
and the Numerals paaj "six",
(8.2
"five"
kwas
"eight"
and
: 2-5-1)-
the
kanhen
3 (3)
. Lexical
Concord is
Element with
the Governing
If
overt.
is
Element,
which will
the prefixes,
although
agreeing,
the
the
agreement
not
same,
-are
covert.
the Governing Nominal belongs
only if
to.
being.
is a volitional
when the referent
Element
the Satellite
It is the agreement of the NomiLl manifesting
Governing
Nominal.
Class
the
Number
Semantic
the'
of
and
actual
with
the
Concord is the agreement of the Nominals manifesting
Internal
Semantic Class 1, that
(other
Elements
Satellite
is,
with
the Governing
Nominal
Group.
Nominal
the
same
of
External
is
Concord
the
Group.
different
Nominal
a Nominal
manifesting
the
of a Nominal
agreement
Concord
Relator
is
always
a Nominal
with
external
in
the
case
of a
of
Element.
Exam-ples,:
L6xical
/overt
Lexical
/covert
Lexical
/overt
Lexical
/covert
Internal:
banhaan, bawaanx
three
people
(three
people)
Internal:
rlon
one
External:
Externals
mex
house
banhaan
people
(people,
bkulb
fing
upi
theykilled,
goat their
killed
their
goat)
Semantic - Internal:
Jon ni
Tant han, - chi bki xi
John and Tant who
are who here
(John and Tant who are here)
Semantic - External:
bkul.
Tant bfin g
Jon ni
upi
Their
John and Tant they killed
goat
(John and Tant killed
their goat .)
"same" includes
10.4 : 1.2
alternative
60
listed
in
3 (3)
Nominal
the constituencies
of the Nominal
Head Relator
ubos najan
dog hunter
(hunter's
dog)
Head Qual.
ubos ujan
dog hunter
(hunting dog)
of.
ABCab
16n.
7rul
xmaal ni kachbxan mtum
Hare and speeding mouth his that
(Hare with that quick mouth of his)
The capital
case letters
Concord of
Note:
the Governing
letters
indicate
Elements
the words in agreement with them.
is
-A
Semantic Class (SO lb).
in this
it
Number,
6.1
Group at
6.1
occur
there
the
A series
the
of
may be termed
Verbal
Concord
(see
prefixes
of verbal
the
Person
and
along
with
the
Class
Table
of
Number at
Class
at
grammar
Classes of Verbal
certain
(see Lexical/Semantic
Class,
Clauses
are
10-4
Concord,
relates
to
the
described
in
detail
Concord
10.4
such Verbal
containing
(see Nominal
of Number as it
and Semantic
in
appears
Sub-rank
String
Class
and Semantic
in
points
certain
realized:
This
choice
howeverg
Concord,
: 2.2).
at
is referred
to as Nominal
the nexus between two or more Nominals
: 2.1).
The features
are
and Number.
determines
Nominal
Section
to Person
because
establishes
Elements of the Nominal
manifesting
Clause-Rank
relation
Hb 76
Prefixes
: 1.1,
in
Lexical
: 1-3.
61
Groups may
4.3
Nominalsp
in
: 2).
Lexical
Chapter
which
those
Class
at
10
features
10-4
: 1.2p
At
3 (4)
4. Nominal
-3.4
Group Complex
Introduction
:0
Groups
Group
Complex.
in
a Nominal
may be diagrammed
may
occur
The Types
in
of
paratactic
Nominal
recursion
Group Complex
as follows:
Atributive
Appositional
Evocative
Distributive
Enumerative
Additive
Deprecatory
CITATION PARADIGM:
1.
Appositional
(a)
Attributive,
ninx Jon
man John
(a man called John)
Jon
wi
you, John
Evocative
(c) Distributive
II.
,
nhaan
person
(three
3.waanx
three
for
each
person)
Additive
(a)
Dn=erative
Jon
wi ni
you and John
(b) Deprecatoxy
An
Jon ni ubosul
John and dog-his that
(,John and that dogof his)
62
3 (4)
3.4
Appositional
:I
liominal
Nominal
The Appositional
Fornulat
: 1.1
3.4
Role
Nominal
a Qualifier
of
of two Major
recursion.
Complex
Nominal
Complex
to
the
(111GComplex
consists
the
of which
recursion,
paratactic
Type 1. )
IIG ITGII
ii
Attributive
The Attributive
(NG Complex
Group Corimle
first
of
Type Ia)
two Nominal
second
Groups
in
Participant
one.
Vominal
contextual
in paratactic
if
chief",
while
if
of semantic
cannot be ruled
and ambiguity
considerational
ninx
man
on the basis
only
out.
or
Thus:
nasien
chief
recursion
viould be translated
the recursion
were hypotactic,
appears to be iii
of more than
favour of keeping
ngaax
woman
nan-ch: L
ab6kul
offspring-his
who-being
(youngest
daughter)
naties
who little
ngaax
woman
3" (4)
Examples
katetan nalon, ninx napien
story
one
man chief
(A story about a certain-man
Group,
Head Nominal
Pronoun
wha-was. a chief)
Nominal
The Evocative
the
Nominal
Evocative
: 1.2
3.4
.
gG
IIb
NG ComPlexIb
Formula:
as the
Nominal
first
its
of
Type Ib)
NG
IIa
Examplet
8ku
xj
m, - w&raax
Li
,
you good-not
you Bush-fowl
(You bad Buch-fowl)
3.4
Hominal
The Distributive
Group with
a Vominal
tion
is
Nominal
Distributive
: 1.3
marked with
its
Croup
Group Complex
as its
in
the
Type ic)
second member
(This restric-
Element
Quantifier
manifested.
formula. )
I?G*
NG
Ic
(1,TG Complex
an asterisk
NG Complex
Formula:
E 77
Examples
a- chi nhaan iwaam-,
it
is
person tiLree
(there are three (i. e. lettuce
Additive
3. '4 :2
linked
by the
specified
3.4
t 2.1
Group Complex
Nominal
as Enumerative
Enwerative
The Enumerative
These need not
each person)
Nominal
The Additive
for
leaves)
Nominal
consists
Conjunction
"and".
-ni
and Deprecatory.
Nominal
Group Complex
of Nominal
It
Groups
may be further
be contiguous.
64
to
Ila)
members.
3 (4)
Fo=ula:
'
NG (NL.. NG)x....
NG CompleX
IIa
(NL, -NG)x
1. xmaal ni
u.i6ku
Hare and Bush-fowl
(Hare and Bush-fowl
fexar
athey were-fiends
were friends)
Hb 1
2. Ungil a ui
p8nar
pxong
ni umaal
Hyena & he(sp)
went-out travelling
and Hare
(Hyena and Hare went out to make a journey. )
3.4
: 2.2
ComDlex (Nominal
Deprecato
c1
The Deprecatory
represented
It has a deprecatory
overtone
expression
Formula:
NG ComplexlIb
and finds
11as for
its
inst.
counterpart
in
in the English
"
NG4 NL NGi*
where NG*
NG**
is usually represented
by Head
alone with the further
restriction
that the Class manifesting
it must
belong to Semantic Class 1
(voliVional
beings).
.
consists either of Head, Relator
(Example 1); or
and Demonstrative
(Ex. 2).
Head, (Relator)and
Qualifier
ExamT)les:
ikaanul
i8n
1. napax ni
that
child and crying-his
(that child with his crying)
2. inji
ni ben bchau
I
and head roasted
(me with my miserable =oasted head)
65
Hb 112
.4
THE SE11TENCE
4-1
Contents
page:
Structure
68
The Elements
of
Introduction
The
68
Structure
70
Element
1.2
Invocation
70
1-3
SettIng
71
1.4
Nucl6us
72
72
Tenses
74
The
1-4.2
Sequence
1.4-3
Chronology
74
1-4-4
Conditionality
75'
of
77
Purpose
1.5
2
Clause
Complex
1-4-1
The
Types
of
Minor
78
Sentence
2.1
1.
2.2
11.
2.2.1
IIa
Simple
2.2.2
IIb
Compound
78
Sentence
79
Sentences
Major
79
Sentence
80
Sentence
80
Function
4.2
Sentence
Class
Sentence
Class
2 (Reported
Sentence
Class-3
82
83
85
'Structure
85
Elements
1.1.2
Sequential
1.1.3
Closing
Nominal
66
86
86
Focal
Speech)
String
The
4.3
81
Concord
.86
86
86
4
CHAPTER4.
THE SENTENCE
Introduction
The Manjako Sentence is a grammatical Unit which is distinguishable
from
contour alone
every other grammatical Unit either by its intonation
(Example
(Example 1) or by its Structure
2) or by Structure
and
alone
intonation
contour
(Example 3)-
ExamDles:
1.
Hb, 56
Ybon.
Well.
Given
intonation
by the fullstoP.
A falling
contour is indicated
the same Unit Would be a Particle,
intonation
contour,
a different
functioning
as Sentence Introduction,
e. g:
namely an Introducer,
"Well, I am going".
Mbon, mgn-xgp
2.
8n
kji
D 18
NampOli nauyak, inji
a?
ni
(Qu)
I
laugh
big
Girl
who
who you
)
(Big girl,
laughing
at me?
are you
The above Sentence consists
of two Elements: the Invocation
and the
The intonation
Nucleus.
as
contour of each exponent functioning
these Elements is falling,
alone
so that, on thebasis of intonation
it would not be possible to decide if the Sentence is a single one
of two parts, or if there are two Sentences standing side
consisting
However, the fact that these two exponents occur side by
by side.
in the first
related
place to'each other,
side, syntactically
them each as a non-sentence and both of them together as
identifies
a Sentence.
A 18
A2 k- mobnin
we?
Hm you: ll catch-with
me what?
(Hm, how will you catch me?)
67
4 (1)
CHAPTER4" SECTION 1Structure
The Structure
ilanjako
of the
Sentence in its
the following:
SENTENCE
I
Invocation
Introduction
Setting
Classes:
(8-4 : 1)
Elements:
Manifesting
Introduction
Introducer
Invocation
Setting
Nucleus
Purpose
4.1
:1
The Elements
of
Purpose
Nucleus
Structure
According
form
by
the
Sentences
in
this
Sentence,
were
accepted
and
elicited
one
However no Sentence in this form occurs in the
informant as grammatical.
if not
is that there axe stylistic,
the inference
data and therefore
grammatical,
on the co-occurrence
restrictions
of the-Blements.
In the first
There may be several reasons for this:
place, the Manjako
'
Sentence is on the average rather short (a computer count of seventeen
In the second place,
of the texts used gave the average as 9- 10 words).
Roles of some of the Elements axe duplicated
the Participant
at other
Ranks.
the
So, for
Sentence
Adjunct
1;
instance,
Rank,
and at
by the
the
the
Participant
Setting
Role
Element;
68
at
Auxiliary
of Time when is
the
Clause
Rank,
Element
in
shared,
by
the
Verbal
at
4(1)
Group.
Tire
when.
may be expressed
the
at
sun set"
either
the
between Sideric
and Volitional
or the
Sentence
Rank.
Time when
Volitional
Rank,
The Clause
but
Sideric
"when He comes
3-
Sentence
Rank:
Purnone
rza - ng&l pa
na - bi; or:
I
Como
viant that he
(I want him to come)
2.
Clause
Rank:
=a - neU na - bi
I
want he
come
Comnlement
bi
=a - naU nul pI
viant him to
come
(I viant him to come)
3.
Verbal
Group Rank:
Auxiliarv
Ma - ngLI na - ron
I
by-and-by
want he
(I want him to
come)
n8-bi
he come
69
4 (1)
of Elements
Co-occUrrence
In the Hb Text,
in Text Hb
Sentences of more than one Element are
to the Example numbers below):
the following
Invoc
Intro
Nucleus
No. of occurences:
17
3
5
3
3
x
2
3.
4
5
Purp
x
x
x
Examples;
Hb 10 and others
ka-x8p
n1ran
uj6ku
a
to go
consented
and bush-fowl
Bush-fowl
agreed to go)
1.
Mon,
I'lell
(Well,
2.
Hb
97
bi
tot
Bi
unievi
xmaal
ruka
ri
win
gal
90
-a
(sp)
(56,73
(ct)
&
from
house
hare
them
When they
savi
pulled
when
...
)
(Wheni they were pulling
them from the house.. Hare came to realize..
(38
Rb
26
39,41
kaax
Bsent,
A,
a?
nako
mtum
...
Qxi
752 132)
has-not
Hm Vincent
person
mouth
..
(Hm, Vincent
hasn't
he got any mouth? )
...
3.
4.
ba - niaj
uniew
a napax r0- p8ni ........
(cp)
house
they
enter
come-out
and child
....
(and child came out
in)
they
that
go
might
.....
5.
4.1
: 1.1
Mcam-ple:
4.1
: 1.2
is
Introduction
See No. 1,
Hb 20 (132 26-27)
Element
The Introduction
The Sentence
Hb 15-16 (102,134)
manifested
by the
Introducer
Class
(8-4
above
Invocation
The Invocation
or by a Nominal
Element
is
manifested
Group Complex (Type
70
by Nominal
lb, Evocative,
Group Class
3.4
: 1.2)
0 (3.2
1)
4 (i)
Rx-ainDles:
8n
kji
namn5li na!yak, inji
a?
ni
(Qu.
)
I
laugh
the-one
bi&
111
gixl
who you.
(Bigo girl,
)
laughing
I
the
am
at?
one you are
ComDlex:
9ku
m- wbxaax
xj
vii
you, Bush-fowl, you good-not
(You bad Bush-fowl)
4.1 : 1.3
Settin
Element
The Setting
Temporal
The Participant
Role
Time,
function
in
simple
formt
to describe
or expanded.
the
of time or of causality,
of the event described
Since the Adjunct 1 of the Clause also has the Participant
the Nucleus.
of
Element is
whether
circumstances,
in
E 77
there
does not
Setting,
the
appear
and in
fact
is
a Complex
found
in
the
to
data. -
EbcamDles:
Particiy)ant
1.
Role
of
Time.
Expanded
Form
Expansion
Nucleus
Setting
kawet
Bi
uniew bfa
a na- wini
napax k-baand bi
.. a na-tuk..
When child
arxived
when sweeping house morning & she saw ... & she ran..
(In the morning when the child
was coming to sweep the house, and she
Hb 73
she ran ....
saw ......
Exceptionally,
-,
3.
ExT)anded Foxm
Nucleus
Expansion
SettinR
'
bi uman-A
m-baand. -Hb56
chi bi ank wan,
s6ma nako
chix,
I
I come...
is
like
as thus that
shall
as it
person is-not
....
(If
that is the case, I mean, now that he is not here
... as) soon
as I get there
...
Participant
2.
Role of Causality.
the
Setting
may follow
the
Sentence
Nucleus:
Nucleus
-Setting
bi
ba gal
bi
byaas
ulof
a- re
ga - p6nar
thirst
it hurt (past) them when they went-out
when journey
(thixst
has been plaguing
them ever since they started
their
E6journey)
4 (1)
4.1 : 1.4
Nucleus
The Nucleus
Clause
the
of
Sentence
may be manifested
1 (Nuclear
Class
(see
The String
Clause,
-following:
see 5.4
4-3)
The Participant
within
by the
in the juxtaposition
of tenses' giving
sequence
4.1 : 1.4.1
Types listed
Sub-rank
String
5.2.
and their
(The String).
(Coordinate)
Clauses of Class lb
is described
ocqurronce
into
enter
the
in section 4-3
+primary in the
separately
The Initial
they
the
events
the
Participant
(5.2
in
or
Role
the
existence
Participant
of a previous
: 1.4.2,
the 11anjako of all
and the
thus
described
are
The Manjako
spoken
Participant
Roles
Participant
from
of
have.. the
Roles-
greater
below
detail
regulax
us-age in
by the younger
for
the
Portuguese2
Roles
Group)
contingericy
may also
to be the
appear
particles
in
has
Clause
Verbal
its
some sort
The Nucleus
of Tenses),
additional
in
that
thus
a Non-initial
foreign
however,
is
The Nucleus
time.
indicates
condition.
has further
by introducing M
The Particles,
it
place,
generations.
in
the Nucleus
in
of +secondary
Conditionality.
Sequence
however,
generation,
If,
6pecification
first
Clases
of
each other
Chronology.
has the
of
sequence
and Conditionality,
4-1
achieved
the
succeed
of
lineally
Role
Chronology
(see
describe
(which
: 16)
occurs
in
assumption
'which
Nucleus
Element,
Creole
or Fxench.
they'introduce
4(1)
into
(a)
Mar,
(b)
te,
(c)
ma, man
par
parnk,
me the following:
ujara,
par
ub8ru
ate
introducing
Cause
introducing
Duration
introducing
Contrast
would. express
these Participbmt
Roles as follows:
Example (a)
by juxtaposition
of Sentences;
(5
X)
Cause
Sequential
by a
with optional
-42.,
lengthening
linguistic
of the vowel of the Verbal
Clause (5-4 : 1.2-1)
by a Sequential
Rx9mple (b)
Example (c)
paraConjunction.
Mcam-ples:
1.
Time-seauence
A
ga. - x6p,
a
ga - baand pxong,
a
ga - nx
xi blay
arid they stood in yard
and they went and they came visiting
(and they went, and they came to the place where they were
and they stood in the yard)
going to pay a visit,
2.
HbIJ,
Condition
ba
katimu,
kba - r8ox
c1ii ni
ubon
be with hunger
they call-not(past)
name-your youIll
(if they do. not call your name, you'll
be hungry)
by foreirrn
particle)_
katimul
kaay.
-par
pxefi,
roaax
had-not seat
since name-his called-not
-(He had no seat, because his name was not called)
3(b) Cause (not
Hb 9
Hb 14
introduced
Inji
Ila
da- xisan
xi
mexinji.
nagebelen
ngdlax
mak
like-not
But you go-home from house-my I
much
-trouble-maker
(Ileverthelessi.
eet out of my house and go home, because I dontt
like. trouble
makers much)
4(a) Duration
(introduced
by foreim
--particle)
A
go - baand ......
ga - pen to
they came
and they vent till
....
)
(And they vient on and came
....
4(b) Duration
(not
introduced)
likar
au-a
and she filled(till)
(She filled
it till
Hb 87
Hb 106
D 11 - 13
likar,
pa-baand
pnchuaf ...
auyt-,,
apa-c
It
ful"L.
filled
it
and
and it ciarrive middle
she
and
...
it was half-fall
filled
it
she
with water to
...
the brim)
73
4 (1)
(a)
Contrast'(introduced
by foreign
particle)
da. -perdiaari
mam - bi I&chul
ma
.....
(sp)blamed-her
I
but you forgive
...
(I put blame on her, but forgive
me)
5 (b)
Contrast
(not
CM 17
introduced)
Eb 53
a
na-chi xi p-ji,
a m-pinx kangander bkaab
bed
and he is in laughing and I lie
cry-wet
(He keeps laughing at me, and I lie making. my bed wet with tears)
4.1
: 1.4.2
Sequence
of
Tenses
Chronology
Tenses
Clause 1
+ideal
in the
to
Clause 2
+ideal
II
+actual
+actual
III
+actual
+ideal
IV
or +ideal
as illustrated
are relevant
and IV to Conditionality.
Sequence
4.1 : 1.4.
of ectual
+ideal
+actual
Chronology
Conclitionality
Chronology
successive
contemporaneous
The feature
+successive
indicates
that
74
the events
4 (1)
each other
The realization
in the above diagram.
in time.
successively
of this
feature
is in
Sequence No. 1. is
the
prose.
Epic.
ExwnT)les:
1 (01.1
Seauence
1.
2.
k8
ba,
kfinish
you will
you'll
finished
the harvest,
)
time.
for
some
Ki
chet,
You will
break
(When you have
Then you wait
(Cl. 1 : +primary;
Seauence II
C1.2
+ideal.
: +primary;
The feature
p8nan
get out
you take
that
the events
is'realized
This feature
Xutul.
glean. You'll
the g1panings
kiyay-ko-PR
+actual)
A1
in the two
described
in the presence
The is unmarked as regards Tense).
class
wait
-thing
away.
a
na-fing
ixyet .....
and he killed
cow ...
)
a cow .....
indicates
+contemporaneous
+ideal)
C1.2 : +secondary,;
+actual.
Ninx namgnx
nan a- ro pfesta
that he did feast
Ilan the-said
(The said man gave a feast,
killed
: +secondary;
of
Exam-ole:
Ulion aLion
it
(The lion
mob
caught
caught
fing.
vrul a
it
and killed
it.
and killed
18)
)
Conditionality
A. 1 : 1.4.4
features
two Tense
A system
of
features,
+-orecedent
is
to Conditionality.
relevant
These are
21
the
or +subsequent:
precedent
subsequent
If
the
two Clauses
do not
then
+actual
vs +ideal,
ship
Conditionality.
of
Sequences
Sequence
are
III
No.
III
both
this
select
is
the
same feature
from
that
are
an indication
and +subseguent
in
The feature
Sequence
IV.
the
they
diagram
+precedent
In-Sequence
the
in
system
a relation-
on P-742
is
III,
thepossible
realized
both
in
Clauses
I
'(1)
.4
one being a Non-initial
Clause
Exam-oles:
Condition
Subsequent:
(Sequence:
tuk. a
ka, m- pok
lie-vrill
run and you forbid
(He viould have run and you
C1.1 +primary,
forbade
+ideal;
CI. 2: Fsecondary,
+actual )
him)
mVrut
Jain
ri aninji,
ME - xis
-am(it)
leave
that-I
to
I-shall
mother-my and you said-to-me
return
(I would have returned to my mother, and you told me that I should not)
d8
ubaabu ,a
- x6p
foreign-country
go
you'll
(You would have gone abroad,
Condition
Precedent:
na - chax
died
and he
had he not died)
(Sequence:
C1.1;
+Secondary,
bakaalam
aninji,
uchi ya n_= x9p ni
if
evil-spirits
go with mother-my,
go I
(if
I go with my mother,
evil
spirits
will
+actual;
Cl.
kai - rein
will
eat-me
eat me)
kba - r6ox
ba katimu,
chi ni
ubon
(cp) name-your
hunger
be, with
they call-not
you-viill
(If
be hungry)
they do not call
your name, you will
m
ro
ri
X0
in
you had put
(If you had put
ka bixe
ubol-a,
will
unexpectedly-not
pocket
it would not
it in your pocket,
2: +secondj_=
+ideal)
G 18
11b
ro
niam
had lost
happen to be lost)
8k
ka
ri
up,
uro chi
xi,
chi
n- ro
- niam
lost
lien
it
here
being
I
had be
not will
(If I had been here, the hen would not have got lost)
da - roox
ktotin
xi kanhan,
-ka
(ot)pull-me
I will
had-not
by hand
you
(If you had not kept
me by my hand,
pulling
76
f6r
sleep
I would
uxand
outside
have slept
Hb 51
outside)
4(1)
: 1.5
4.1
Purpose
Element
The Purpose
(Purpose
Clause
5.4
of
the
Sentence
),
: 2.1.
which
is
manifested
may be in
its
by Clause
simple
Class
form;
2b
or
expand.ed.
Role of the Purpose Element is
The Participant
: 1-3),
the Nucleus.
the activity
described
in
Examples:
Pumosive
1.
ExDanded Form
Purpose
Expansion
bi
kalon re
naam re
uvamax, auubSk wul
chax*
(sp)
his
lest
one
seem eat meat
and he died
son
his
that
think
he'll
son
not
away,
so
would
of
run
straight
....
eating'the
meat, so that he would not die)
Nucleus
ka-mint
he'll-run
Subjunctive
2.
Clause:
Clause
kawetar
bkul unievi
ba - niaj
uniew
.to-sweep-for
them house
they enter house
(to sweep the house Vor them, that they mient
Infinitive
Hb 16
go in)
Clause : Complex
ka-p6ni
ri
PAM
pya
to-go
will
come-out from shelter
(comes out of the kitchen-shelter
77
Hb 22
ptaaban bkul br6a
them fire
to-light
the fire
to light
to
go
...
for them)
Hbl38
4 (1)
4.1
: 2,
The Types
to
According
into
divided
Sentence
of
the
differences
the
following
in
their
Structure,
the
Sentences
may be
Types:
linor
Simple
Major
Compound
CITATION -PARADIGM:
Minor
Type I.
Mbon.
Well.
Major
Type II.
4.1
(a)
Simple
Jon
ax6p.
John he
vient.
(John
)
went.
(b)
Compound
Jon,
m- me,
ax8p.
John, you know, he went.
(John, you know, went. )
Minor-Sentence
: 2.1
The Minor
Sentence
Formula:
Co-occu. rrence
In
the
data
does not
(Intr)
+(
(Sentence
have
T-Ype I)
Nucleus
the
Element
(Setting)
(Invoc)
manifested.
('Pu:pp)
of Elements
there
is
no example
of a Minor
Sentence
consisting
one Element.
ExamDles:
Introduction
1.
Invocation
only:.
2.
Mbon.
Well.
(That's
alright.
)
+(
signifies:
at least
,
-must be manifested
one of
78
the
Mporta
Mporta
(name)
only:
Kninki
Kninki
optional
Elements
of more than
4 (1)
Setting
3.
only:
Bimng'tl bi.
as
as you like
(A s you* like.
Purpose
4.
only
Nul xnhaakan.
He not talk.
(Let him not talk.
Major
Sentences
Major
: 2.2
4.1
33
(Sentences
Type II)
specified
A. 1 : 2.2.1
Type IIa)
The co-occm=ence of Elements in the Major Sentence has been discussed above
(see 4-1 : l)It remains to be mentioned that, depending on the Type of
the Nucleus,
Clause manifesting
follows:
differ
as
may
the preferred
structure
of the Sentences
(Deciarative.,
(Anticipatory)
Clause
is
by
Type
IIaaa
Nucleus
Sentences whose
a
manifested
Introduction
their
Elements manifested,
Invocation
found
and
with
are, often
This is because, as
but less often with the Setting and Purpose Elements.
haS already
Participant
Formula:
SIIa
*'
(Intr)
(Invoc)
(Setting)
Nuc (Purp)
Examples:
1.
2.
Invocation
UJ&ku,
Bush-'fowl,
(Bush-fowl,
Nucleus
:Inial
a?
ri
-_
'm
_kQu
enter
you not will
)
in?
won't you go
Settina
Bi
baand
mwhen you arrived
(When you arrived
Nucleus
bi
amrich
pl9man
when and you shut door
you shut the door so the
79
Hb 24
Purpose
pa ub8s rix
for dog will-not
dog''could
not run
tuk.
run
)
away.
4 (2)
Compound S6ntence (Sentence
2.2.2
A Compound Sentence
Folktales,
consisting
is
of which
NazTative,
to
is
type
a special
of
the
other
Utterance
Sentence,
of
two Sentences
a member of a different
Ilb)
a direct
in
occurring
interposed,
parenthetically
Utterance,
being
often
one Utterance
addr&ss
of
each
being
the
the
the
Narrator.
the Hearers.
Pormula:
S
IIb
S
IIa***
buar
fill
they
mmaaj, ii
maize
which
husks which,
ni
with
fill
CHApTER 4.
The Function
i8nk,
ka - k1ret
m- me
uko
you know which animal will
gnaw
as you know, the animal gnavis
SECTIOIT 2.
yer
xi blay
.on floor
fall
on the floor
ifetar
husks
11b 71
uniew.
house
of the house. )
Function
by the followirw,,
diagram:
UTTERANCB
CLASS 1'
BNTD
11 CE
CLAUSB
CLASS 31
All
S*IPIA21C
CLASS 2
lAdi
3-4
lAdj5
NOMINAL GROUP
Rel
80
Qual 0,-=lt
ID
73
4 (2)
Sentence Class
4.2 :1
Class 1 function
Sentences
viz.
in the Utterance.
Their function
is univariate;
(see
below),
diagram
the
and
to
sequence
as
describes
causal
A simple
is always paratactic.
events in chronological
recursion
connection
juxtaposition
sequence;
or,
of Sentences
depending
on context,
in
UTTERANCE
FSENTENCE
I.
- Chronological
Causal
Rb 104 - 105
A
Au
ben
bjenx.
u- fing
a
chau.
-ruk
head clean
and he killed
and roasted
and he left
him.
He killed
it and roasted
the. hdad.
it and left
)
clean.
sequence:
A
wul.
U- lip
him
and he waited
(And he waited
for
2.
SENTENCE SENTENC
connection:
Uko
Par enxax
Djaill: ... .....
to'say-him
Animal
For dare-not
(For he did_not
dare to say to him
4.2
:2
Sentence
2 (Reported
Class
kawa
was-ashamed
)
He
was ashamed.
.....
Hb 18,19
Speech)(*)
the function
functioning
as Reported
with
the Sentence
Speech:
(*)For discussion
Clauses which axe similar
of Objectival
Class, see 5.4 : 2.2.1.
Example of Objectival
Clause:
"n8
bi
bi
ro
meex
do how
he-did-not-knovi
how he
(he did not know what to do)
in function
to this
4 (2)
SENTENCE
CLAUSE COMEMENT
Direct
Statement
F-Indirect
Statement
r PARTIG
III
_PARTICLE
(ardc)
ne. ..
kum
Key:
Square. junction
Round junction
It
ought to be further
.....
.....
Marker
add Obligatory
add Optional Maxker
mentioned,
that
B=,
Statement
(without
Direct
Statements
11arker)
(with
Statement'(without
Hb 104
Marker),
ba - ja
k-uma : Baxong, da - moban ixefi.
a
take
and they said that
: Guests, you
seats.
(and they said:
Sit dorm, guests. )
Indirect
3.
TAS- -,
A
fin
xmaal ja
vrul:
I-shall
kill.
said him
and hare
(Hare said : I111 kill
)
mine.
Direct'Statement
2.
Dles:
Direct
1.
although
Hb 12 - 13
Marker)
A
ja
ka - fing. Ka - xij
xjgku
pok
a
ri
ub8s wul. Hb 102
He'll
103
lead dog
and Bush-fowl denied and said not will kill
-his
(But the Bush-fowl said he would not kill
his.
He would take his dog. )
4 (2)
Indi; rect
4:
(Without
Question
kM
ri
xef- a?
You not will
0
sit
,u
Won't you sit dovm? )
ujeku:
and she said Bush-fowl
(She said to Bush-fovil:
QAestion-(with
Babi.
Eb 5
You-viho-came
Marker
ja
Au-
Direct
6.
Marker)
A
ja
k=a k1ch
vul ka-jaa
ujgku
and Bush-fowl said that the-onb his will be-called
)
(Bush-fowl said his name would-be You-who
-came..
Direct
5.
(with
Statement
Hb 17
Marker)-
Hb 76,77
E,
1A
bki?
Ja
Babi
kuma:
ja
yen?
rix
u,
rina
Hm,
You
he
that
who?
not say You-vil-io-came
said
straight-away
-theso
)
(he said straight
Why
don't
You-who-came?
this
you say
away: Hm, who?
Question
Indirect
a- wAxa ank
7- iaten
uyamax ne uko
if animal it
to-see meat
good if
(to look at the meat, to see if it was good)
4.2
-:--3
Hb 129
Sentence Class 3-
into
an
Adjectival
Sentence it
the underlying
Clause,
although
was a Nuclear
in the structure
thus
of
Clause.
Examr)le:
bi
11bon, bga bi
uvilxna
ufox u-jaait
turn-by
he
he
back
Well
say
vjhij
which
way
(Well,
the way by which he might turn back to say:
kaxe
chi.
was
no-longer
it-was
no longer
fing
i
inj
on
chi
the-one
killed
was I
I was the one who killed
analysis:
downranking,
as will
be shown in
4 (2)
Hb 115 - 116
Ybon, bga bi
u- w1--xma
Well
way which he turn-by
(Well,
by
he
way
which
-the
it,
open to
was no longer
bi
which
might
him. )
fing
ufex u -ja
a- chi inji
On kaxe chi.
back he say it was I
kill
was.
who not
turn back to say: I was the one who killed
TAbon, bma
kaxe
chi
SENTENCE
Nucleus
Intr
CLAUSE
Subj ect
NOMINAL
12i
'bi
u- VIINMR
Nucleus
I
trker
la
1Predicat(
E GROUP
tx
I Ledx
GROUPlb
uf'p-x ii -.! a
SENTENCE I
inji
a. - chi
finp. - on
Purpose
-I
Fllied.
CLAUSE 4bb
I Mark
I Predicate
CLAUSE 2b
COMDlement
SENTENCE 2
Fu-cleus
inji
a-chi
ICLAUSE la
Lred.
1 C.
V. GR.
[Ul IL
fing-on
CL. la
M-
red
fl-G-2
FN-G7lc
2C
beajd Le x
Idl LeAI
DN
__j
nt
Nm
I. V[D.
N. I ?,,
MBM.
JCD
C,
3
:j
Ci.
000
z
t-,
00
co
zp
0
*
j
tj
CD
0-
Ct.
"n
--n
& C+ ce
0
VB
jCfD+0
cn
(D
0
CD
VB
VB
-M
En
C/I
000000
CD
C*o
cn
mn
F
I NOUNIJ
CD
C+
t=j
1=1
CD
l
CD
11
0
0
(D
CD
0
0
H
C+
1-1
ra
f-
%_n C+ l 0w
cil
F-J
aN
I-j
-"-
C)
CD 0
ci.
41.
t:. 4
t-4
P,
CD
P,
(D
CD
-4
I'd
;n
--j
0
C+
I-J
F-j
I-j
1-i
cf-
ci-
0
0
Cf-
1\3
Na
N)
(rrn
C,:) 0
o ::s
(D ::I ca
0 ciF1
1--j %-,
;o
;Q
84
CD
CD
CD
x
Fj.
-j
P.
CD
0
0
11-1
-j
0
CD
F-i
NY
P& C+
P.
C+
(D
CD
-"w
1--i
.0
d
0
o
ci-
00
Ci.
4h-
..
In
t-I
-j
rQ
rn
t-4
CO
co
VB 7D,RE
CD I
rn
CD
rJ2
U2
(D
(D
0
0
ca
CD
CD
-4
cn
i
-7-1
rr
%.
A
N)
\-Q
I'D
;o
03
N)-,
0
0
ci-
4 (3)
SECTION 3,
CHAPTER4.
The Strin
is
it functions
Its
only in the Nucleus of the Sentence.
possibilities:
Rank is thereford, not a Rank in the sense in which e. g. the Clause Rank
to call it
and the Group Rank are Ranks. It will be convenient therefore
a Sub-rank.
in the String are all Coordinate Clauses
The Clauses which function
(Type Ilaabb) having the feature +secondary in the Verbal Group. The
Role of Chronology
Participant
in the String
(i)
expressed
in that:
the feature
is realized
in the usual sequence of tenses
(Sequence
II of the diagram on
+actual
+successive
in the String:
+actual;
page 74),*
(ii).
the feature
Class lbo,
is realized
+contemporaneous
the Closing
manifesting
in the presence
Element of the String
of Clause
(see
4.3 : 1.2.3).
Nominal Concord in the Stringis
4.3
:1
discussed
at 4.3 : 2.
Structure
The Structure
of the String
in its
STRING
Focal
Sequential
Elements:
ManifestinR
Focal
(5-4
: R-1)
Sequen#al
(5-4
: 1-22)
Closing
(5-4
: lZ5)
Classes:
89
Closing
the following:
4 (3)
Elements
4.3 : 1.1
All
is
Clauses.
Element is manifested,
they occur in the lineal
the diagram on the previous page.
4.3 : 1.1.1
of the String
characteristic
If
Pocal
The Pocal Element is manifested by the Pocal Clause (Clause Class lba,
The Pocal, Element is always manifested by a single member,
5.4 : 1.2.1).
and never a Complex.
Rxampl
A
ulion
and lion
YhLnk na
took from
4.3
auand he
B 17
re.
ate
Sequential
1.1.2
viul ub?Lcha,
him gazelle
The Sequential
Example:
A
ptibi
a
nasien p8nandi
na-vrul unel
a
na-ja
"Tul C7s8
brought-out
matchet
and he gave hyena and he said him
and chief
(The chief brought out a matchet and gave it to the hyena and said to him, )
Closin
A. 3 :
The Closing
5.4
: 1.2-3)-
seldom
Element
It
is
is
manifested
usually
by the
manifested
Closing
Clause
by a single
(clause
exponent,
class
andonly
by a Complex.
xwn-ol e:
finfr
mob
un,-Il a
auand he caught Hyena and killed.
(He caught Hyena and killed
it. )
A. 3 :2
Nominal
Nominal
B 18
.
Concord
Coneord. describod
at
3.3
may be manifested
(36
wherever
'ibc,
4 (3)
Clause with
the featuresecondary
in the Verbal
different
of Identifier
manifest Concord of Class and Number realized
1.2). Nominal Concord provides a grammatical
and
other
entities,
Nominals or Verbs,
with
1 in the Verbal
Group
link
which it
(10-4
Group
is logically
connected.
Exam-oles:
aB2dba
A
ba - kob ub8s nasien
chief
and they hit dog
(And they hit
the chief's
tuk
ran
ni
Zko
with stick
dog with
a
j2a-cheta,
and it broke
a stick
and it
a
uand it
broke,
ba chax, a
died
and they
and it died
c
na-riabax.
a
Teangry.
and
)
he
they
was angry.
ran avray and
and
(elicited)
Example
illustrates
four separate agreements, marked
The above
by the letters
a, b, c, and d; the upper case marks the Governing Element.
ABabC
21
Ti
jej
likar,
A
2liki
ivul, a
Rpit
he
took
her
filled
And grass-fly
pot
and
(Sand-fly
took her water-pot
it,
and filled
baand
a
-onchuaf,
pa
and it
arrive
njiddle
and when it, was half-full
aaDa
!
jej
likar,
aua
pkaanda,
11 - y6nx
a
he put-on-head
and she took calabash
and she filled-with-water
and
head and then she took a calabash
and filled
she put it onto her
b
pa-chum.
it flail
'with
water
a
and
it
D 11
to
the
brim.
I.,
13
-
5
CHAPTER5.
THE CLAUSE
Contents
5
5.1 :
1
1.1
1.1.1
page:
93
Structure
95
Elements. of Structure
Elements of the Adjunct
Adjunct 1
92
96
Stratum
96
96
1.1.2
Adjunct
97
1.1-3
Adjunct
97
1-1-4
Adjunct
98
1.1.5
Adjunct
99
1.2
Elements
99
1.2.1
Marker
99
1.2.2
Link
99
1.2.3
Focus
1.2.4
1.3
100
11,
redicate
Elements of the Transitivity
100
Stratum
100-
1.3.1
Subject
100
1-3.2
Predicate
102
1.3.3
Complement
103
106
5.2 :
2
3
4
5
6
7
112',
112
Finite-Clauses
IIa
Ilaa
Nuclear
112
Clauses
IIaaa, Anticipatory
IIaaaa
Hortative
Clauses
IIaa-aa, Imperative
10
11
12
12.1
IIaaab
Interrogative
Non-polar
113
113.
Clause
113
Clause
113
Clauses
IIaaaba Po Clause
(Emphatic and Non-emphatic
IIaaabb
112
Clauses
IIaaa7o Subjunctive
9
112
Clause
Non-emphatic
88
113
Clauses)
114
114
114
5
114
Emphatic
12.2
IIaab
13
115
115
Clause
1Iaabaa Initial
15
Clauses
Non-coordinate
IIaaba
14
115
Clauses
Declarative
15.1
Non-emphatic
115
15.2
Emphatic
116
IIaabab
16
Clause
Non-initial
116
16.1
Non-emphatic
116
16.2
Emphatic
116
Coordinate
lIaabb
17
Clauses
116
Non-emphatic
117
Emphatic
117
11aabba Focal
18
18.1
18.2
19
20
Ilaabbb
Sequential
IIaabbc
Closing
Peripheral
IIab
21
IIaba
22
24.2
IIabbb
25
Clauses"
Clause.
118
Clauses
lis
Emphatic
118
Adjectival
26.1
26.2
Clauses
Clause
119
119
Non-emphatic
120
Emphatic-
120
,Non-integrated
IIabbbb
27
118
Non-emphatic
Mabbba Integrated
26
118
Clauses
Modificational.
24.1
117
117
Clause
Subrogated
IIabba
24
Clause
117
Purposive
lIabb
23
116
Clauses
Clause
121
27-1
Non-emphatic
121
27.2
Emphatic
121
Clause
122
28
Infinitive
IIb
123
Transitivity
5.3 :
1
2
3
4
Clause
A. Non-agentive
B. Agentive
BI
128
Clauses
Intensive
Clauses
BIa,
P=ocessive
BIb
Stative
Ble
Resultative
127
Clause
Clause
Clause
128
129
129
130
BII
BIIa.
Qualitative
BIIb
Kinetic
10
BIIba'
11
BIIbb
12
B11o' Effective
131
Kinetio/Non-directed
Clause
'Kinetic/Directed
BIloaa
14
131
Clause,
Clauses
133
134
Clauses
134
Clauses
Operative
15
BIIcaaa
Directive
16
BIIcaab
Instrumental
17
IIcaac
Benefactive
18
BIIcaad
Respective
132
132
Clause
Clauses
B11ca Simplex
13
130
Extensive Clauses
135
Clause
Clause
Clause
135
.
136
1*37
Clause
138
19
BlIcab
Middle
Clause
20
BIleac
Receptive
Clauses
139
Passive
Clauses
139
21
BlIcaca.
22
33IIcacaa Passive/Recipient
23
BIIcacab
Passive/Goal
24
BIIcacb
Ergative
BIIcb
25
Clause
Clause
139
139
140
Clause
142
Complex Clauses
Clause
143
26
BIIcba
Middle-transitive
27
BIIabaa
Middle-transitive/Benefactive
143
28
BIIabab
Middle-transitive/Directive
144
29
BIIcbb
Inner-transitive
144
30
B11obc
Double-transitive
3IId
31
Descriptive
Clause
1
1.2
Clause
145
146
147
Function
5.4 :
Clause
Nuclear
Clauses
la
Principal Clauses
lb
Coordinate
Clauses
1.2.1
lba
Focal
Clause
1.2.2
lbb
Sequential
1.2.3
Ibc
Closing
Clause
Clause
149
149
149
149
149
150
5-4 :22,3v
2.1
4
2
2.1.2
2.2
functioning
2a
2.1.1
Clauses
150
150
The Peripheral
150
Temporal Clause
150
Purpose
Clause
2b
3 Embedded Clauses
151
2.2.1
3a
Objectival.
Clause
151
2.2.2
3b
Locational
Clause
151
Clauses
152
2.3
Rankshifted
2.3.1
4a
Relational
Clause
152
2.3.2
4b
Adjectival
Clause
152
2.3.2.1
4ba
Integrated
2.3.2.2
4bb
Non-integrated
2-3.3
4c
Lexical
Clause
Clause
Clause
152
152
153
91
CHAPTER 5.
THE CI:AUSE
Introduction
This
chapter
is
the
Clause.
The Elements
of
in
described
intervening
three
section
sections
Components.
into
divided
of
-four
Structure
1 and the
Function
deal
the
with
is
Account
for
sections
taken
of
in
Clause
of
the
the
the
description
Clause
The two
4.
section
axe
Structure
in
fact
some of
that
terms
of
the
are realized.
Halliday
states:,
"The English
and this
concept
is
clause
...
choice:
as three
adopted
can be regarded
transitivity,
as the
domain
structures,
-simultaneous
for the discussion
of the
or
Components'transitivityj
Component finds
its
Projection
within
and Complement, - it
Elements
Plane wholly
in the Clause.
In a similar
Link,
way, the Elements, I&rker,
(as
instances
in
the
Predicate
Sets
Focus,
and
many
regards the Affix
and
selected in the Verbal Group)v manifest the Component of Mood in the
Clause, so that it is convenient to consider them as forming a Stratum,
Transitivity
difference
Adjuncts
that
It
-hvo Elements,
92
They will
It
will
Elements,
be called
also be noticed
5
manifesting
Class,
one relevant
with two facets,
Mood. The Predicate
is also
Transitivity
relevant,
respects,
to both
and Mood.
(1.2
in the Introduction
As was mentioned
of free
form or combination
: 1),
since
almost
any free
grammatically
The Clause
Grou-D
and the
Relator
In addition
also
may in
instances
the presence
turn
Modifier
to this
1,3,
the Adjuncts
the Specific
function
in
the
12
the Adjuncts
function
in the
Nominal
Group,
the
manifestine
Elements.
straightforward
relationship
of function,
there
are
in which certain
in
Transitivity
features may be r4alized
This happens in every
of the Nominal Group in the Clause.
Complement,. e. g. Descriptive
vihere the Clause has an obligatory
The presence of the Nominal Group may also mutate one type ofClause.
Clause into another e. g. Middle (Clause Type BIIcab) into Benefactive
(Example 1).
Olause Type BIIcaac)
instance
Pinally,
will
Adj 1),
5
Examnle 1
ahe
fingax
killed-himself
Jon unkambe
a- fingar
he killed-for
John pig
(he killed
a pig for John)
D-xamDle 2
a- finga
he killed-was
(he was killed
ungl^l
hyena
by a hyena)
but not:
*a, - finga
he killed-was
Jon
John
Exa.mDle
a- baand mex
he came house
(he came home)
but not:
*a
he
however:
baand Jon
came John
ahe
baand ri Jon
came to John
ExamDle
uno ka
- x&p
sun I-shall
go
go at daybreak)
umay
bursting
(I shall
umay
uno a n-xep
bursting
sun &I went
(I went at daybreak)
94
5 (1)
CHAPTER 5. SECTION 1.
The Structure
of
the
Structure
in
Clause
its
maximum expanded
foxm, is
the
following:
LAUSB
C'
Al
14
FIS
IPM
A2
Marker
Word (8-4
Link
Verbal
Conjunction
Focus/Subject
Nominal
11-rodicate
Verbal
Group Class
Adverb
Class
Adjunct
Adjunct
: 2)
(8-4
A4
A5
Group Class
lb
: 3.2)
(3.2
2)
.
(6.1)
2 (8-3
Group Class
: 2.2.2)
lc (3.2
Adverbial
Group(6.2
Adverb Class
314.7
: 2)
5 (8-3
Nominal
Complement
Adjunct
A3
11--xker
Adjunct
ICI
Manifesting-Classes:
Elements:
Adjunct
1LI
2)
2.2-3ff)
Adjunct
Stratum
Mood Stratum
Tran3itivity
Al
A2
15 L
Stratum
F
S
95
A3
A4
P 11
P
cl
A51
5 (1)
of Struoture
Elements
5.1 :1
for
each Stratum.
Elements
5.1 : 1.1.1
2f
93i,
P.
:
Adjunct 1
(Example
by
Nominal
Group
1);
is
Class
la,
1
Adjunct
manifested
(Example 3).
Its
Group (Example 2); or by Adverb Class I
Adverbial
Role in the Clause is that of "Time when".
It may be
'Participant
manifested
by a single
exponent
or by a Complex.
Pxamples:
Nominal
1.
.
Grou-p-la
Adverbial
2.
Mon un^ a
plik
9ca-i
- ya
One day and they (sp) went'spring
(One day they went to the spring)
Grcup
M
man-ro
uchaay mak
xi ppaxinji
in youth-my I
used-to fear demon much
(in my youth I used to fear the demon much)
Adverb Class 1
(*-X-)
bi
ka
fan
tomorrow I-shall
come
(I shall come tomorrow)
The I.Tahjakos use this
construction
for
telling
6
Umay pchaal (bursting
sky-redness)
about
a. m.
=
Umay un8 bursting
sun = about 7 a. m.
Ucon uno cooling
pounding sun) = about noon
Itfux un8
sun) = about 3 P. M.
Tjyongga un8 (slanting)sun)
= about 4 P. M.
UyOr un8 (falling
sun = about 5 P. m.
Uy&r pchaal (falling
sky-redness)
about 7 P. m.
(-Y-*) Adverb
meaning;
Class
see 5.1
may also
function
: 1.1-5.
96
in
Adjunct
5, with
different
5(1)
5.1 : 1.1.2
Adjunct
Adjunct
and
Its
Participant
Role is
that
of Inclusion,
"all"
inclusion
either
of a
(as
Participant
in
the
Subject
to
Complement
in Example 1),
referred
or
(as
described
in
the
Predicate
in Examples 2
or extension of an activity
and 3).
ExamDles
1.
2.
bux im6lul
ab6k naamand a- yOnxi
son vioman he put-on-head also'kindling-his
(The son of the woman also put his kindling
TO
onto his head)
bux wul
ro -j ai
nay6
a
(cp)
tapper-of-wine
and
said-hither
also him
(And then the tapper of wine said to him (from
bux umetade mexwund
xis
amhouse-our
and you returned also middle
(And besides, you returned to our midst)
5: 1 : l. l.. j
Hb 114
the palm tree))
CM
Adjunct 3
e. g:
ait
(It
vrAxa
is-good
is very
The Paxticipant
of Adjunct
3 is
that
of Manner.
EbcamDles:
Adverbial
1.
Group
k- chi
ni
ubon
you will-be
with hunger
(You will be hungry)
Hb
5(1)
Adverb Class
2.
i1
(I
Eb 87
nag6belen
mak
ngNlax
like-not
trouble-maker
much
don't like trouble makers very much)
Adverb Classe4
and
5 (Complex)
korul
ink
chapan
xmaal k(ct) boil-make thus alone
hare
(Hare chatters
away to himself)
1.1.4
Eb 40
Adjunct 4
(Examples
1 and 5);
by
Clause
Class
3b
is
Adjunct 4
manifested
Group (Examples 2 and 4); or by Adverb
Adverbial
(Example
6
3), either by a single exponent or by a Complex
Class
(Examples 2 and 4).
The Participant
Role of Adjunct 4 in the Clause is
that
of Place.
ExamDles:
Clause Class 3b
nai
a
- x6nk ujgku
(sp)
found bush-fowl
he
and
(And he found the bush-fowl
Hb 23
u -n&x
xi
xi
where he stood where
in the place where he was standing)
Group(Complex)
Adverbial
Adverbial
GrouD
2.
gaika
a
(sp)(ct
they
and
(And (afterwards)
chief's
Adverb
3-
Class
baand
ri rlon mex
in one house
arrived
they were approaching
Adverbial
Grou-o
nasien
ri kato
-' in compound chief
house in the
a certain
C2
compound)
6
E 47
ker
ka
xi
I-shall
smear here
(I shall
smear here)
98
5 (1)
Complex: Adverbial
Group and'Clause
Class 3b
Adverbial
Grou-o
Clause Class 3b
Ank
a
nai
ujeku
xi uxaand
xi
u- nA_-C xi Hb 23
found Bush-fovil
in outside
and'she(sp)
where he stood where
(and she found Bush-fowl outside where he was standing. )
5.1 : 1.1.5 Adjunct 5
4.
Adjunct
ExamDles:
br6m
a- f6r
he slept night
(he spent the night)
Adverb
2.
Class
1,
bi
fan
come tomo=ovr
ka
he-will
1.2
Hb 34
Elements
of
the
Mood Stratum
The following
the features
o
of the
5.1 : 1.2.1
The Marker
Elements
are
by a single
by a Marker
manifested
that
Class
Word (8.4,:
They are
by a Complex.
(Ex. 1) (and. in
the
In the Marker Element,
feature
is realized
.
_7peripheral
Marker Element,
the Thematic
the Closing
feature
Ex. 2)
+emphatic;
manifested
exponent
Exam-Dle 1:
Bi
bi
xisand
=aal
7hen
Hare
When
took-home
(When Haretook
it home)
5.1
: 1.2.2
and never
Example 2:
Umaal yil
'won,
plam
Hare
to-swim
able the-one
(Hare was the one who
could
Hb 11
E 38
swim)
Link
of
the
+coordinate
by the Verbal
It
Conjunction
Class (8.4
99
In the
: 3.2)
5 (1)
ExamDle:
a
u-
ba
and he finished
Focus
5.1 : 1.2.3
The Focus Element is manifested by the Nominal Group Class lb (3.2 : 2).
It may be manifested'by
a Complex. In the Focus Element, the +focal
is realized.
feature
Ebcample:
A
nalon
and a-certain
(and a certain
5.1
ka
untaang
mmax, bixe
have time
woman happened-not
woman happened not to have time),
Predicate
: 1.2.4
by a
Element is manifested by the Verbal Group Class (6.1),
single exponent of that Class and never by a Complex. The Predicate
(except
(5.2
1)).
Clause
for
Minor
Clauses,
in
is
Element
:
every
present
The Predicate
to Mood primarily
is relevant
in the Verbal Group.
The Predicate
selected
5.1
: 1.3
Elements
The following
are
of
are
5.1 : 1.
Subject
3-4).
of
the
the prefix
sets
Stratum
Clause
in
which
certain
features
of
realized.
2),
by Nominal Group Class lb (3.2
by a single exponent of that Class or by a Complex (for Complex see
In the presence of the Subject Element, the +aPentive feature of
The Subject
either
Transitivity
the Elements
Transitivity
_3.1
the
as regards
Element is manifested
The Subject
part
Referent
Attribuant
Actor
Recipient
Agent
Goal
Non-Actor
Non-Participant
Aotor-Recipient
Actor-Goal
100
Participant
of the Transitivity
Component:
5(1)
Since the whole Transitivity
a Nominal Group.
Examples:
Referent
1.
ufux a- fux
wind it winds
(wind blows)
Referent:
IM kaxe
chi
was
no-longer
Yiay
.(there
was no longer
2.
(Hb 115)
a way)
Attribuant:
3.
ubaarum
mos quito
(Mosquito
D4
a -nhikex
it thin
is
thin)
Actor:
4.
wul
a
umaal ja
and hare said him
(and Hare said
C14
to him)
Recipient:
5.
Jon a- fingars,
John he killed-for
(a pig was killed
unkambe
pig
for John)
(E 52)
Agent:
6.
Jon a- j6xelen
John he' grind -each-other-causes-to.
(John grinds his teeth)
ir6maj
teeth
Goal:
a
unm,^l pea
and hyena overcome
(and Hyena was overcome)
C16
101
5 (1)
Non-Actor
8.
nl. iki
water-pot
(the
ait
chinn mlik
full' water
was full
water-pot
of water)
Actor-Recipient
ion
a- wambar
John he shook-from himself
(John chased the blow-flies
Xinta a
10, Jon ni
(E 15)
gtievi
blow-flies
away from himself)
ba - chi
xi kastrler
Actor-Goal
fingar
Jon a-
ToUn he killed-himself
(John killed
himself)
5.1 : 1.3.2
The Predicate
Predicate
Group Class.
Verbal
Element
places, it
two Elements,
in their
the Subject
seto nelected
in the Verbal
on which it
draws,
Exam-ole:
xmaal
hare
(Hare
uj6ku
ni
and bush-fowl
and bush-fowl
The whole
that
(10.2
the
Transitivity
Identifier
: 1-3)
manifesting
relationship
in
the
the
fexar
back-themselves
friends)
athey
were
Subject
may be implied
in
the
typical
represent
The whole
Response
Clause
Nominal
Groups
Transitivity
(5.2
in
: 15),
5(1)
which may consist
1.3.3
only
of a Predicate.
Complement
(4.2
Element
is
by
Sentence
Class
2
Complement
The
: 2); or by
manifested
(3.2.:
lc
2), either by a single exponent of that
Class
Group
Nominal
Class or by a Complex. Depending on the*nature
of the
the Complement may be either C1, that is
Relationship,
(or
Nominal
Group
Complex)
in a
by
a
single
manifested
Role or Roles; or 02. that is a Complement
Participant
potentially
Participant
Transitivity
a Complement
certain
manifested,
or
manifested,
Roles*) Since'the
whole Transitivity
Component may be
Attribute
Goal
Locator
Recipient
Respect
Instrument
Subjective
Actor
Actor-Goal
C2
Recipient
Goal
Goal - Respect
Instrument
Goal
Goal 1/Actor
Goal 2
Goal - Locator
Examples:
Participant
Roles:
Attribute
1.
2.
ninx
man
child)
Hb. 113dog)
Ha 2
was a male)
103
(1)
.5
Goal
uchi ubaarum jej
-pliki
If
take
mosquito
water-pot
(if Mosquito takes the water-pot)
3.
D 11
Locator
Mon un8 a
gai
ya
plik...
Ono day and they(sp)
went spring
(laid on a certain
day they went to the spring...
4-
D5
Recipient
5.
a
na-wul
unm^l
and he gave hyena
(and he gave (it)
to the hyena)
C7
Respect
6.
ubaarum a- nhikex
Dxim
is-thin
leg
mosquito it
(the mosquito has thin legs)
D2
Instrument
kanh6n
ma. nak-o Ica - wambnas,
jmecha
but person will wakened-by-be mortar-shots
five
(but he will be woken up by five mortar-shots)
7.
Subjecti
a- ka, ninx
has man
it
(there was a man)
.
Actor
9.
undaali a- mobs,
it
caught
cat
(the cat was caught
Un111L
-hyena
by a hyena)
Actor-Goal
10.
Jon a- g6belen
John he throw-each-other-causes-to
(John makes trouble between people)
banhaan
people
Ha 56
Reci-pipnt
11.
Goal
-
B 62
them)
Goal - Resnect
12.
Ivul 1111A
xma,-,.1 a- pe
hare it
surpassed him running
(Ilare was better than lie at rimning)
Hb 108
bren
mam - paabna undink
I
forest
machette
clear
(I clear the forest with a maohette)
Goal l/Actor
14.
Goal
2
-
kamisaanji
upax
ma - winand
I
savi-causing-move children
shirt-my
(I cavi the children
taking away my shirt)
Goal - Locator
15.
kanem
a- x6pand upi
Foat marliet
he took
(he took the goat to market)
Goal - Instrumont
is also
105
acceptable
(5-3
: 16)
5 (2)
SECTION 2.
CHAPTER
Introduction
5.2 :0
because the
Mood and Theme are discussed together in this section,
to them are inter-dependent,
Clause options relating
whereas Transitivity
is independent of them both.
usage refers to the organization
of the participants
in speech situations
and the various options of speaker--rojej
whereas
Theme refers to the informatiowstructure
and the organization
of the
Moodt in Halliday's
(Halliday
These
two
1967a,
199).
described
areas
are
of
meaning
message
together for Manjako, in one system of features which may individually
to one or both. For instance the choice of +emphatic
be relevant
to the
essentially
a Thematic choice related
but
is
it
to
structure,
mapped
new
on
other options which
civen instance
for
the
interrogative
Hoda12
options.
essentially
are
or +non-emDhatic
is
thematic
organization.
little
is
Complement
is
possible
but
posoibility
for
the
the
gazelle
have a form
a Nominal
sake of
to frontshift
...
but such a sequence
however
of
Transform,
organization
the
lie let
would-be
run
m- laangin
you refuse-me
the
message.
as in
e. g.
for
Text
this
A line
purpose
17:
uyamax
meat
from an underlying
uyamax
meat
106
"the
in Manjako.
ungrammatical
instance
Subject
order
to identify
away)
8n
laang
Inji
ni
mthe-one
I
who you refuse
(You are refusing
me meat)
of
Complement,
of frontshifting
for
the
changing
Clause:
rigid.
PredicateIn Engglish it
"The goat
goat"
Manjako
in
the
he killed"
as theme,
does
u.9e of
5 (2)
a frequent
is
This
for
construction
a non-polar
question,
illustrating
may fall
information
Theme. Its
device
the
of naming
the
role
is
Neither
part
of
the
the
the
Clause.
from
the
a Nominal
Clause
to be new in
the Focus
given.
the
nor
Text
of view
The Focus
1.2
a Clause
B line
of
of
the
of Yood and.
it
has a
further
for
in
instance
where
the Focus
is
normally
18 illustrates
this:
is
the
toot
The Complement
3).
Complement
focus
identifies
generally
discourse,
(see
first
anti-hero
Group)
the
of
the
The Subject
point
as given.
organizatign
likely
is
manifestedp
it
of
in
manifested.
if
rest
in
Focus
(by
manifestation
the
and
now
as
thematic
the
be rearranged,
may not
ax*, ivhere
Clause
if
Elements
Clause
the
Since
not
manifested
a fing.
unel
mob
au& he caught hyena & killed
(and he caught Hyena and killed
it. )
in Manjako by means of repetition,
The Theme may be identified
instance in the occurrence of an Emphatic Marker in the Closing
for
Marker
in realization
of the feature +em-phatics the Marker echoes
the Focus of the Clause, manifesting
agreement with its exponentg e. g:
38
E
Umaal yil
plam
w8n
Hare able the-one to-swim
(Hare was thp one who could swim. )
This kind of emphasis, which may be called Focal Emphasis since it'is
Element,
it
Focus
the
which
always
involving
formally,
as it
is
reinforces,
the only
far
as Surface
Structure
is concerned,
is
107
the following
as
of
"(2)
5
naxong ni,
this
guest
(about this
This
with
"Britain,
it's
pronominal
all
for
substitution,
roads".
Halliday
Hb
instance
in his
"...
says of reference:
theme
the
isolating
the
from
remainder
of
a
means
as
is
then not required as a participant
theme
the
since
structureq
241).
thematic
262 27
what Halliday
resembles
construction
English,
kaax
nako
mtum-a?
person has-not mouth(Qu)
)
he
hasn1t
got any mouth?
guest,
example
it
serves
of the clause,
in the clause
(Halliday
1967b,
status"
for
as functioning
entity".
Emphasis of the Predicate is achieved
in a Verbal Group Complex, as described
The features
in this
described
section
of the Verb
by repetition
at 6.1 : 2.7.
together
with
those described
the
the
for
Transitivity
range
of
options
cover
structural
under
in
Clause. It will be noticed that there is no mention of polarity
This is because,
the Clause.
simple
as possible,
+negative
a rule
or +T)ositiVe
of relevance
at this
was applied,
The features
to the classification
level
of delicacy,
of
they have
Clauses
Injilanjako,
Structure
the
Clause.
the
with
of
on
effect
no
the feature +negative in the Verbal Group are in other ways the same
described
feature
Polarity
is
therefore
the
having
Clauses
+Positive.
as
only at lower ranks.
The types of Clauses in which features of Mood and theme are realized
network diagram. In the description
may be arranged as in the following
are given of'the
of Clauses which follows,
some indications
Clause
types
the
these
bet%7een
recognized
of
and
classes
correlation
For
further
details
this
Function.
basis
the
correlation
see
of
of
on
of the'typea
108
Ilinor
SYSTEM NETWORK.
(1)
Hortative
' mperative
(6)
(7)
(8)
Subjunctive
(5)
Anticipatory
(9)
Interrogative
olar
(10)
(12)
Non-polar
Nuclear (4)
Non-coordinate
(14)
(15)
Initial
(16)
Non-initial
L Declarative
(13)
Focal
Co-ordinate
Finite
(17)
(18)
Sequential.
L Closing
Major
(2)
Peripheral
(21
Purposive
(19)
(26)
Emphatic
(22)
(24)
Modificational
Integrated
Subrog-ating (33)
Adjectival
(26)
(25)
Non-integrated
Infinitive
' on-emphatiO
(27) '
(28)
log
to the relevant
Sub-secttons-
:
Paradirm
Citation
Type I
Minor
Major
Type II
(a) Finite
(aa)
1,
luoicar
(aaa)
AnticipatoLZ
(aaaa)
Hortative
(aaaaa)
Imperative
(aaaab)
Subjunctive
(aaab)
Polar
(aaabb/i)
(aaabb/ii)
(aaba)
na
x6p
let-him
go
(that
he might
go)
Interrogative
(aaaba)
(aab)
x6pan
(imp)
go
(Go)
Ilon-polar/r.
,a- x9p - a?
he go
QU
(Did he go? )
oii-emphatic
ITon-polar/Emphatic
ax6p x8m?
he go where
(where did he
go)
Ap
8n?
yen
who go the-one
(who was it
)
who vient?
Declarative
Non-coordinate
(aabaa/i)
(aaba/ii)
(a.Lbab/i)
(aabab/ii)
Initial/1,11on-emphatic
Initial/tiaphatic
Non-initial/Non-emphatio'
1,
Ton-initial/Emphatic
a
x9p
he
910
(He vient)
ion x9p on
John vient thb-one
(John vias the one who went)
na - xep
lie
go
(he Tient)
ion x6p 8n
John went the-one
(John was the one who went)
(2)
5 (2)
(aabb)
Coordinate
-'
Focalfiloi-emphatic
(aabba/i)
(aabba/ii)
Focal/Emphatic
(aabbb)
Sequential
(aabbc)
Closing
(ab)
Jon x8p
a
and John went
(and John
went)
Jon x6p
a
on
and John went the-one
(and it 'was John who
went).
a
na - xep
and he
went
(and he went)
a
x6p
and went
(and went)
Peripheral
(aba)
(abb)
Purposive
re
lest
(lest
Jon xep
John go
John should
go)
Subrogated
(abba/i)
Modificational/lIon-emphatic
(abba/ii)
Modificational/Emphatic
na - x5p xi
xi
he
Mere
go where
(where he went)
An
Ap
A
na -
Mere he
go where-there
(there where he went)
(abbb)
Adjectival
(abbba/i)
(abbta/ii)
(abbbb/i)
Integrated/lion-emphatic
Integrated/Buiphatic
Ilon-integrated/lTon-emphatic
(abbbb/: *L'i) 1,
Ton-integrated/Emphatic
,
(b)
AD il
Jon nan
John who
go who
(John viho went)
Jon, . nan -_x8p 8nk
John who
went-the-one-thus
(John the one who, as ive know,
went)
Jon- x5p wi
uno ivi
day which John go which
(the day John went)
Jon x5p w8nk
- un6 wi
day when John go the-one-thus
(that day on which*John,
as vie
know, went)
Jon pxep
John to-go
(John to go)
Infinitive
ill
5 (2)
5.2
The Minor
:1
The feature
is
+minor
Clause
(Clause
realized
in
Trpe I)
the
absence
of
the
Predicate
Examples:
and Adjunct
Subject
E 61
iini
Inji
here
1
(I am here)
ComDlement
Subject
kada nhaan
each person
(Each one will
untanken
barrel
have a barrel)
Ha 56
Complement
A 37
pleleinji
lemon-my
(It is my lemon)
(Clauses
5.2
5.2
+major is realized
The feature
Element.
Type II)
Finite
5.2 :
Nuclear
Clauses
(Clauses
__4
Nuclear Clauses correlate
Type IIaa)
Clause Class
with
in the Sentence Nucleus.
(see section
5-4)
9.2
:5
Anticipatory
Anticipatory
of
the
Clauses
expect
or answer.
compliance
of
selection
Anticipatory
Clauses
the
Clauses
and Interrogative..
the
+anticipatoZZ
+hortative
accordingly
Type IIaaa)
from
a response
The feature
features
are
(Clauses
is
in
the
realized
form
in:
or interropative.
further
112
hearer,
specified
as: Hortative
5 (2)
Hortative
5.2 :6
.
Hortative
Clauses
and therefore
correspond
or commanding.
The feature
ImDerative
is
+imperative
(10.1
3 or 5-11
in
-+imperative
(10-4
Suffix
the
(Clause
: 2.1),
Verbal
3-1)
in
the
the
in
speaker
is
form
role
of
in:.
realized
specified
of
the
as:
TyDe IIaaaaa)
Predicate
with the
Group or
the
+hortative
'
are further
in:
realized
the hearer
vdth
Clauses
Clause
_7
The feature
Class
from
a response
Type IIaaaa)
expect
compliance,
requesting
(Clauses
Clauses
selection
the
presence
on Root
drawing
of
the
feature
of an Imperative
Verb.
Example:
x6pan
o-(imp)
Clause_(Clause
Subjunctive
5.2
The feature
of
selection
is
+subjunctive
the
feature
realized
+subjunctive
Type IIaaaab)
in;
in
Predicate
the Verbal
with
the
Group.
ExaMD10:
jau
Ax6p
he
i3ay-you go
(He told you you should go)
Interrogaive
Clauses
5.2
(Clauses
Type IIaaab)
Interrogative
Clitic
in either the optional
is realized
or
presence of the Interrogative
Pronoun, Adj6ctive,
'or Adverb. The
the presence of an Interrogative
Clauses
Non-polar,
further
Polar
are
accordihely
as
and
specified
-Interrogative
(Clause
Polar
10
Clause
Tyne IIaaaba)
5.2 :
The Polar
Clause is an Interrogative
is lineally
characteristic
unit
ordered
of paralanguage,
would be treated,
Structure
to follow
following
i. e. it
Adjunct
it
is not manifesting
5-
113
as a grammatical
an Element of
5 (2)
Example:
kxef - a?
m- ri
sit
you not will
-Qu
(Won't you sit doym?)
5.2
Ihphatic
: 11
The choice
at
this
point.
Marker
Element.
speech
item
: Examples
+emDhatic
or +non-emphatic
The feature
+emphatic
is
given
for
The feature
of
the
Paired
Clauses
those
is realized
+non-polar
the
realized*in.,
to which
in
of
presence
an
Closing
the
is
this
the
same
-8-4 : 2.2-5)-
Markers;
Non-Polar
: 12
a Pubrogated
second
becomes relevant
: 2.2. $) manifesting
Clause (5.2 : 23)
30-4
(N. B.. In
as the
are
Clauses.
features
Harker-(IlarkerClass
Emphatic
5.2
and Non-empliatic
the
of
Hb 17
this
applies.
choice
Haaabb)
: the presence
of an Int.
Adjective
Adverb manifesting
IIxonoun in Focus or Complement', or an Interrogative
,
Non-polar Clauses may be either Non-emphatic or Emphatic.
A:dj-. 4 or
_5.
Clause is realized
the Non-polar/Non-emphatic
The feature +non-polarof
its
Complement, or Adjunct
same feature
has that
the-Emphatic
the Non-polar/Emphatic
4 or 5% while
Clause
by means of the
Examnlos:
lion-13olar/lion-em-phatic
.1
(Type
.2
Non-pblar/ gmT)hatic
e IIaaabb/ii)
lIaaabb/i)
Com-olement
yen?
who
achi
Is
it
(Vfho is
2.
yen chi
on?
17110, is
the-one-who
(Who is it? )
it? )
Complement
ka
we ?
ahas what (. X.)
it
)
(What is there...
Note:
The remaining
Clauses(see
5.2
This
: 25).
non-polar
5-3)
section
They are
constructiori
ka
we
what has
(Vlhy?)
is
emphatic
w6n?.
the-one-which
questions,
expressed
by a Nominal
included
below
the
similar
to-the
are
114
for
sake of
F-r-e-n-c-h a-t-il?
yy
formed
from
Lgentive
Transform(see
comparison.
or
in
5 (2)
Comlement
8m?
Ha
88
ro
m
how
do
you
(How did you get on? )
8m bi m- ro b8n?
how (m) you did (M)
(How was it that you got on? )
Adjunct 4
67
E
x6m?
a- chi
achinxu
he is where
friend-your
(Where is your friend? )
Adjunct
lam?
Ka - baand
he'll
when
come
(When will he come?)
: 13
5.2
They therefore
correspond
The feature
-f-declarative
the Anticipatory
system.
the
from'one
Rrefix
from
as
specified
(Clauses
realized
T=e
IIaaba)
: the
in
absence
or Emphatic.
of
The
Link.
They are
further
is
realized
Verbal
the
of
Group
Printu7
Type IIaabaa)
in -: the
(realized
Tlense Sets
selection
in
the
(10.4
of
the
choice'of
feature
+Dri-mal-, r
an Identifier
: 2.2)).
Examples:
.1
Clause
InitialZNon-emphatic
man
I shall
(I Ill sit
Note:
and Non-initial.
+initial
S)
in
2.
:
(6.1
is
Clause*(Clause
Initial
The feature
information.
of. imparting
may be Non-emphatic
Clauses
as : Initial
: 15
Declarative
+non-coordinate
Non-coordinate
5.2
in
is realized
a response
Clauses
Non-coordinate
The feature
expect
and Coordinate.
Non-coordinate
specified
Type IIaab)-
Declarative
5.2
l6m, ri
ka - baand xOn?
(m)
(m)
he'll
when
come
(When is it he is coming? )
Clauses (Clauses
Declarative
: 14
Xom
achirmu
xi
chi x-On?
(m)
(m)
is
friend-your
where
(Where is it that your friend
is? )
(Clause
Type Iiaabaa/i)
Hb '18
xef
sit.
dovm)
given in answer to a question
: 9) Polar or Non-Polar) are usually
Response Clauses,
Clause (5.2
structure.
115
(Interrogative
of this'
5 (2)
e. g:
Jon 6. - chi - a?
QU
is
Jon he
(Is John there ?)
Achi.
he
is
(Yes)
ka
Mwe?
you have what
(What have you got? )
Man - ka
have
I
(An orange)
Clause (Clause
Initial/Emphatic
.2
-
plele.
orange
N
Type IIaabaa/ii)
An
Umaal yi. 1
plam
_
to-swim
the-one
Hare was-able
(Hare was the one who could swim)
5.2 : 16
Non-initial
Clause (Clause
E 38
TtTpe IIaabab)
is realized
in: the selection
+non-initial
of the feature
(realized
(6.1
the
Verbal
Group
2.3)
in
in the choice of an
:
+secondary
Prefix from one of the Secondary Tense Sets (10-4 : 2.2)).
Identifier
The feature
Non-initial/Non-emphatic
.1
(Clause
Clause
A 28
Non-initial/Emphatic
.2
katimul
ba - x8ox
they call-not
name-his
(If
his
they don1t call
: 17
5.2
Coordinate
Clauses
do,.,
m)
(Clause
Type IIaabab/ii)
8n
ni
ubon
(dem) with hunger
be the one to go hungry)
Jon
ka
chi
John (asp) be
name, John will
(Claus&s
Type IIaababA)
Type IIaabb)
Clause Class lb
(5-4
The
: 1.2).
with
in: the presence of Link and, if there
feature
Prefix in the Verbal Group, the selection
is an Identifier
of the
The Coordinate Clauses are further
feature 4secondary(6.1
: 2.3).
as:. Focal, Sequential and Closing.
specified
Clauses correlate
is realized
+coordinate
The-Coordinate
s 18
5.2
Focal
Clauses
The featuros+coordinate
and of Focus,
Focal
and the
Clauses
This
(Clauses
and +focal.
absence
ait
(it
.
may occur
are
realized
of an Identifier
may be Non-emphatic
Clause
T:Ype IIaabba)
without
in:
Prefix
the
in
or Emphatic.
Focus
in
the
construction
presence
the
of Link
Verbal
Group.
5 (2)
Exam-oles:
Focal/Non-emphatic
.1
Focal/Emphatic
Clause-(Clause
Jon a- fing
John he kill
(John killed
5.2
: 19
Type IIaabba/i)
Amk
,
Kanhaay
ruka
pchar
(sp) took string
Kanhaay
to Bush-fowl
to take the roPe
a
xjgku
and Bush-fowl
(It was left
.2
(Clause
Clause
11b 97
of Kanhaay)
Type IIaabba/ii)
Lcha
Tant finr, - on
ungil
a
ub,
hyena and Tant kill
(dem) gazelle
a hyena and. it was Tant who killed
a gazelle)
Clause (Clause
Sequential
TyDe Ilaabbb)
in:
Link
the presence
of
ExaznT)le:
C 17
u-,, re
a
and he ate
(and he ate it)
5.2 : 20 Closing-Clause
(Clause TypeIIaabbc)
The features
and +closin
+coordinate
together
Group.
Example:
Ilb 105
a
chau
and roasted(and he roasted
5.2 : 21
Peri-pheral
Peripheral
Clauses
functioning
feature
and,
of
are
in
the
+DeriDheral
if
the
from
it)
there
further
correlate
Sentence
is
Type IIab)
Clause
with
Periphery,
realized
in
Prefix
an Identifier
(realized
in
+secondary
the
Secondary
specified
as:
Tense Sets
Purposive
Classes.
(5-4)
4
or
2,3
Embedded or'Rankshifted.
the
is
feature
one of
(Clauses
Clauses
of
-presence
in the Verbal
the
(10.4
choice
:. 2.2)).
and Subrogated.
117
the
Initial
Group,
of
The
Marker
in
the
an Identifier
The Peripheral
Element
selection
Prefix
Clause's
5(2)
5.2
: 22
The feature
+purDosive.
lb(Purposive
Class
(Clause
Clause
Purposive
is
in
realized
Markers,
Type Haba)
the
selection
of
a IvIarker
from
2. 14)
8*-4
Mcample:
us8bal
re
lest
rain
(So that
the
5.2
: 23
Subrogated
The feature
Class
2(
5.2
wall)
Type Ijabbj
in the selection
+subro, -ated is realized
Paired Markers;
8-4 3 '2.2-5) Subrogated
Yorlificational
: 24
the
Clauses_(Clauses
as : Modificatiopal
specified
F 20
s8bar
plgnk
rain-wet
wall
does not wet
rain
of Idarkers
of
and Adjectival.
Clause
(Clause
Type IIabba)
is realized
in the selection
+modificational
of Markerd from'
Markers, 8.4 : 2.2.6) which do not manifest
Class 2a (Modificational
Modificational
Clauses may be Non-emphatic or Emphatic.
nominal concord.
The feature
Exam-oles:
.1
Modificational/Ron-emphatic
Clause
(Clause
TyDe Wabba/i
Hb 16
xi
a
u- x6nk
uj4ku
xi u- nhx
and he found bush-fowl in he stood in
(and he saw the bush-fowl in the place where he was standing)
.2I.
Todificational/Emphatic
An
na-x8
pmango xi na-xO
aand he put mango in he put that-in
(and he put the mango in that place
118
-olele
orange
where he had put
the
oragige)
5(2)
5.2 *1 25
Adjectival
(Clauses-Type
Clauses
The feature
is realized
+adjectival
from Class 2b (Adjectival
Markers,
The'Adjectival
If
we write
in the selection
s-p0
Jon.
John"
ahe
tap
hit
of Markers
8-4 : 2.2-7)
a Nominal Transform
IIabbb)
divided
into
two Types.
of:
ub8s
dog.
However, while
in the first
Example is Subject-oriented,
The first
the one in
type is. accordingly
ated Clause,
IntegTated
Clause(Claube
Ty-DeIIabbba)
Prefix
al3omorphs,
as
'seen
(2)
5
in
the
vowels,
-Nelsewhere.
-allnasal occurring
a homorganic
11 represents
Integrated
occurs
following
examples:
1.
ka
nhaan
(ot)
and person
(and a person is
2.
tuk
anhaan
run
person he
(A -person ran)
4.
tuk
run
running
nhaan
person
(a person
nhaan.
n
person
who
(a run-away
pers on,
tuk
ub8s ka
(ct)
dog
run.
and
(And a dog is running)
"6
a -tuk
ubo
he run
dog
(the dog ran away
the
Emphatic
form
w-1
which
- yer
fall
bl.
which
- yer
fall
bi
which
k
am
ni
(0t)
who
person who is coming
bi
come
i
who
nhaan
n
person
who
(The person who came)
am
bi
come
i
who
n
na,,,C
tapper
who
(The palmxinQ tapper
an
bko
atree it
(The tree
bko
tree
(a fallen
b
which
tree)
7.
knhaan
a
(ct)
and person
(and someone is
bi
come
coming)
bi
anhaan
came
person he
(someone came)
jOt ri bcham
sat on tree
tapper
who
tuk
run
nhaan
person
(The
an
(ct)
away)
running
n
ub8s
11
dog
which
(a run-away
dog)
yer
fall
fell)
'i
wi
which
6.
anay8
[bapper he
(A palm-wine
tuk
run
i-. e. a refugee)
an
tuk
run
ub8s
vii
dog
wnich
_ (a dog which is
bi
which
tree)
9.
but
M'
-aNk
tuIC
i
ni
an
(ct)
who
run
who
who is ranning
away)'
bko
tree
(a falling
8.
and affricates.
TVpe IIabbba/i)
kbko
yer
a
(ct)
fall
tree
and
(a tree is falling),
5-
infrequently.
Examnlr, s:
Inter7rated
.1
3-
stops
or Emphatic,
may be Non-emphatic
Clauses
before
ka
(CU
jO'*t
sit
who perched
ri behaml
who in tree
on a palm-
A27
laangul
10. nasien a
n.
a
uyamax nasien
-laanp: ul j qyp-_m
nax
den-y-him
deny-him
he
chief
who
who meat
meat
chief
(The chief who-denied him meat)
(Chief denied him meat)
Hb8l
i
il. nhaa:n anhaan
n
an
rein
mmaaj
mmaaj
-rein
person
who
eat-me who maize
ate-me maize
peroon he
(The one who ate my maize)
(Somdbody ate my maize)
.2
12.
Intefprated/EmDhatic
jank
aplele
red
orange is
(The orange is red)
Clause(Clause
Ty-oe'IIabbba/A
plele
P_
which
orange
(The orange,
the
120
an
one which
jankred
is red)
-POnk
which-thus
(the-one)
27
_5.2
The feature
Integrating
Non-inter-rated
Clause(Ttype Ilabbb)
potential
Verbal Group),
of the Focus.
The Surface
Structure
of the NonAdjectival
integrated
Clause is therefore
the same as that of a
Modificational
Clause. Its Constituent
Structure
isihowever)
different
in
that
Nominal
its
Markers
Examnleo:
l
lion-interrated/flon-emphatic
..
(Adjunct
1.
'Ulon)
Ono)
Clause(Clause
MM
1 to Head)
=8 b6ka
day they'll
kab=u
-A
ba -A
katimu
Ma
Un8 vii
vii
(m3 they call
(M)
day
name-your
(The day on which thc-j call'youx
name)
call
name-your.,
Typc Habbb/i)
call
your name)
to Head)
_(ComDlcmcnt
2. au=0 pro
food
he
ate
and
(and he ate food)
(Adjunct
4 to Head)
3. aUVIIX
returned
and he
(and he vient back
the way)
re
-01
upre ]i
(m
food (m) he
ate
(The fooa which he ate
ri bga
on way
along
Non-interTated/Emphatic
.2
(Complement
to Head)
4. m- laangin
uyamax
meat
you deny-me
(you denied me meat)
k
we ko
eat something
you(ct)
(you are eating something)
Rb83
ufex
wIxna bi
back
return(m)
by
(The way by which he might return)
bga
way
Clause( Clause
inji
I
(I
bi
(m)
Typ e IIabbb/ii)
ni
(m)-
am the
ko
wi
thing(m)
(The thing
121
u
he
uyamax A17
m- - laanfr, on
(m)
deny
you
meat
the-one
one to whom you deny meat)
kyou
which
re
eat
wonk
(m)thus
the-one you are eating)
A32
Note:
the Marker
agrees with
8n
k
inji
ji
ni
-a?
the-one ?
I
who youlll*laugh
(am I the one whom you are laughing
e. g.
IS
)
at?
Groups
Exampl
An
8nk
ja
m=i
(m)
(m)
thus
you say
(that's
what you said)
8m bi,
how (m)
(how did
9.2
: 28
myou
you
ro b8n?
do (m)
get
)
on?
Infinitive
Clause
(Clause
is realized
Type Ilb)
in
: the presence
of a Verbal
Group of
Exam-ole:
a napax
& child
(a child
pbit
r6 - p9ni
(op) como-out to-come,
came out in order to
kar. etar
bkul uniew
them house
to-sweep
go to sweep the house
122
Hb 15,16
for
them)
5 (3).
5.3
Introduction
:0
Elements
the
between
is
words,
Component
03c.
).
in
partly
obligatory
presence
Structure,
for
to
the
of
the
may be arranged
in
differences
into
feature
the
in
is
Structure,
Surface
Element,
a certain
instance
the Transitivity
has a feature
This
Class
Elements
being
Stratum,
in
other
Component.
the
of
Transitivity
the
realized
in
as for
instance
in
and partly
of root
on which
Transitivity
their
a Transitivity
the
Stratum,
The Transitivity
for,
Clause)
Major
Clause,
According
Plano
Projection
the
Clause
-the Transitivity
of
Predicate
by the
formulated
relationship
and Complement.
Predicate,
Subject,
the
the special
is
Transitivity
Every
Transitivit
SECTION .
CIULPTER
the
draws.
Predicate
the
(see
in
of
4.
-he Constituent
features,
System Network
Structure
the
Clauses
below).
feature
kinds:
two
be
Clause
the
in
1,,
Tutaton
of
may
effects
change which a
it
is,
that
Relationships,
Transitivity
the
It may vary
number of
Complex
Clause
into
Simplex
one or vice versa; or
a
a
mutate
Complement,
Subject
the
Roles
Participant
the
and
of
it may re-define
mutating,
for
example,
the Directive
Clause into
Passive
and vice
versa.
Mutation:
Rx,am-ples:
2.
of a Clause is changed is
ja
Kinta bJon ni
they said
John and Kinta
(John and Xinta
said)
jaalor
Kinta bJon -ni
John a4d Kinta thoy said-to-each-otlm-r
(John and Kinta said to each other)
11
upi
mob
un 91 ahyena it
caught goat
(Hyena caught a goat)
unel
upi
amoba '*
hyena
caught-was
goat it
(Goat was caught by a hyena)
123
SYSTEITNETTIORK.
TRANSITIVITY
An-ayntive
(1)
Procossive
Intensive (3) -- Stative (5)
Resultative
" Agentive
(2)
Qualitative
Kinetic
(6)
(a)
Kinetic/Non-directed
(9)
(10)
(11)
Kinetic/Directed
Directive
-
(15)
Instrumental
-Operative(14)
Extensive
(16)
Benefactive
(17)
Respective
(18)
-SimPlex(13)-T, Tiddle(l9)
(21)
assive
Passive/Recipient
(22)
e
Passive/Goal
(23)
-Receptive(20)
(24)
Ergative
-Effective(12)-
f
Middle-transitive
-.
-Complex(25)_
Inner-transitive
Double-transitive
Descriptive
(31)
(26)
Tiddle-transitive/Benefactive
.
11iddle- transitive/Directive
(28)
(25)
(30)
N6te:
124
(27)
Numbers refer
Sub-sections
to the relevant
5 (3)
CitAtion
Paradifnn
Type A
lion-agentive
Type 3
Affentive
ka nirri.
ait
has man
(there
is a man)
Intensive
BI
(a)
Processive
ufux
wind
(the
fux
ait
winds
wind blows)
(b) Stative
Jon a- chi
John he is
(John is here)
(c)
pi eman a- anx
it
door,
open
(the door oPens/is
Re'sultative
BII Extensive
(A) Qualitative
(b) Kinetic
(ba)
Kinetic/lTon-directed
(bb)
Kinetic/Dixected
open)
(0) Effective
(0a)
siml)lex
(caa)
Operative
(caac)
Directive
(caab)
Instrumental
(caac)
Benefactive
(caad) Respective
5 (3)
(cab) Middle
Jon a- fingar
John he kill-himself
(John killed
himself)
(cac)
Receptive
(caca) Passive
(cacaa)
Passive/Recipient
Jbn a- fingara
Jon he kill-for-was
(a goat was killed
(cacab)
Passive/Goal
a- finga,
upi
ungil
kill-was
hyena
oat it
the goat was killed
by a hyena)
(cacb)
E1rgative
pliki
a- chum mlik.
it full
water-pot
water
(the water-pot
is full
of water)
(cb) Complex
(oba) -Lliddle-transitive
(cbaa) middie-transtive/
Benefactive
banhaan. bserler
umaani
they viced-for-eachpeople
rice
other
(the people weed the rice for each
other)
(obab) Middle-transitive/
Directive
(cbb)
Inner-transitive
(cbc)
Double-transitive
(d)
upi
goat
for John)
Descriptive
126
5 (3)
The Zynes of Clauses
_(Ctd)
_5..
used in this
Notes on conventions
section
(5: 3)
the lower
s, subject
cdse s- indicates
a Subject Element
.
Prefix
manifested by a member of the Identifier
Clas s (10: 4 : 2.2)(not
potentially
a Nominal Group).
S, Subject
a Subject
Element
representing
Predicate
pi
r indicates
actor-goal
Complement,
manifested
a member of
the
potentially
representing
Pronoun
The superscripts
5.1
5.1
Participant
-two
recipient
C
- goal
recipient;
S
goal
The asterisk
5.3
:1
at
5.1
Non-wzentive
and the
very
Group.
(Subject)
The hyphen
for
the
Roles
and
indicates
same manifesting
class.
of
either
not both.
indicates
class
the
a restriction
or item.
Transitivity
one Participant
of choice
Component
are
of
realized
: 1.3.
Clause
Clause
The Non-agentive
this,
features
in which
described
: 1.3.1
manifesting
are
(10.3),
Participant
the
or by,
S*
The Elements
Roles
Group,
Class
a Nominal.
at
(Complement).
: 1-3-3
Suffix
indicate
listed
are
which
by a Nominal
usually
special
(Clause
Type A)
functions
Participant
127
Utterance
Roles
of
its
initial.
constituents,
Because
it
'
of
has as
5 (3)
much relevance
for
to Theme as to Transitivity.
convenience
It
classification
be-hween it
merely
is chosen to underline
find their place in the Transitivity
with here
(Clause
A)
Type
code
and the Clauses which
be dealt
will
members.
in:
+non-ar.entive is realized
.
.
non-participant
Participant
the
Role
Norf-P
in
arti cipant
of
subject
s
(which characterizes
the "Impersonal Clause" in
terminology);
traditional
The feature
drawing
on Root Class 1;
Predicate
subjective
C,
Role of
Examnles:
a- ka ninx
has man
it
(There was a man)
a- baand* pxis
to-go-home
it
arrived
(IT"ime has come to go home)
ait
(It
naam chix
seems is-not
seems that he is not(here))
5-1 :2A!
-,entive
The feature
+agentive
is realized
Type B)
in
Subject
in a Participant
Non-Participant.
S
Clauses
Agentive
5.3_ -.
(Clauses
Clauses
Intensive
The feature
referent
S
Intensive
are
further
specified
as:
Role
other
than
and Extensive.
Intensive
+intensive
is
realized
Subject
in
in:
the
Participant
Role
Resultative.
128
of Referent;
Stative
and
5 (3)
5.3
:4
Processive
(Clause
Clause
Clause describes
The Processive
Type BIa)
natural
While most
outside the speaker
phenomena.
the reality
characterize
into Nouns and Verbs, and Nouns are pictured
as detached from the process
that surrounds them, the Manjako language has a homogeneous sequence in
have
the
lexical
item.
Thus,
Predicate
the
Subject
the
same
anu
which
"the
Manjako
"the
blows",
English
a-fux,
ufux
wind
says
wind
says
while
"thing"
"process".
identity
the
inner
the
indicating
and
of
winds",
Indo-European
The feature
languages
+processive
is
in:
realized
referent
S*
Role of Referent;
in the Participant
Subject
that the Subject
*with
the restriction
draws on the same*Root Class as the Predicate
P-r2
Predicate
on Roots Class 2;
and absence of Complement.
The following
Mutation
is possible:
Clause (BIIcaaa)
Directive
drawing
by affixation
of the benefactive
(10.2 : 2.2-3) to the Verb.
-2Z
ExanDles:
Mutations
Uf ux a-f
tm
Wind it
wind
(The wind blew)
bko
Ufux a- fuxar
Wind it
wind-on tree
(The wind blew on the tree)
s6b
us6bal bi
a
(sp)
rain
and rain
(The rain fell)
plenk
sobar
a
us6bal bi
(sp)
rain-on wall
and rain
(The rain wet the wall)
5.3 :5
Stative
The feature
+stative
is realized
in:
Subject
P:
Predicate
The folloiing
Benefactive
P 26
referent
S
r3
suffix
in the Paxticipant
Role of Referent;
Mutation is possible:
Clause (BIIcaac)
by affixation
of the benefactive
(10.2 : 2.2-3) to the Verb.
-gj
129
suffix
5 (3)
Examples:
1.
Hb 115
Bga kaxe
chi
is
Way no-longer
(There was no lonver
a way)
Mutation
2.
da -chiir
you are(to
(You listen
da - chi
you axe
Clause (Claqse
Resultative
5.3 :6
it
T-Ype BIO
on the result,
Clauses focus
Resultative
)
you
well)
kabax
ear
rather
about.
there
as to how it
is no allusion
an agent, a
itself.
The feature
is realized
+resultative
in:
referent
S
Subject in
Referent;
P:
Predicate
r4
The. following
Passive
Mutation
drawing
on Root Class 4
is possible:
by affixation
of the passive
(10.2 : 2.2-4) to the Verb.
suffix
--a
Ilutation:
Examl)l. e:
anx
open
was open/The
pigman a
it
door
(The door
5.3
Role of
the Participant
Extensive
The feature
door
opened)
Clauses. (Clauses
+extensive
is
roalized
anxa
pigman ait
door
open-vias
(The door was opened
someone))
Type BII)--in:
Subje6t
(by
in
a Participant
Role
other
than
-Referent;
presence or optional
Complement.
CAC)
Rxtensive
Clauses
are
further
specified
and Descriptive.
-130
as:
Qualitative,
presence
Kinetic,
of
Effective
5 (3)
8
Oualitative
The feature
Clause
(Clause
is
realizod
+qualitative
Tjpe BIIa)
in:
attribuant
S
Subject
in
Attribuant;
P:
llxedcate
r5
Orespect
Mutation
Participant
d=awing
and Complement
of Respect.
The following
Respective
the
in
on Root
the
Role
of
Class
5;
ParticipantRole
is possible:
Clause (BIIcaad)
by affixqtion
(10.2
-jjn
of the causative
2.2-5)
suffix
Exwnplcs:
pxim
a- nhikox
ubaarm
leg
mosquito he is-thin
(Mosquito is thin in the logs)
D2
- Mutation:
inhan,
plandcr8 a- Y&np
it is-long
jersey
sleeves
(The jersey has long sleeves)
Kinetic
The feature
+kinetic
Clauses
ion a-ympan
.plander6
inhan
Jon he is-long-cause-to
jersey
sleeves
(Jon stretched
the sleeves
of the jersey)
(Clauses
is realized
Type BIIb)
in:
actor
S
Subject
Actor;
P:
Predicate
r6
locator
(C*)
in the Participant
drawing
and optional
Participant
Role of
on Root Class 6;
Complement in the
Role
of
Locator
5 (3)
Kinetic
+non-directed.
KinetiC/liOn-directed
9.3
: 10
Clause
is realized
+non-directed
(C)locator
Mutation
(BIIbb)
as:
(Clause
Type BIIbaj
in:
lZole of
: by affixation
of the factitive
(10.2
2.2.2)
to
the
Verb.
suffix
:
-and
Mcam-oles.-
Mutations:
kato
axis
he go-home house
(he vient home)
a- xisand
uyamax kato
he go-home-with meat
house,
(he took the meat home)
2.
a- Ap kangm
he go market
(he ivent, to market)
9.3
: 11
a -xepand
upi kangm
he go-vrith goat market
(he took the goat to market)
I
(Clause
Kinetic/Pi-rected
Clause
locator
goal
(C)
The following
Type BIIbb)
is realized
The-featu=edirected
Benefactive
in:
'
Mutation
is possible:
Clause (BlIcaac)
: by affixation
of the benefactive
(10.2 : 2.2-3) to the Verb.
-ar
Exam-ole:
Kinta
Kinta
or
is possible:
Clause
Kinetic/Directed
specified
optional
Locator.
The following
further
+directed
and Kinetic/Directed.
Kinetic/Non-directed
The feature
of the features
choice
Mutation:
Angan.
ashe take
(Kinta
took the
the ricefield)
Angander
Kinta
apre
food
Kinta
she took-for
(she took the food for Kinta)
blek
pre
food ricefield
dinner
to
132
suffix
Roles
5 (3)
to elicit
is possible
a Clause hav3mg a
recipient
Complement with three Participant
Roles: 0
Note
It
5.3 : 12
The featu=e
P:
is =ealized
Predicate
r 7-9
(Clauses
, e. g.
Kinta)
been encountered
Clauses
+effective
for
goal - locator
in
unelicited
data.
T-ne BIIc)
ins
Verb functioning
in the Predicate
affixed.
Clause "Bill
and John fought" is ambiguous in that it may be
("Bill
("Bill
John
fought
the
Germans)v
and
either
simplex
or complex
and
John fought each other").
This may be diagrammed as follows:
The English
sC
simplex
(Goal)
Actor
Bill
s
complex
I.Tanlako':
(the
and John
Actor
Goal
Bill
John
Sim-olex Clause
bkam
they fight
(they fight
Comnlex
(someone))
Clause.
b-
kamler
fight
Whey
-each-other
(they fight
each other)
133
Germans)-'
5 (3)
Similarly,
"John married
Terry
and Sheila"
could refer
to a bigamous
simplex
Actor
Goal
John
Te=7
complex
and Sheila
C.
Goal
Actoi:
Agent
John (clergyman)
Sheila-
Te=7
Manj ako ,
Kinta
Kinta
Kinta
Aram
ni
and A-ram
and Aram)
SimDlex:
Tant a -nim
Tant he ma=7
(Tant married
ComDlex:
Tant a- nimlen
Tant he marry-each-other-oause-to
(Tant married
John and Kinta
Simplex
Clauses
(Clauses
Jon ni
Kinta
John and Kinta
each other))
(to
Type BIIca)
Transitivity
a single
Relationship.
They are
Operative
Middle
Receptive
5.3
14
ODerative
In the Operative
the Predicate
Operative
Directive,
is
Clauses-(Clauses
Clauses,
initiated
the Transitivity
in the Subject
Type BIlcaa)',
specified
Benefactive
Relationship
and operates
as:
and Respective.,
134
formulated
by
on the Complement.
5 (3)
15
9.3
Directive
The feature
+directive
actor
S
Subject
p:
Predicate
r7
(C)goal
int
in the Participant
Role of Actor;
on Root Class 7;
dravring
Mutations
Passive Clause
(Example 2)
Type BIlcaaa)
is realized
Complement in'the
and optional
The following
(Clause
Clause
Participant
Role of Goal.
axe possible:
(BIIcaca)
by affixation
of the passive
(10.2 : 2.2-4) to the Verb.
Clause (BIIcaac)
Benefactive
(Example 3)
(BlIca)
Clause
Middle
or
(Example 4)
suffix
-a
by affixation
of the benefactive
(10:
2
2.2-3)
to the
suffix
:
-ar
Ve.rb-.
ExamT)les:
(1)
a- ji
ubaarum
Upit
it laughed mosquito
sand-fly
(The sand-fly
laughed at the mosquito)
Mutations:
2.
undl
aub8s
mob
hyena it
caught dog
(The hyena caught the
ub0s a- moba
ungli
dog it
caught was hyena
(The dog was caught by the hyena)
dog)
mex
m&n- ruk
leave house
-I'll
(I shall leave the house(behind))
mex
m9n - rukaru
I'll
leave-for-you
house
(I leave the house Yrith you)
t
p- wamb gtiew
to shoo blowflies
(to shoo away the blowflies)
5.3 : 16
The feature
Instrumental
+instrumental
Clause
is
pto
(to
(Clause
wambar
shoo-from-himself
shoo blowflies
!ay-pe BII
E15
gtiew
blowflies
away from himself)
caab)
in:
realized
actor
S
Subject
P:
Predicate
drawing on Root Class'7,
with the
selection
suffix
of the instrumen+al
-na
(10.2 : 2.2.6)
in the Verb;
r7
minstrument
goal
in
the
P18
Participant
Role
of Actor;
135
5 (3)
Mutation
The follovring
Passive
Clause
is possible:
(BIIcaca):
by affixation)of-the
(10.2
to
: 2.2-4
passive
the Verb
suffix
-a
Exam)les:
kataam pre
Jon a- rena
John he eats-viith
spoon food
(John eats food with a spoon)
2.
Jon a- tapna
ub8s pko
John he hit-with
dog stick
(John hit the dog with a stick)
The feature
(Clause
Clause
Benefactive
5.3 : 17
is realized
+benefactive
actor
S
Subject
P:
Predicate
r8
(, )recipient,
The following
Passive
r goal
Ilutation
UbSs atapnaa
dog he hit-with-was
(The dog was hit
with
pko
stick
a stick)
in the Participant
drawing
Roles of
Clause (BIlcaca)
1 .:
by affixation)of
(10.2 : 2.2-4
the passive
to the Verb.
suffix
-a
Exam-oles:
1.
2.
ka - fingar
he'll
1-dll-for
(he will hill
Note:
ambiguous,
A passive
unless
fingara
E24
unkambe
,g
they'll
killed-for-were
pig
(they would have a pig killed
for
them)
gul unkambe
them pig
a pig for them)
Ifutation
ambiguity
of the' Benefactive
can be resolved
136
Clause may be
by recourse to semantic
or
5 (3)
because it is often impossible
considerations,
Role of the Complement is being transformed,
contextual
Participant
ahe
he
1
2
translation
translation
The first
to say which
e. g:
wula
was-given
or:
was-given-away
is based on:
translation
Goal
dog,
ub6s)
Ivul
gave
ahe
i. e. to somebody)
vrul
he
If
dog,
i. e.
gave
but
Recipient,
The feature,
actor
S.
translation
if
is
+resnective
--,
Subject
has the
2 applies,
Clause
Respective
18
the
1 applies,
translation
fClause
to
something
of
Participant
in:
realized
(13IIcaca)
is
drawing
Role of Actor;
on Root Class 9;
respect
goal
C
Clause
2.
xmaal
hare
(Hare
Roles of Goal
possible:
: by affixation
(10.2
: 2.2-4)
Examples:
1.
of
Type BIIcaad)
Predicate
Passive
Role
Goal.
P: x9
Mutation
dog)
in the Participant
Subject
The following
the
of the passive
to the Verb.
suffix
-a
Mutations:
Irb 108
ape
vrul ptuk
he more him'run
than he)
could run. faster
aympan
he stretched
(He stretched
inhan
plandeA
jersey
sleeves
the sleeves
of
the jersey)
xjeku
bush-fowl
(Bush-fowl
apea
ptuk
he more-was run
in
was surpassed
aplander6
it
jersey
(The jersey
137
running)
inhan
yAmpana,
stretched
was sleeves
sleeves were stretched)
5 (3)
5.3
: 19
is
Ty-pe BIIcab)
In the Middle
Predicate
(Clause
Claus6
Middle
initiated
P:
formulated
by the
(and
the
Subject
and operates on
in the Participant
Role of Goal).
in the Subject
also
actor-recipient;
actor-goal
S
Relationship
and
Predicate
drawing on Root Class 10, or other Root
Classes (mainly 7) with the selection
of the
(10.2
the
Verb;
benefactive
2.2-3)
in
suffix
:
-ar
rio
(C)goal
Role of
Complement in the Participant
and optional
Role
Goal. (Note: When the Subject has the Participant
there is the possibility
of Actor-Goal,
of presence of
Role of
a Complement having the Participant
Instrument
or Respect).
McamT)les:
.I
Actor-Reci-Dient
Goal
(E 15)
Jon
a --riambar
gtiew
blow-flies
John he shoo-from-himself
(John shooed away the blow-flies)
A 4-^"-Pnn
2.
Jon a- fingar
John he kill-himself
(John killed
himself)
Actor-Goal
Res-Dect
Jon
aniam
John he confused
(John was confused
In
Note
Ergative
into
the
as to
case of Uiddle
(BIIcacb)
Clause
a Passive
Clause
bga
way
the way)
Clauses
there
(BIIcaca)
is
which
the
of
the Mutation
of-further
possibility
by affixation
138
from
result
the
passive
of an
Mutation
suffix
-a
5 (3)
(10.2
to the Verb,
: 2.2-4)
pliki
viater-pot
the water-pot)
a- chumar
mlik
fill-itself
viater it
(The water filled
ReceDtive
5.3 : 20
In the Receptive
Clauses,
5.3 : 21
Passive
specified
The Passive
Passive/Coal,
: 22
The feature,
(Clauses
Clauses
is realized
according
in:
of the passive
realized
recipient
s
Subject
Predicate with
(10.2 : 2.2.3)
(C)goal
and optional
the
-a
and
(Clause
in
suffix
Passive/Recipient
as:
specified
to the Participant
Passive/Recipient-Clause
is
and Ergative.
Type BIIcaca)
+passive
on in a Transitivity
Passive
as:
5.3
is operated
elsewhere.
+Dassive
ohumara
mlik
filled-was
water
filled
up with water)
Types BIIcac)
the Subject
Receptive
The feature,
pliki
ait
water-pot
(The water-pot
(Clause
Clauses
initiated
Relationship
e. g:
Type BIlcacaa
Passive/Recipient
in the Participant
Clauses
in:
Role of Recipient;
the selection
in the Verb;
of the benefactive
suffix
Role of Goal.
Exam-oles:
1.
2.
Jon ka - tenara
napax
John will viatch-for-be
child
(John vrill have the c1iild looked
after
fingara
g
unkambe
they'll
killed-for-were
pig
(They would have a pig killed
for
5.3 : 23
The feature
Sgoal
for
him)
E 24
them)
is
Subject
realized
in
the
in
the
Participant
139
Passive/Goal
Role
of
clauses
Goal
-ar
in:
5 (3)
(C*)actor;
instr=ent;
xes-pect
volitional
a PassivP/Goal
Clausg
Class lb (animals)
(nonSemantic
Cldss
2
or
but not Semantic Class la (human beings).
entities),
is possible
So it
Complement"in
optional
to Semantic
must correspond
to say:
Zomplement
Actor
ungil
ub6s a
moba
hyena
dog it
was-cauent
(The dog was caught by the hyena)
Instrument
tapnaa
pkq
ub6s adog it
was-hit-by
stick
(The dog was hit with a stick)
and
but
not
finga
*ub8s adog it
'was-killed
(The dog was killed
Jon
John
by John)
Examples:
1.
2.
3.
5.3
F 29
choka
mexul
house-his
was-damaged
(Ilis house was damaged)
Instrument
kanhon
ka gpecha
wambnaa
nako
five
mortar-shots
person he-vffil be-woken-by
(The person will
be woken by five morta-shots)
Respect
mlik
water
with water)
a-chumana
pliki
it
full-cause-to-vus
atcipot
,;
(The waterpot
was fiiled
- 24
The feature
Ergrativ6
Clause
+erf-rative
eon-actor
Subject
P:
Predicate
'11
(C)respect
Ergative
is
in
and optiorial
Clauses describe
Ha 56
(Clause
realized
the
Ty-pe BII
in:
Participant
drawing
cacb)
Role
on Ro ot
Complement
Class
in-the
of Non-actor;
11;
Participant
Role
of Respect.,
or condition
of ti he No.p -actor Subject
which must have I?een brought about by an outside Agent, and thp.Tefore a
140
astate
5 (3)
a Respective
Clause is possible.
If
Mutation
Clauses in their
Qualitative
without
Mutation
is possible
in
the
change
in
meaning.
The following
Respective
(Pxample
Mutations
Clause
1)
to say,
classes
but nevertheless
The Ergative
Clause is
differ
the only
e. g:
kanekan
cup
umaani a- g6nd
it
half-fall
rice
fall
of rice)
functioning
in
the
I
Predicate
and without
are possible:
(BIIcaad)
(BIIcab)
Clause
Middle
(Mcample 2)
Structure,
potential.
umaani
g8nd
half-full
rice
(The cup was half
a change
radical
.a
Surface
by affixation
(10.2
: 2.2-5)
of the causative
to the Verb.
by affixation
(10.2
: 2.2-3)
of the benefactive
to the Verb.
suffix
suffix-ar
into
Mutations:
ExamDles:
2.
--an
(a)
auniert
it
building
(The building
(b)
(a)
a- chum mlik
pliki
wate=-pot it full water
(The water-pot
was full
of
water)
(b)
mlik
achum pliki
full
water it
water-pot
(The waterpot
was full
of
water)
ming umaani
full
rice
is full
of
rice)
ion
uniew - umaani
a- mingan
John he full-cause-to-building
rice
(John filled
the building
with rice)
mlik
a- chumar
water it fills-itself
(The water filled
141
pliki
water-pot
up the wate=po t
5 (3)
Mutations:
pliki
a -. chumana
mlik
water-pot it full-cause-to-was water
The water-pot was filled with water
by someone))
4.
pliki
ait
water-pot
e.
The water-pot
g. if left
chumara
full-itself-was
filled
up with
in the rain)).
mlik
water
water,
but not:
*unievi ahouse it
mingara umani
filled
rice
becauset as the informant
explained,
a
house will not fill
with rice by itself,
but somebody has to do it.
Complex Clauses
As mentioned
Transitivity
(Clause
ZUe BIIcb)
(5-3
above
into
three
transitive.
1.1
iddle-t
in the f6llovrLng
and Doublediagram:
Inner-transitive
Double-transitive
EYinetic
Direc tive
enefactive
benefactive
(10.2
Souare Junction:
Round Junction
-ar
: 2.2-3)
selection
may
1(10.2
recizrocal
-el
- 2.2.1)
of benefactiveq
: conflation
of suffixes;
the joining-line
suffix.
142
factitive
(10.2
reciprocal
or factitive
the through-line
suffix
-and
: 2.2.2)
suffixes.
precedes
5 (3)
26
(Clause
Clause
Middle-transitive
BIIeba)
Clauses result
The Ifiddle-transitive
(BIIcaac)
Benefactive
the
of either
by the selection
in the conflated
and benefactive
suffixes
of the reciprocal
realized
(10.2
2.2)
in
the
Verb.
:
suffix
-eler
Clauses, the Subject is manifested by a Nominal
In the Kiddle-transitive
Prefix)
Group (or Identifier
having the feature- +plural,,
Or bY an Additive
Rominal Group Complex-0-4
: 2).
Clauses axe further
7he Middle-transitive
specified
as:
and Middle-transitive/Directive.
The feature
+benefactive
isrealizod
actor-recipient
S
Subject
P:
Predicate
r8
(C)goal
in the Middle-transitive
drawing
Role of Actor-Recipient;
on Root Class 8;
banhaan b --jaaler
;
eople they s aid-tobanhaan bja
Role of Goal.
to the diagram)
something)
ko)
M 817.
each- other
People said something
(2)
to
one
another
el
er
2.
Clauses in:
in the Participant
and optional
Dxan,Dles:
1.
Viddle-transitive/Benefactive
: 27
within
Jon ni Kinta
John and Kinta
Jon
ni
bs6rler
they weed-for-each-other
Kints, bs6l
(1)
el
er
The Transitivity
Relationships
each other
follows:
3
Cactor;
Subject
=-,
are weeding
(2)
(1)
recipient
143
goDal
t
ComplemenC4
(3)
z5
5.3
Clause
Middle-transitive/Directive
: 28
The feature
is realized
+directive
in the Middle
I
actor-goal
S
Subject
P-r7
Predicate
instrument;
(C)
respect
(Clause
Transitive
in the Participant
drawing
and optional
of Instrument
BIIcbab)
Clause in:
Role of Actor-Goal;
on Root Class 7;
Role
Exam-ole:
jaka
- meeler
via-shall-knovi-each-other
jaka
we shall
me
el
each other
we shall
er
5.3 : 29
know (1)
Inner-transitive
know ourselves
(Clause BIIcbb
Clause
Clause results
The Inner-transitive
(2)
of the Directive
of the reciprocal
realized
and factitive
suffixes
(10.2
4
the
Middle2.2):
the
Verb.
In
in
in the conflated
suffix
:
-elen
Transitivity
Relatid)nship
Clause, the reciprocal
transitive
was the actor
Group
between
Nominal
actor
relationship
entities
a
goal
of
goal Clause by th selection
the feature
Role.
+-plural,
the
manifesting
Clause
In the Inner-transitive.
Role.
the Complement whichhas a double Participant
be manifested by a Nominal
Therefore it is the Complement$ too, which will
The Subject
Group Complex or by a Nominal Group having the feature +plural.
it
is
is
obligatory,
Transitivity
The feature
S*agent
P:
r7
(C.;)actor-goal
is
realized
Subject
in the Participant
* in examples encountered
Nominal Group corresponding
(10-4 : 1-3);
beings
Predicate
the
in:
Role of Agent,
so far, always manifested
to Semantic Class la,
by a
human
5 (3)
ExamDles:
1.
Tant a- g6belen
Jon ni
Kinta
Tant he throws-together
John and Kinta
(Tant causes John and Kinta to quarrel)
Tant a-
g8b
(Jon
jexelen
gnash
bka
they-vill
bka
ex
-j
Kinta)
ni
ir6maj
teeth,
(1)
They will
to
cause
grind
(teeth (grind))
(2)
each other
en
(ix8maj)
el
Relationships
The Transitivity
en
al
2.
(Ilb 87)
generated
in this
diagrammed as follows:
c
CAcctor
agont
6ubject
,
5.3 : 30
t,,,.,o Clauses
oving
Clause
a Kinetic
Clause (BIIcbo_)_
Double-transitive
Clause
The Double-transitive
to
the
2
<=: iGoal
is
Mutation
of
be mutated,
would
result
of
the
a Directive
which
grammatical
Clause
the
suggests
in
conflation,
a manner-in
of
existence
of
which
a'latent
Clause.
Kinetic
The feature
+double-transitive
actor
S
Subject
P:
Predicate
r7
Cgoal
the
I actor
- goal
is
realized
in
the
in:
Participant
drayting
Role
on Root
Class
of Actor;
7;
Roles of Goal l/
and Complement in the Participant
(i. e. Goal of the first
Actor
Clause,
of the conflated
(i.
Actor
2
the
Goal
and
of
e. Goal of the
second) and
Clauses).
second of the conflated
Exam-oles:
1.
kamisaanji
ma-viinand
u-nax
I see-aviay-vrith children
shirt-my
(I saw children
taking away my shirt)
ma-win
upax
and
kamisaanji
145
see children
(carry)
(1)
away my shirt
(2)
5 (3)
2.
tkyet ubpy
n,a-winand
I
cow calf
sco-away-with
(I smi a cow leading
away her
calf)
uyet
ma-yrin
ubay
and
Relationships
The Transitivity
see a cow
(leading)
away her calf
(2)*
in
generated
this
dia&rrammed as follows:
Six7t)ject
The feature
Clause
+descrintive
attribuant
S
Subject
P:
Predicate
r 12 '
Cattribute
of
Clause, may be
Complement.
actor
DescriDtive
tjpe
'Goal
(Clause
l/Actor
2>
Goal
BIld
is realized
in:
in the Participant
draiving
and Complement
in
Role of Attribuant;
on Root Class 12;
the
Partioipant
Role
of Attribute.
Rvu*oles:
1.
ka Yatimji
jaaka
Ptibi
(ct)
ITamo-my
be-called
Matchet
(gy name is c alled Matchet)
2.
Katim
name
(That
ait
(it
C4
05
person)
Hb 113
dog)
146
5. (4)
_
CHAPTER 5.
SECTION 4.
The Clause
functions
as may be seen in
the
basis
of
niinction
Sentence
the
at
diagram.
following
the
Nucleus,
.
(Embedded
Rank
Clause
Clasa. 3 at the
Clause).
Rank (Rankohifted
Sentence
Intr
Invoc
Classes
are
1 functions
set
up on
the
in
(Setting
and Class
TB
I
Periphery
Clause)
EN
Class
the. Sentence
2 in
Class
Clause
Clause
Clause
as follows:
Function
Rank,
or Purpose),
4 at
the
Group
NcE
I
Setting
lfioleusj
Purp
2b
2a
la
llbjb,
STRING
CLAUSE
Al
A:
,v
IT
ILI
F/S
IP
IIA I
A2
IcI
A3
A41 A5
at
4
N0
Dot
Claune
Head
--aI
Rel*
-IIII
Qual
of
the
Structure
Marker
most relevant
Element
with
(in
Sentence
Peripheryt
generally
function
Markers
Dem Mod
Auxil
Clauses
the
Quant
GROUP
Lexical
c
and Function
Structure
The Element
TEMAL
14 1 IT ALGR0UP
manifested
to Clause
always
Embedded or Rankshifted),
in
the
Sentence
147
Nucleus.
Function
function
but
is
the Marker.
Peripherally
Clauses
The only
without
Clause
withoul
5 (4)
Dlarkers regularlyfunctioning
Subjunctive
peripherally
function
the Infinitive
is
peripherally,
Clause.
manifesting
The
the
types of
broadly with the structural
correlate
Clause described in section 5.2, Mood and Theme. The presence of the
Elements, Marker, Link and Focus in Clauses of the various classes is
The Classes of-Clauses
diagram:
the following
illustrated-in
Clause Class:
Elements:
MLP
Class la
--
(5-4
Class lba
(5-4
Class lbb,
lbo
Class 2,3p
The correlation
section
5.2
of
is
: 1-1)
Clause
Classes
: 1.2.1)
(5-4
1.2.2
4 (5-4
the
with
2)
Clause
Types
as follows:
CLASS
TYPE
IIaa
Ilab
IIb
described
(Nuclear)
(Anticipatory)
IIaaa
(Non-coordinate)
IIaaba
(Coordinate)
IIaabb
)-
lb
(Peripheral
(Infinitive
IIaba (Purposive)
lIabba (Modificational)
IIabbb
IIb
Note Haaaab
IIaabab
2,3,4
also in
also in
148
(Principal)
(Coordinate)
(Peripheral)
2b
2a
3a
3b
4a
4b
2b,
(Adjectival
(Infi
Non-initial
Subjunctive
1 (Nuclear)
la
lAdjectivall
Purpose)
Temporal)
Objectival
Locational
Relational
3a
2b
3a, 4c
in
5 (4)
Nuclear
Clauses
Complex
(4-1
in
which
are
Clauses (Clause
Nuclear
5.4 :1
: 1-4).
Clauses
divided
accordingly
Sentence
The String
Coordinate
only
5. A : 1.1
the
manifest
Principal
into
Clauses
Class 1)
Nucleus.
(4-3)
is
(5.2
(Clause
a particular
: 17)
two classes
may occur.
: Principal
Class
kind
in
of
Complex
Nuclear
Clauses
and Coordinate.
la)
The Principal
Coordinate
: 1.2
Coordinate
Clauses
the String
Sub-rank
they
axe divided
Class
lb)
three
Focal
5.4 : 1.2.1
'Phe Focal
Clauses--(Clauses
E2
Focal,
classes:
Clause (Clause
Clause manifests
Sequential
in
the
in
String
and Closing.
Class lba)
(4-3
acamle:
a
uar vral ja
vrul
and wife his said him
(His wife told him)
5. A : 1.2.2.
Seauential
Ilb 124
Clause (Clause
Class lbb)
The Sequential
Clause manifests the Sequential
(4! 3.: 1.1.2), or the Expansion of any Peripheral
149
5 (4)
ExamT)le:
Clause (Clause
Closing
The Closing
Hb 105
Clause manifests
Class lbc)
the Closing
Example:
B 18
a
suaxax
and satisfied-not
(and was not satisfied)
The Peripheral
5.4 :2
(Clause
Clauses
Class 2,3,4)
These
are
further
5.4
: 2.1.1
Me
T
Temp6ral
never
functioning
Clauses
: 2.1
5.4
occurs
Temporal
in
Sentence
the
as : Temporal
specified
Clause
in
(Clause
Clause
the
manifests
Setting
Periphery
(Clauses
Class
Sentence.
It
2)
and Purpose.
2a)
Class
Element
of
the
a Complex.
Exam-ole:
bi
tot
Bi
go
ri
unievi
gul
dragged when them from house
When they(op)
(Ylhen they were pulling
them from the house)
5.4
: 2.1.2
The Purpose
It
may occur
Parloose
Clause
in
Clause
manifests
the
(Clause
Purpose
Class
Hb 97 - 98
2b)
Element
of
the
Sentence
(4-1
a Complex.
ExamDles:
1.
PurT)osive
Clause
kbual,
re
ub8bal
s6bar
lest
you'll
cover
rain
rain-wet
(cover
it,
does
the rain
so that
PlOnk
wall
not wet
150
P 20
the
wall)
t 1-5)
5 (4)
Clause
Infinitive
byAnkarul
na- yeliin
a
and she sent-here-me to-take-for-her
(and she sent me here to collect
it)
A 11
Subjunctive
Clause
ka - wetar bkul uniew ba - niaj
uniew
them house they enter house
sweeping
(to sweep the house for them, that they might
Embedded Clauses
9. A : 2.2.
(Clauses
Hb 16
go in)
Class 3)
The Objectival
occurs
Clause (Clause
Objectival
5.4 : 2.2.1
They axe
Class 3a)
the Clause Complement.
It
never
a Complex.
in
Exam-oles:
Clause
I-Jodificational
1.
bi
kaax
no ro bi
had-not what he(op) do what
(he could not do anything)
2.
3.
5.4
Modificational
uchaay kaxe
Demon no-more
(The demon had
Clause
ka xi
u- kungg-ma xi
hadwhere he hide- in where
no place to hide)
Infinitive
Clause
j6nd
bb - ka
joyaarul
begin
they will
to-fetch-him
(People will
start preparing
: 2.2.2.
The Locational
may occur
in
A 41
Locational
Clause
Clause
manifests
CP 1
kabol
sacrifice
a sacrifical
(Clause
the
ceremony for
Class
Adjunct
F 27
him)
3b)
5 Element
of
the
Clause.
a Complex.
D-xam-Dles:
a
nai x6nk uj&ku
xi
xi
u. - nx
and she(sp) found Bush-fowl where he stood where
(And she found the Bush-fowl where he was standing)
11b 23
It
5 (4)
2.11
kri
maatir
xi
n- r8
n- rena
xi
wul
YouIll-not
be-present where I
shall I
eat-in where it
(YouIll
not be present where Itm going to eat it)
B4-
Com-olex:
ba - x6nk ni
a
nul xi
na - xef x3, xi
unchaam winai
xi
and they found with him where he
sat in where money
was - found where
(and they found him where he sat,
where the money was found)
Rankshifted
5.
_4_-.
_2.3
These are further
5.
divided
Relational
: 2.3.1
The Relational
(Clauses
Clauses
into:
Class 4)
Relational,
Clause_(Clause
Clause manifests
Adjectival
and Lexical.
Class 4a)
the Relator
(3-1
the
Nominal
Group
of
1-3)
Exarn-ole:
koulon
bi
bi
n-ro
ma - les
n- chi nanax
1
remember something when. I(past)
when I
was child
(I remember something from the time when I was a child)
5.4 : 2.3.2
Adjectival
The Adjectival
Clauses
G1
manifest
specified
Intearated
as:
Clause
The Integrated
Modifier
Integrated
(Clause
Clause
Element
the
Nominal
Group.
or Non-integrated.
Class
does not
of
4ba)
in
function
a. Complex.
ExamDle:
i
nasien na - laanmil
n-vamax
chief
who refuse him who meat
(The chief who refused him
meat)
.2
Non-integrated
Clause
The Non-integrated
(Clause
Class
A 27
4bb)
in a Complex.
ExamDle:
AIt
(It
chi pjenj
na - xendin
lai
m- j6nR
pi,
pi
is
egg
which she gave-me which which you cooked
is the egg she gave me, the one you cooked)
152
p8n
which
5 (4)
Clause may occur as the first
clause of a Sentence
it
be
in
Element,
Modifier
the
regarded
may
case
which
,
manifesting
Nuclear
Clause.
transformation
underlying
an
of
as a
The Adjectival
5.4 : 2.3.3
Lexical
Group
ExamDle:
E 17,
Ot
A umaal ia
wul...
uu
& Hare when fly sat him
(When a fly sat on Hare...
153
6
CHAPTER 6.
THE VMAL
GROUP
Contents
Verbal
6.1
Page
Group
Structure
2
The Verbal
Group Components
2-.2
2.3
2.4
2.1
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
3.1
i74
Punction
.
1. Hortative
Verbal
3.1-1
la'
Imperative
3-1.2
lb
Subjunctive
3.2
2. Indicativ.
3.2.1
2a
Primary
3.2.2
2b
Secondary Verbal
3.3
3. Infinitive
6.2
Adverbial
Group
Structure
2
155.
155
157
158
160
162
168
173
173
174
Punction
154
Groups
Verbal
Group
Verbal
Group
e Verbal Group
Verbal Group
Verbal
Group
Group
174
175
..
175
175
175
175
176
177
177
177
6 (1)
CHAPTER 6.
6.1 tI
SECTION 1.
Verbal-Group
Structure
The Structure
of the Verbal
Group in its
maximum.expanded form is
tho following:
VERBAL
Identifier
1 Auxiliary
Formula:
VG
Although
(Id
GROUP
Identifier
2TPerfective Identifier
1)(Aux)(Id
of the Elements
2)(Perf)(Id
3)
3 Lexical
Lex
lineal
to their
refers
Elements:
Auxiliary
Identifier
in
realized
see 5.2
the
the
: 15).
Verbal
1 is
presence
Identifier
The other
Verb
Identifier
of
1,
3.2.1)
(10
Class
(8.1
.42.2)
3.2.2)
Sets
(10-4
4,10-12
: 2.2)
1)
Verb Class (8.1 :3
Clause (37.4 ; 2.3-33
relevant
to
the, feature
definesthe
Elements
(8.1
2.2)
Set 2,4,9-12
Prefixes
Lexical
Lexical
Identifier
Class
Prefixes
Aspective
Lexical
e. g.
Verb
Identifier
Perfective
Identifier
Clauses:
Identifier
Prefixes
Sets 1-8 (10-4
(10.4 : 1.2)
Concord Prefixes
(10.4
Aspective
Prefixes
2-3)
Auxiliary
The Element
such that
Manifesting
Identifier
Group,
sequence,
Element manifested
Identifier
except
are
the
Function
+primary
Clause
relevant
in
of
Verbal
the Verbal
to
Groupt
(Initial
Clause,
the Structure
of
Type IIaabaa
only
the
Group.
The Constituent
Structure
of the Verbal
Group is described
in terms of
in Structure.
The
+com,
posed, as shovrn in the diagram below.
155
6 (1)
The feature
Element
and the
features
the
of
in
the
+composed
is
realized
Types
the
of Verbal
from
Auxiliary
Composed if
is
realized
selected
the
Compound if
it
feature
Element.
Perfective
is
+compound
Perfective
of
in
the
Group are
those
Element
presence
presence
described
is
manifested
the
of
on the
basis
Group :Ls
and Simple
manifested
Element
Auxiliary
The Verbal
systems.
is
the
if
it
is
not;
and Basic
if
it
is not.
simple
coapound
basic
composed
ParadiEM
Citation
Verbal
Group Tyme1
Group Type Il
Verbal
Verbal
Verbal
Grou-o Type IV
In
describing
the
other
differently
Groups
Compound Verbal
diagram
illustrates
as regards
as described
the
because
Simple
the Closing
X&P
a- ro
he (cp) went
(he set out to go)
A
kaxe
xep
he-no-more went
(he -dicin't go any more)
ka
kaxe
x9p
he-no-more (ct) went
(he wasn't going any more)
Compound/Composed
Group it
Groups
is
to reconsider
necessary
Chapter 5 (The Clause)
in
in
the Closing
follows
it
the
follows
the
the relationship
position
of
the
Groups.
Lexical
of
Closing
156
the
With
Element,
Auxiliary
lineal
relation
Simple
whereas
Element..
Clause
A1arker.
the
behaves
Marker
Marker
x6p
vient
A
COMDound/Basic
Elements,
with
ahe
Simple/Composed
the Verbal
of Markers
sequence
to
Simple/ 3asic,
Verbal
with
The following
Group
6 (1)
Predicate
use
I
V. G.
imple
1.1
ompound V. G.
Simple
ExamDles:
1 Perf
Verbal
Perf
Id,
Id3
.1
erf
FLex
L6x M
Id
bi
as
bi
as
x8p bi ,
(as
he went)
go as
x8p bi
na -A
(cp) go as (as he set out to go)
he
na he
Grou p (Basic
Compound Verbal
Id
I!,
.
and Compose d)
(Basic
Group
Id
-xI[I
Au
Idl
1 Aux
14 Perf
and Composed)
Lex
bi na - kaka bi
xep
(as
he
he vient again)
again as
so
as
,
bi na - kaka bi ra - x8p
as he
6.1
(cp)
again as
(as
he set
go
The Verbal
Group Components
:2
Group is
The Verbal
These Components
(*)
and their
Person
+lst
Nuber
+singular,
Lex/Sem
a Projection
Cl. +lexical
1,11ood
+subjunctive,
Tonse
+actual,
Aspect
+comDletive,
Polarity
+positive,,
For
the
Thematic
Plane
'features
+2nd
person,
out
seven
Components
etc.
etc.
+imperative,
+ideal,
for
etc.
1,
clans
go again)
are:
Derson,
+T)lural,
to
etc.
+Drimary,
+static,
+secondary,
etc.
+negative
Role
of
the Verbal
157
Group Complex
see 6.1
: 2. j
6 (1)
Not all
Verbal
Id 1
lst,
Id 2 Perf
2nd sg.
person:
number
lexical/semantic
The features
Aux
Id 3
Lex
cl.
mood
tense
aspect
pbl&riiy
x
x
X
x
of the various
: 2.1
is
because
Person
convenient
their
appropriate
tlements.
disauss
features
Identifier
This
be discuased.
I
choice-is
are
Prefix
the
Components
jointly
(10-4
determined
realized
of Person
in
the
selection
: 2.2)
manifesting
by the
Concord, which
the
of
the
Idehtifier
exists-between
6 (1)
the Subject
Verbal
(expressed
or implied)
and Predicate,
which is termed
Group has been treated separately
choices
Concord,
features
in different
involves
different
morphemes. As regards
Nominal
with features
(10.4 : 1.2)
the Concord Prefixes
jointly
of
but
or Semantic Class'in
jointly
of Number are realized
as regards Verbal Concord, features
of Person, as described above. Number in most Verbal
with features
Lexical
Groups
+-olural.
Verbal
features
+definite
consists
of a system
However,
Groupsp
because
Number is
of
two choices,
only
Nominal
extended
Concord
in
those
to Nominals,
of Number relating
(6.1':
2.2)
Dlural
The simultaneous
by the following
of Person
choices
reaches
Verbal
+singular
into
certain
Groups
to include
e. g. +collective,
diagram:
singular
plural
inclusive
exclusive
lpt
and
person
2nd person
3rd person
159
6(1)
These features
ins
are realized
Identifier
Identifier
Identifier
.......
Sets 1-8
.......
Sets 2,49
9-
3 .......
Sets 4,10
12
-
12
the
features
Identifier
+singular
prefix
axe prenasalized,
ka-
Prefixes
Lexical
in
the
are
realized
consonant,
subsequent
Aspective
Verbal
Verb
then
in
the
an
initial
Group Elements
ka and Aspeative
and k-.
Lexical/Semantic
: 2.2
all
of
except
person
a nasal
containing
and affricates
plosives
6.1
and +lst
of features
Class is relovant
specification
Class
only
+seconda3:7 +actual
to Verbal
Groups having
the Tense
Lexical/Semantic
which is
the Verbal Group is the same as described for the Nominal Group
(except
that it is, necessarily,
3.3
and
at
always external)
Semantic Class 1, if present,
the Lexical Class.. There
overrides
Concord of Semantic Class realized
in the
additionally
partial
b- in Verbal Groups with the specification
+primary
prefix
+3rd person +-Dlural, where the governing Nominal is of Semantic
Class la (human).
is
Concord in relation
to Verbal
as follows:
160
6 (i)
FEATURES OF THE
GOVERNING ELEIAENT:
FEATURES OP THE
VERBAL GROUP:
COMP:
COMP:
ITATURES:
L
E
xC
-'2
N
us [P
[def
I'll
[uspec
B
ind
13
R
nspec
S
EC
1.1L
AA
IT sF
TS
I
(Same as the
Governing
--------o Element,
subject to the
restrictions
stated at
10-4 t 1-3)
TENSE: +s e c, , +ac
-Pull
5
6
AS
S
L
Vol
REALIZATION
OF FEATURE:
FEATURES:
3
4
IL
CA
NOTAINAL
CONCORL
PERSOX: +3rd
[hii=,
Lrtial-3
non-h.
LITon-volit.
ITOTE: A line
within
inside
the selection
to a frame indicates
of any feature
connecting
that fz-ame. A line crossing
one of the features
a frame selects
the frame. -Concord is not realized
in features
not selected.
ExamT)les:
'Pull
+Plural)
ba - xef,
ba - riala.
a
a
and they sat
and they ate
doym to eat. )
Nominal Concord
is discussed.
161
see 4.3
: 2, where
6 (1)
Nom. Concord
Partial
PERSON: +3rd;
NUMBER:+plural
Tant bJon ni
chax
John and Tant hey died
(John and Tant died)
No Nom. Concord
S. C: +non-hum; TENSE: +prim. +act.;
ub6s aundaali ni
chax
and dog they died
cat
(The cat and dog died)
PERSON:+3rd;
NUMER: +plural
S. C: +non-vol;
PERSON: +3rd;
NUMBER: +plural
bben
ni
achax
hey
died
and run-palm
tree and the run-palm. tree
bcham
oil-palm-tree
(The oil-palm
6.1 : 2.3
died)
If
as shoym overleaf.
feature
+Dositive
The realization
is
neutral
+ideal
1'refix
or +actual,
The feature
feature
the
the
The features
Identifier
Tense;
is
because
one of
feature
+primarv
(Set
same
+net-rative
+actual
by means of
the
of
is
the
the further
+negative
that
is
to
the
shown in
the
diagram
concept
negative
of
Auxiliary
may be arranged
162
whether
are
5) if
km- ri
xef
you not will
sit
(you will
not sit down)
of the Components of Llood,
1 Element
say,
or +secondaxy
the
within
'
feature
the
+indicative
of two features
as regards
Set is
there
axe chosen,
systems,
simultaneous
chosen,
Identifier
the
as indicating
a future
Verbs
Tense features
the
+negative
1 Element
Identifier
is
is
negative
(6.1 : 2-4),
specified.
thb
Tense
expressed
e. g.:
(Hb 17)
the
following
as realized
Network
in
Diagrant
6 (1)
M00D
Set 7; cP Set x
Sets 6,7
(limited)
I
Sets 6,2
infinitive
imperative
hortative
finite
-
subjunctive
indicative
TENSE
POLARITY
priMary
Sets 1
secondary
Sets 2, 4
ideal
Sets 3, 4
actual
Sets 1, 2
Set 5
positive
negative
of these features
of the realizations
in various
Group.
Features
Mood and Polarity
Type I Simple/Basic
+positive
x8p
go
+infinitive
p
to
+imDerative
da-xgpan
(imp)
go
(Go)
+subjunctive
m-xep
I go
(that I should go)
+negr,
ative
+infinitive
x6p
x
to-not go
(not to go)
+imnerative
ind xx6p
90
you not
(Do not go (pi))
163
6 (i)
in - x8pax
I-not go-not
(that I should not go)
+subjunctive
T,y-_DeIl
Compound/Basic
+Dositive
+infinitive
p
aana X&P
to - still
go
(still
to go)
+imT)erative
da- kakaan
you again(imp)
(go again)
+subjunctive
Ap
go
m-kaka
m-xgp
I again I go
(I should go again)
+negative
+infinitive
p
rix x5p
to not go
(not to go)
ind x- kaxe
x6p
you not no-longer go,(donit go any more)
+imT)erative
in - kaxe
n-xgp
I
no-longer I go
(I should no longer go)
+subjunctive
1.
features
SimDle/Basic
+Dositive
+Drimary
+actual
man
I
+primary
+ideal
man
.I
shall
x8p
went
x8p
90
A
+secondary
+actual
+secondary
+ideal
+nog,ative
164
n
and I
ka
and-I-shall
xep
vient
A
xep
-go
in
I
x8pax
did-not-go
6 (1)
T.v-oe II.
Simple/Composed
+positive
+T)rimaa
mn
+actual
did
I
(I
+secondax_v
TyDe III.
nand
(I
+actual
and
went
go
came ack)
xep
90
gone)
n- x8p
I 'go
just
and I've
only
,
returned)
ro
had
went
+ideal
+seconda37
m4n - ro
nI'll
1
did
(I shall
have
+ideal
+primary
n -xep
ro
xep
1
90
have gone)
Compound/Basic
-Fr)ositive
+-orimary +actual
+ideal
+-primary
m&n
illi
kaka
again
kaka
again
m- x8p
I go(I'll
kaka
again
n- x6p
I go(&I went again)
man
X.
n- x6p
1 90 (1 went again)
+secondary
+actual
n
and I
+secondary
+ideal
kaka
ka
x8p
& I'll
go
-again
(and I shall go again)
go again)
+nermtive
+-orimary
Note:
+secondary
TYPE IV.
+actual
has the
same realization
kaxe
in
nx8p
I
I not
go
again
(I no longer went)
as +primary
Com-Dound/Com-posed
+-oositive
+-pri=7
+actual
kaka,
n- ro
man I
I
did
again
(I finished
going again)
+nrimary
+ideal
min
1111
(I shall
165
kaka
n
Z8
I
finish
again
have gone again)
n- Xop
I go
n- x8p
I go
6 (1)
+sccondax7
+actual
haka n -ro
n
n- x6lp
I go
and-I.
aaain I did
(and I have finished
going again,
i. e. I have come back the second
time)
+secondary
+ideal
Ap
ka, kaka
nish
90
and I'll
nf.
aa.
+ncf,rative
.
Note:
in - kaxe ,n
n -x8p
-A
I not no-more I finish
I go
(I no longer finished
going)
+T)rimaKX +actual,
has the
+secondary
The feature
Infinitive
+infinitive
Clauses (5.2
same realizati,
n as +primaxy
in
characierizes
a Verbal Group occurring
The fedture +imperativt
: 28).
characterizes
in Imperative
Clauses (5.2 : 7), corresponding
a
to
the speaker-roie
of commanding. The feature +subjunctive
characterizes
(5.2
in
Clauses
Subjunctive
Group
Verbal
occurring
: 8)t which usually
a
"to order"
follow a Clause with a Verb "to command" "to want to"
or
e. g.
similax,
xis
a- ne,. l mhe wants that-I
go-home
(he wants me to go home)
The features
+primazy
A Verbal
Tenses
respectively.
15),
Clauses (5.2st
in
the
Sentence
Non-initial
Peripheral
Clauses
which
Nucleus.
(5-2ot
Clauses
(5-7-:
Clauses
carrying
and +secondary
the
carry
main
the
Group with
function
usually
the
characterize
Primary
in
the
Tense occurs in
(lineally)
first
A Verbal
21).
The Primary
load.
information
information
loadwhen
166
and Secondary
Primary
Tense occurs
Initial
place
Tense occurs
: 17)
in
and
generally
in
The Secondary
it
occurs
in
Coordinate
6 (1)
it
Clauses:
Chronology
of
describes setting
Tense characteristically
or background,
Clauses, or indicates
that the Clause
when it occurs in Peripheral
contingent
upon the existence
of a certain
state
event
(English
"if")
when it occurs in Non-initial
or condition
is
(English
"when")
Clauses
Adjunct
Group is specified
Exam-oles:
k- totin
Hb 51
Da r roox
xi kanhanq ka - f9r
ux.nd
by hand
I'll
You had not(et)
pull-me
sleep outside
me by ny hand, I would have
-(If you had not kept on pulling
spent the night outside)
G4
8nk
ka
baand
2. ma untsang wi n8
ptenin....
wi
- ruka3ri ufexul
(cp)
I'll
time
but
stay in back-her
as she
came as thus to-see-me
(But when she did come to see me, I would keep following
her
1.
Pr-4Ma=,r
Predicate
a- xis
he returned
(a)
xis
MSM I shall
ka* -'
he Yrill
5-(a)
(b)
taakal
'yaS-torday
fan
return
to-morrow
(b)
xis
return
fan
to-morrow
(b)
Secondary
Adj. 1
taakal
naa
yesterday and he
-- xis
returned
fan
ka
I shall
xis
return
fan
to-morrow
ng
-he will
xis
return
Ideal
Tenses
the
Actual
and
+ideal
and
characterize
did
in
fact
The
Tense
describes
Actual
event
which
an
respectively.
happenj or which is bound to happen in the immediate futuref
e. g.
The features
Ilan
+actual
x8D
went
or
am-going
or
am-about-to-go
means:
167
6 (1)
The Ideal
Tense
man I-shall
describes
an event
Ideal
Man-ja
n-re
uyamax a suax,
& fall
1
when I eat meat
(Having
with
satisfied
myself
to gnaw at the maize? )
Prefix
Features
of
Perfective
the
that
the
in
Aspect
the
future,
e. g.
Component
most exponents
to
in the other
2 and Identifier
mmaaj. Hb 77-78
maize.
then get up
Identifier
Component
(and
e. g.:
naxa ka - kliet
rise will
gnavi
the full,
shall-I
and Polarity
Elements
Polarity
kai
will(sp)
meat to
Identifier
Sets manifesting
Aspect
deprecation,
distinctionsof
6.1 : 2.4
to happen
is
x8p
go
The Secondary
Further
which
are
I
realized
some extent,
axe also
havo a polar
in
realizedin
(+Dositive
in
the
Auxiliary
1).
Identifier
the
Auxiliary
or +negative)
and
Features
Element,
manifd
of
in'
tation.
The following
neutral
static
dynamic
te=inating
real
supervening
descriptive
unreal
negative
positive
168
expected
intended
6 (1)
The features
andtheir
realizations
+neutral
aba
"when"
+descri-otive
+static
+negative
Ti/rix
"not"
ama
"still"
kaka
"again"
(ron
+terminating
+negative
kaxe,
+terminating
+Positive
ro
"did"
+real
+negative
roox
"used
+real
+positive
ruka
"come to"
nekaxe
bixe
r8xe
"not yet"
"after
all not"
"meant to but no
more"
"before"
+unreal +neaative
+ey.pected
+intended
+unreal
+positive
rora
not
to"
in the Auxiliary
Verb ja or ya (in free
(*)If we were to consider it together
Its meaning is 11when11.
fluctuation).
1 Element, we could still
of the Identifier
with the realization
assign it
features +general or +specific,
the further
the meaning of the first
The feature
+neutral
is realized
general
specific
The feature
in selection
+general is realized
Prefix
of an Identifier
from Set 8 (10.4 : 2.2) and +specific
in a Prefix from Sets 1- 4-
ExamT)les:
ka- ja
; -ne when (you'll)
(When one passes,
par,
chax
wambar
do not shoo-h? om-you=self
pass
one must not shoo'them away)
E 45
to
ba - ja
m- va,
Myou when you- hear they say
(v7hen you hear them
say)
E 21
Auxiliary
Verb.
6 (1)
ja
u- chi
was
when it
was mornirig)
Auand it
(And it
Another
Note
Auxiliary
fan
morning
Hb 35
verb with
meaning is
somewhat similar
irv
Prequently
"when
future".
in
a
more
expressed by a
concept
meaning
Nominal Groupq e. gs ma-ir m-baandq ka-fing
unkambe - when I come, I
a pig.
shall kill
The feature
of the
selection
features:
following
+static
+descril)tive
+negative:
Subjunctive
realized
or between
in the Auxiliaxy
ers)
or ri
or
is
"not".
ExamDles:
tenanul
watch-him
(See to it
te
ya rul
gn8 untaaja
u- rix
till
days ten
he not
go there
that he does not go there for ten days)
A- pokin
riala
Prix
He forbade-.! me. to-not eat
(He forbade me to eat today)
xzxi
today
.
Rb 17
km. - ri
xef -a?
(QU)?
sit
will
you not
(Won't you sit dovm? )
or
bi
A
na - ron
n8
ptenin
na- ja
(cp)
from-time-to-time
she
come to-see-me
she
and she said
(And she said that fvom time to time she would come to see me)
G3-
+positive:
realized
kaka "again" (o= ron "from
in the Auxiliary
+static
time to time".
Examples:
m- ama
you still
(You still
+terminating
m- ka
ub8s am
you have dog
still
have the dog)
+ negative.
realized
in the Auxiliary
distinguish
from rSxe "no longer" which merely denotes a change of
mind, whereas kaxe denotes a change of actual state.
170
6 (1)
ka
Uchaay kaxe
xko
xi
u- kunggna
Devil
no longer had place where he hide-in
(Then the demon had no place to shelter)
+terminating
+positive
realized
P 27
xi
where
.,
in the A:uciliary
Verb ro 'Tiad"
'n-ro
bi
bi
n-chi napax
Tpast)
I
I
when
was child
when
(When I was a child)
+real
+ne;zative
realized
G1
in the Auxiliaxy
Verb roox
"had
not"
.
G 10
In-roox'
me ne pchax a -chi
I had-not know if death it is
(I had not kbovm whether there was death)
in the Auxiliaxy
Verb ruka "come to"
realized
win
Sombasomb8
98
Kanhaay
chi w8n
nika
xmaal
a
,
Hb
Sombasombo
the
see
was
one Kanhaay
came-to
and hare
(And the hare realized
that Burly was the one which (he'thought)
was sickly)
+.real
+unreal
+i)ositive
+neRative
baand
nexe
a=ive
not-yet
(He has not a=ived
+unreal
realized
in
the
Auxiliary
Verb
nekaxe,
"not
(or
yet"
nexje
yet)
+nep7ative +expected
in the Auxiliary
realized
Verb bixe
"after
all
not"
A6
ka untaang
A
nalon ngaax bixe
had
time
after-all-not
vioman,
one
and
(And one womsmdid not happen to have time)
+unreal
+nert_ative + intended
realized
in the Auxiliary
Verb r8xe
"meant to
but no more"
kan
in - Axe
- x8p
I
shall
meant-to-but-no-more
go
(I meant to go, but I won't go now)
+unreal
kyou'll
(Give
+positive
realized
in
the
kTiulul
mjenj kLora
before
you'll
give-her
eggs you'll
her the eggs before you give her the
Yralul.
give-her
ried)
in the Auxiliary
realized
of the event described by the Verbal
Verb
Auxiliary
171
rora
"before"
pre
rice
6 (1)
("when")
time.
The
feature
the
+neutral
passage of
merely indicates
of
between time and the event, while the
that there is a relationship
that this is of a particular
indicates
to
feature
+descriptive
nature,
("still")
features.
The feature +static
indicates
be defindd by additional
but the continuation
the event described is not isolated,
of a
The feature +dynamic indicates
that the event is
previous state.
by
to
time,
the
be
defined
the
additional
change
passage
of
with
changing
("used
indicates
to" or "no longer")
The
feature.
features.
+terminating
that
this
the feature
+unreal
("not
yet"
and "before")
indicates
the event
that
which, of course,
explanation,
has not beco=6 a reality
without any further
The event
the eventual realization
implies
of the event in the future.
the
by
further
be
the
of,
however,
selection
cancelled altogether
may,
feature
+expected
all
not")
or of the feature
to become =eall
explaining
("after
explaining
+intended
in somebody's mind,
the event has had the nature of reality
no longer exists,
owing to a change of mind.
reality
that
1 because
They have not been included vrith the other systems for Identifier
the Aspective Prefixg
in the choice of a sepaxate prefixg
they are realized
features
These
Identifier
Prefix
in
follow
the
and
a
complex.
may
which
their
realizations
axe:
continuous
Aspective
Verbs
ka
Aspective
Prefixes
ka-,
A
completive
supervening,
bi.
172
6(3. )
1.
ka x8p
a- kaka
he again (et) go
(he was going to go again)
2.
a --kaka
X&P
he again (cp) go
(he finished
going again
he
i.
e.
went again and came back)
-
3-
bi
a- kaka
X&P
he again (sp)
go
(he ended up going again)
4-
Jon
k- baand
a
(ot)
John
and
a=ive
(and John was a=iving)
baand
a
n8 (op)
he
a=ive
and
(and he a=ived)
X&P
a nai (sp)
he
goand
(and then he went)
ka
xfip
a nai
(sp)
(ot)
he
go
and
(and then he was going)
8.
kai
u- mtj
raan
(sp) (op) drink
he dive will
(he dived and would then set about, drinking)
6.1
: 2.5
Inter 4rating
Verb
The Integrating
Element
following
possible
prefix
is
+integrated
the
Integrated
6.1 : 2.6
(Example
Auxiliary
Lexical
Verb Prefix
the
Aspective
co-occuring
(5.2
Clause
Verbda
Clause
it.
The Clause
presence,
and its
the
Identifier
which
is
1
the
only
is
described
witj
: 26).
normally
when the
"say",
(Example
may occur in
k- (continuous),
Element
is
However,
its
2-4)
Prefix
with
in
realized
Element
1).
(10.4
Prefix
The Lexical
The Lexical
E8
2).
Auxiliary
Lexical
the
by a Lexical
manifested
Element
Element
is
Verb
3-1)
manifested
by the
may be manifested
by the
E. g.:
1. a- ja
jak - lam E42..
one when we(ct) swim
(when we, or anyone, swim)
A umaal ja
E 17
UU j0t wul
& Hare when fly sat him
(When'fly sat on Har*ep'.he...
6 (i)
6.1
Verbal
: 2.7
Group Complex
The Verbal
only with
the Lexical
Verbal
Group,
Exami3les: *
k- finga
a- finga
killed-was
he killed-vias(et)
(he vras killed
outright)
ktenan
look(imp)(ot)
(Just look)
6.1 :3
ten
look
He
Function
Group manifests
The Verbal
the Predicate
Classes
Element of the Clause.
to the function
of the Verbal Group
Each Class is
by
chaxacterized
feature or combination of features from the
the choice of a particular
Mood and Tense systems (6.1 : 2-3) which give, th6 Verbal Groilps their-names.
is not projected
Since the Component of Polarity
at Clause Rank, and does
not
enter
necessary
into
any of the Clause Ptank systems, 'it has not been found
to set up separate Classes of Verbal Group having a Polarity
Verbal
specification.
classes
6.1
of
: 3.1
the
corresponding
Hortative
The Hortative
may be further
Groups
Verbal
divided
+negative
specified
Verbal
+Dositive
Verbal
Groups
(Class
Groups
function
in
into
Imperative
174
are
assigned
to
the
Groups.
1)
Hortative'Clauses
and Subjunctive.
(5.2.:
6). - They
6 (1)
6.1 : 3.1.1
Imperative
The Imperative
in the Imperative
Clauses (5.2
Example:
ixefi
da - moban.
Rb 13
you tla-k7eimp)seats
(Sit down)
6.1
Subjunctive
- 3.1.2
Verbal
The Subjunotive
W3bal
Group
Class
Group funotions
lb
in the Subjunotive
Clauses
(5.2
s 8).
Examplel:
E 35
ya p-xong
g-,
let-us
go visiting
(Let us go on a visit)
6.1
The Indicative
Clauses.
6.1
Verbal
Groups function
: 3.2.1
Groups (Class
Verbal
Indicative
: 3.2
Pri
divided
Verbal
Group
2)
in the Interrogative
into
Primary
(Class
and Declarative
and Secondary.
-.
2a)
in Interrogative
Clauses
The 'Primary Verbal Group functions
0.2--:
(Example
(Example 1)v and Initial
Clauses
2).
'l5)-
(5.2
1 9)
Exa. mDles:
Achinxu.
Companion-your
E 58
a- chi x8m?
he is wnere?
Upit
Sand-fly
(Sand-fly
achi xi pji
...
she was in laughing
was laughing
.....
6.1
: 3.2.2
Secondary
Verbal
E 20
Grou.
_p-(Class
2b)
in Non-initial
Clauses (5.2 : 16)
(Example
17)
2). and Peripheral
:
175
6 (]. )
Exam-oles:
1.
2.
3.
ka f8r
uxand
I-will
sleep outside
(I would have slept
anin
a
na-ja
and he say mother
(and he said to his
Hb 51
outside)
A 22
mother)
Eb 23
xi
xi u- nax
in he stood in
(where he was standing)
6.1 : 3.3
Infinitive
Verbal GroBp(Class 3)
The Infinitive
the Infinitive
Example
bkul. br8a
them fire
the fire
ptaaban
pya
to-light
to-go
(to go to light
The function
described
of
in
the
section
Hb 22
Classes
5.2
Verbal
them)
for
is
of Verbal
Group in
illustrated
Grou-D
in
the
the
Types
following
la
Imperative
C12U22 TEMS
,
IIaaaaa
Imperative
lb.
Subjunctive-
11aaaab
Subjunctive
Primary
IIaaab
IIaabaa
Interrogative
Initial
2b
Secondaxy
IIaabab
IIaabb
IIab
Non-Initial
Coordinate
Peripheral
Infinitive
IIb
Infinitive
2a
176
of
Clauses
diagram*
as
6 (2)
CHAPTER 6.
6.2 :1
SECTION 2.
Structt=e
The Structure
of the Adverbial
Group is
the following:
ADVERBIAL GROUP
PrepositionallSpecific
Elements:
Manifesting
Prepositional
Proposition
Class
Nominal Link (8-4
Specific
Both Elements
Formula:
6.2
:2
Classess
(8-4 : 4)
: 3-1)
Nominal Group Class 3 (3.2 3 4)
Infinitive
Clause (5.2 : 28)
are obligatory.
Adv. Gr.
Prep.
Specif.
Punction
The Adverbial
Group functions
as Adjunct
1,3
or 4 in the Clause.
lbr.am-oles:
Adj. 4
Adj .3
k
ubon
ri pxong
chi ni
be with hunger in visiting
you-will
(you will be hungry while you are visiting)
Adj. 1
Xi ppaxinji
man-ro M
uchaay mak.
did fear demon much
in childhood-my I
(In my childhood I used to fear the demon very much. )
Ad.j. 3
uyamax
a- chi xi katukand
he was in running-with
meat
(he was running away with the meat)
177
11b 7
B 20
7
CHAPTER7.
THE PHRASES
Contents
page:
7.1 :
179
Structure
180
Funotion
180
The Digit
7.2 :
Phrase
181
Structure
Simple DP
I.
1.1.3
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
.
181
Ia.
Decimal DP
182
Ib.
Single
Number DP
182
Ic.
Single
Number Complex, DP
183
II. Composed DP
-.
IIa. Decimal DP
183
183
11b. Single
Number DP
184
Number Complex DP
184
Single
1.2.3
IIc.
1.2.4
IM. Compound DP
182
184
Function
184
2.1
DP Class 1
184
2.2
DP Class 2
184
7.3
7.4
Concord
185
The Demonstrative
188,
Phrase
Structure
188
Function
188
178
7 (1)
CHAPTER 7.
The Phrase
*of
this
THE PHIZASES
Sub-rank
Sub-rank
are
CHJUITIR7. SECTION 1.
7.1
It
relevant
the
only
Numeral
THE IMIERAL
to
Phrase
the
Nominal
and the
Group.
Demonstrative
The Units
Phrase.
PHRASE
Introduction
:0
is
is
likely
that
the original
Koelle (1854;
-GT)aai
but four times six, but Paaj no longer occurs
with a concord prefix,
since it is not used as a basic unit of the numerical system.
The number six also finds its echo in the Manjako culture:
there are
(fan,
in
the
Manjako
days
six
week
xankoxe, bas, buenus, kinataakall
pgak, pnjaanjaan,
pniewruax, pxaasa kor, pntoy).
But at present,
the Manjako numerical system is a decimal system, whose
(100)
(1000)
have been adopted from Creolet and
and mil
units sent
(10)
is probably of foreign
untaaja
origin
as well since it was unknown
to Koelle.
The Numeral Phrase is: identical
thouszu'ids
two
and
(b)
hundreds
three
and
(C)
tens
four
and
(d)
The Digit
in that
of four
.
five
rules.
179
7 (1)
While
Group Complex is
not be correct
to describe
Y. Ph.
of that
N. Ph.
formula
N. Ph.
as follows:
5+
300
40
2000
in Manjalco, would
be understood to represent
three figures*. 5, 3401
.
Constituent
Structure
The
21000I.
of the several Digit Phrases will
and
depending or,' the place which they have
be governed by many restrictions
which,
7.1 : I.
instance
of having
"hundred"
that
a restriction
"ten"
its
manifesting
manifests
the Head.
Digit-Phrase
the
unity of
Concord (see 7-4 : 1)
is
Rirther'underlined
-Structure
of the Numeral Phrase may be best represented
Pormula:
The Structure
following
where
x=
0. IK
x-1....
two Digit
x-2....
three
Elemente:
Manifesting
Digit
Digit
Link
Nominal
Phrae__Class
Link
ni
1 (7.2
"and"
paaj
six
onl.
180
(8-4
number
Digit
number,
Classes:
Examples:
Element
by the
D. -f(L D)x
Numeral Phrase
Di; rit
by
2)1)
3-1)
eta.
7 (2)
Nurn. Phr.
x-1:
-D+L+D
untaaja ni paaj
ten
and six
(sixteen)
Num. Phr.
x-2;
untaaja
ten
ni
and
usent
hundred
(hundred
=DLDLD
ni paaj
and six
sixteen)
Note:
is no limit
on the size
In theoryo
of Creole
word for
10 (untaaJa)
origin
and perhapseventhe
probably
the last century,
because Koelle
have been adopted or coined within
)
(Tnhron
"hands".
in
fact
inyan.
that number as
means
.1:
Punction
The Numeral
CIUPTER 7.
7.2
Phrase
functions
SECTION 2.
: 1- Structu:
The Structure
as Quantifier
Mr.. DIGIT
in
the
Nominal
Group.
PHRASE
re
the following:
DIGIT
PBRASE
I Factor
Head
Elements:
Manifesting
Classes:
Head
-2,3)
-.
Factor
3)
may
gives
7 (2)
Of the Uto Elements,
the Factor
only
is
obligatory,
(II)
DP
Po=nula:
to its
because
Fac
Phrases are. Type It. Simple, and Type II, *Composed, according to
Struct
Structure,
and Sub-types a, b, o, or d according to Constituent
The Digit
Surface
T)me: Head:
Factor:
Citation
Paradi=:
la
Decimal
lb
Single Number
untaaja "ten"
paaj "six"
IC
Ila
Decimal
Decimal
IIb
De'cimal
Single Number
Ilc
Decimal
IId
Decimal
Fig.
7.2
The Simple
Digit
Formula:
DP
I
7.2
: 1.1.1
Phrase
has only
the
Phrase
Type I. )
Factor
Element
as Decimal,
Single
Structure,
Constituent
The Digit
Fornula:
manifested.
Fac
of its
'
specified
On the basis
be further
Phrase(Digit
SimploDixit
- 1.1-
Phrase may
Number Complex.
Phrase Typela)
Element manifested
by Numeral. Noun
Fac : Num.Noun
Eyamnle:
banhaan untaaja:
people
(ten people)
7.2
: 1.1.2
The Dipit
Class
(8.2
gb8s untaaja
dogs ten
(ten dogs)
Sim-ole Single
Phrase
: 2.5).
kko
untaaja
ten
sticks
(ten sticks)
Number DP (Dipit
Factor
182
Phrase
Element
Type Ib)
manifested
by the
Numeral
7 (2)
Fac : Rum
Dp
Ib
Forniula:
Examlc:
bardirtan
cople
two people)
Simple
: 1.1.3
7.2
LC
t-ILbtwo
kko
sticks
E;bor,
dous t-10
bf'-21;
two
Number Complex
Sinrle
DP (Dirj, -it
Phrase
Type Ic)
the nimbors
Complex representing
It consists
",seven" and "nine".
of Numerals 6 or 8, a Nominal Link. ni "and"
(Example
"one"
1),
that
the
lilumcr4l
tile
exception
with
and
-lon/-lole
(human
then
the
Semantic
beings),
by
Class
la
is
Concord
if the
governed
I
(Example
2);
the last member of the. Complex is*nha, -m "person"
-,
The Digit
: Numba IM
Fac
DP
Ic
Formula:
Ifum
I-Ixamplen:
k1to
sticks
(seven
1.
gb0s paaj ni
ulon;
__
does six
and one
(noven dogs)
2,
banhaan paaj ni
-nhaan
and person
six
people
(seven people)
-.7.2
Composed Digit
: 1.2
On the
basis
be further
the
Element
its
specified
Compound.
while
of
of
has both
as Decimal,
of
Factor
Element
is
the
corresponding
manifested.
Simple
Composed Digit
the
Single
Number,
Composed DP is
DP, that
Element
by
DP (Din-t
of
another
Phrase
say,
the
may
Complex,
and
Factor
Ilemcnt
DP
Factor
the
etc.;
and
la ,
Digit
Phrase.
For Example:
Ty3)e IIa)
untaaJa;
gb6s mil
ten
dogs thousands
(ten thousand dogs)
183
manifested
to
Phrase
Nu ber
Im
same Classes
by the
manifested
Composed Decimal
banhaan gmil
untaaJa;
thousands
ten
people
(ten thousand people)
Single
the
DP
is the same as the Factor
IIa
is manifestqd
Element of the DP
IM
: 1.2.1
Elements
Structure,
Constituent
of
7.2
Type IIJ
11 Fac
DP
11
Formula:
(Digit-Phrase
Phrase
Phrase
plon
paaj ni
and one
six
sticks)
kko
un taaa
pmjil
ten
thousands
sticks
(ten thousand sticks)
7 (2)
7.2
Number DP (Digit
Composed Single
: 1.2.2
pt6b
two
: 1.2.4
banhaan pmil
gntaaja
thousands tens
people
(twenty thousand people)
7.2
kko
gntaaia
sticks tens
(twenty sticks)
Composed Single
: 1.2.3
gbOs gmil
gntaaja gteb
dogs thousands tens
two
(tvienty thousand dogs)
frtgb;
two
Punction
:2
of the Digit
The Function
NUMERAL
Ej
PHRAS.
DigitjLinIcjDigitjLinkjDigitj
1
DIGIT
PHRASE
Tactor
Head
7.2
: 2.1
Digit
Phrase
The Digit
Phrase
Numeral
of more thw
an Additive
7.2
: 2.2
The Digit
Class
Phrase
Class
consists
one digit
Class
identical
1 is
of
a single
then
the
with
digit.
Digit
the
If
Phrase
Numeral
the
Phrase
Numeral
functions
if
Phrase
the
consists
as a member of
Complex.
Digit
Phrase
Phrase
Class
Class
2 manifests
the Factor
1.
184
Element
of
the
Digit
Phrase
7 (3)
CLASS AND TYPE CORRELATION.
CLASS
TYPE
1-
12 11
CHAPTER7.
ECTION 3.
IIb,
lIc
CONCORD
As has been mentioned above (see 3-3), the Nominals have a potential
,
to agree in two Components: the Component of Number and the Component
Concord, and the features
of Lexical
of these two Components combine
in a single Concord Prefix.
Within the Numeral Phrase, however, there are certain restrictions
io
the
extent
which the agreement will be carried out. The
on
axe of two kinds: Source restrictions
restrictions
which have their
in their
realization
in the ldxis,
The rest=ictions
maybe
and -mil
+singular
tabulated
Source
Number
"thousand";
8.2 : 3)
but the
or +plural,
as follows:
System
Head
-lole
of
DP:
+Plural
kanhen
kwas
Class
second
member
of
DP
Cl.
+Lex.
;
Ic, IIc
-taaja
185
7 (3)
Source restriction
Lexical Class 2
limits
(u-/
case
of-the
they
although
"fossilized"
Concord
formally
are
as wo have
feature
from
+1exical
clann
Lex.
as
kanhen
Component;
each
3, and kwas,
the
is,
their
plural
Concord
is
choice
has the
4-definite
This is
so in
Carriers,
that
seen,
Concord.
P:efixos
to
restricted
one
+dingular
specification
+lexical
are
class
of a certain
is the specification
estriction
of the selection
in a certain
for a Concord Carrier
foaturo
on account of its functioning
have the specification'
+plttial
place. So the Numeral Noun will
when it manifesto the Head of the Digit Phrase and +singular
The System
Factor.
the
it
manifests
when
As was mentioned above (see 5-3), the Nominal Concord"may define
of several Nominal Groups-in cases of'embedding.
constituencies
In spite
the limitations
of all
just
mentioned,
the Numeral Phrase to define
gntaaja__paaj
tens
SIX
is
am1biguous.
It
may also
is
due to
n.
ni
the
fact
that
pntaala
which
the
Heads,
ambiguity
but
in
is
the
it
the
is
Head of
not
following
is
certain
Digit
which
examples:
186
as follows:
diagram
ill-oil
ulon
the Head of
the
immediate*
its
ul-on
Lexical
and then
'
we draw the
if
one dogs,
mean sixty-
ambiCLUty
this:
ni
Cm tqa
This
like
taa
rbAS
It
look
would
ulon
one
dogs,
diagram
constituent
ni
and
of the
the boundary
the
"one"
the
belongs
Nominal
Phrase.
Elon
one.
However,
to
the
Group,
agrees
there
same
and as
Iri th one qf
is
no
7 (3)
In
Head (NG)
Head (DP)
Pac (DP
iko
objects
gntaaja
tens
kalon
paaj ni
and one
six
61 objects)
iko
objects
gntaaia
tens
ulon
paaj ni
six
and one
70 objects)
kko
sticks
gntaaja
tens
paaj ni
plon
and one
six
61 sticks)
kko
sticks
gntaaJa
tens
paaj ni
ulon
six
and one
70 sticks)
these
other
of
examples,
the
the
(cp)-lon
Head Elements,
agrees
underlined
with
in
either
the
one or
the
Examples.
the
that
due
feature
to
Source Restriction,
in
only,
one
agrees
but this
Semantic)Class,
being a certain Lexical(or
feature
of the Numeral Phrase as one or two
agreement defines the constituency
It
Concord and
we now extend the termsInternal
Concord (3-3) to the Numeral Phrase, then we may define
External
Concord as the agreement between Nominals manifesting
the Internal
Digit
Phrases. If
Elements
and
the
Head of the Nominal Group and the Factor Element of the Digit
Within the Digit Phrase, the concord is Internal
Phrase respectively.
whenever the Head of the Digit
Internal
Concord:
Head (NG)
Head (DP)
Factor
banhaan
people
gntaaja
tens
piaanx
three
imaanh
bags
gsent
hundreds
paaj
six
External
Phrase is manifested.
(DP)
30 people)
ni ulon
and one (-
700 bags)
Concord:
banhaan
people
bawaanx
Ke`e(-
imaanh
bags
paaj
six
3 people)
kalon
ni
(= 7 bags)
and one
187
7 (4)
CHAPTER7. SECTION 4.
Structure.
7.4 :1
Phrase,
of the Demonstrative
The Structure
is
PHRASE.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE
in its
the following:
PHRASEI
DEMONSTRATIVE
I Demonstr I
Specifier
Classes:
Elements:
Manifestinm
Specifier:
Specifier
Demonstrative:
Demonstrative
Formula:
Word (8.2
Word (8.2
(Spec)
+(
Dem.Phr.
: 2-7)
t 2.6)
(Demonstr. )
Function
:2
The Demonstrative
Nominal
Phrase functions
as the Demonstrative
Element of the
Grou,P
acam-oles:
Ma-fing.
1 killed.
(I killed
Dem.
bi.
Benul
Head-his this.
him. This is his head. )
S-Pec.
Uwalu umenx, banhaan ka - mira
Time that
suffer
people (ct)
(At that(future)time
people will
Ila 77
Mt 24: 29
suffer)
S-oec. Dem.
ka -M
inji
nada
ri
untempu umenx w8n
-Td-em)
(ct)
fear
I
that
time
nothing
not
(At that (past) time I used o be afraid of nothing.
188
G9
)
CHAPTER 8.
THE WORDS
Contents
pagre:
192
The Verbs
8.1
1
192
Structure
192
1.1
1. Lexical
1.2
II. Ancillary
Verb,
1.2.1
IIa. Basic
Ancillary
1.2.2
lIb. Structured
Ordering
3.
Function
Verb
193
Verb
Verb
Ancillary
of Verbal
194
.
194
195
Suffixes
195
3-1
1. Lexical
3.2
2. Ancillary
196
Verbs
196
Verbs
3.2.1
2a. Auxiliary
Verb
196
3.2.2
2b. Aspective
Verb
196
197
The Nominals
8.2
Structure
197
Function
197
2.1
Article
197
2.2
Noun
198
2.2.1
2.2.1.1
2.2.1.2
2.2.2
198
Structure
Proper Noun
1.
11. Structured
Function
-198
198
Noun
198
199
2-3
Numeral Noun
2.4
Adjective
200
2-5
Numeral
201
2.5-1
201
Structure
201
Basic Numeral
2.5-1-1
1.
2.5-1.2
11. Non-basic
2.5.1.2.1
IIa.
Concording
2-5.1.2.2
IIb.
Non-concording
2.5.2
Function
189
201
Numeral
Numeral
Numeral
201
201
202
8
8.2
202
2.6
Demonstrative
2.7
Specifier
2.8.
Possessor
203
2.9
Pronoun
203
2.9.1
Word
203
Structure
2.9.1.1
1.
2.9.1.2
11. Structured
2.9.2
203
Word
204
Simple Pronoun
Pronoun
205
Function
2o6
The Quasi-Nominals
8.3
1
The Verbal
204
2o6
Noun
1.1
Structure
2o6
1.2
Function
2o6
1.2.1
Infinitive
2o6
1.2.2
Gerund
2o6
The Adverb
207
Structure
207
2
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
2.1.2
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
1.
Simple Adverbs
Ia.
lb.
Free Adverbs
207
Associative
207
Adverbs
207
2.1.2.2.1
2.1.2.2.2
2.2
207
Suffixative
Prefixative
Adverbs
207
Adverbs
208
Type lIba
208
Type IIbb
208
208
Function
2.2.1
Class 1
209
2.2.2
Class 2
209
2.2.3
209
209
2.2.5
Class 3
.
Cl ass 4
Class 5
2.2.6
Class 6
210
2.2.7
Class 7
210
2.2.4
210
190
page i
211
The Particles
8.4
1
The Introducer
211
The Markers
211
2.1
211
Structure
2.1.1
1.
Monomorphemic Marker
211
2.1.2
11.
Polymorphemic
Marker
212
2.1.3
Ha.
Initial
Marker
212
2.1.4
IIb.
Closing
Marker
213
2.2
213
Function
2.2.1
2.2.2
1. Single
2.2.3
la
Report Marker
2.2-4
lb
Purposive
2.2.5
2. Paired
2.2.6
2a
Modificational
2.2.7
2b
Adjectival
2.2.8
214
Markers
Peripheralizing
214
214
Markers
Marker
_214
214
Markers
Marker
Marker
3. Emphatic Marker
214
215
215
The Connectors
216
3.1
Nominal Link
216
3.2
Verbal
217
Conjunction
217
The Preposition
4-1
Structure
217
4.2
Function
217
Ideophones
217
Onomatopoeia
218
Paralinguistic
Particles
218
Clitics
of foreign
191
origin
219
8(1)
CILLPTER 8.
8.1
:0
SECTION 1.
Introduction
the Auxiliaryo
Group (6.1).
the Verbal
Chapter
THE VERBS
6 as manifesting
Perfective
The Verbal
Prefixes
and Lexical
Elements
in
in
Verbal
-. 1
Structure
The Structure
of-the
Verb in its
the following:
VERB
I
Source System
Of the -h-to Elements, the Source is obligatory
so the Formula may be stated as follows:
Verb
According
into
8.1
to differences
The Constituent
Lexical
Sce (Sstm)
in Structure,
and Ancillary.
Verb_ (Verb
Structure
Type 1)
of Verb Type I is
the following:
Elements:
Manifesting
Source
11
System
Classes:
1-3)
3)
192
(1)
hortative
indicative
positive
negative
Fig.
Those features
+hortative
in
+Dositive
(10.4 : 3.. l)
(10-4
: 3.2)
the
as follows:
presence
the
manifesting
+nej7,ative
+indicative
+indicative
are realized
in
of
the
Imperative
Suffix
-an/j
2 and 5)-
(Examp-les
System Element
the
Suffix
presence
of the Negative
-ax
the
(Examples
System
Element
3 and 6).
manifesting
in the absence
+positive
(Examples I and 4).
Suffixes
of
the
either
or Negative
Imperative
Examples:
Source
manifested
1. a-
finpul
Source
manifested
4.
a-
j24LnMrul
he
cooked-for-him
he kill-him
(he killed
him)
axul
,
_finr
he-kill-not-him
(he did not kill
8.1 : 1.2
Ancillary
According
to
Verbs
further
are
their
Stem:
j6ni7ariul
cook-for(imp)-him
cook for him)
6. jarexul
cook-for-not-him
did
for
not
cook
--(he
2. fin
1:1 anul
71.112fimp)-him
(Kill
him)
3.
by Verb
him)
him)
Structure
Basic
193
differences,
and Structured.
the
Ancillary
8.1
: 1.2.1
Basic
r'IThe Basic
Ancillary
manifested
by the
Auxiliary
.
Formula:
Verb
Verb
Type lIa)
one Element,
Root
1 (10.1
Class
(Verb
Verb
has only
Aspective
Verb Root
Vb
IIa
Ancillary
(1)
Class
the
(10.1
: 1.1.1)(Example
Source
: 1.2)
Element,.
(L'C=ple
Z),
or
1).
See
r3
Element:
21anifestinm
Source
Olas-g-es:
Exam-oles:
1. kaxe
xep kak
no-longer went again
(lie did not go any more)
2. ka: - kaka kg. xep
_
*
(ct)
he'll
again
go
(he will be going again)
8.1
: 1.2.2
Structured
The Structured
Ancillary
Suffix
Verb
(Verb
manifested
Vb
lIb
The Structured
Ancillary
-an/=i
See
by the Auxiliary
Type IIb)
=espectively.
Sstm
Elements:
Manifesting
Source
Auxiliary
System
Imperative
Classes:
2)
Ancillary
Verb is a Projection
Plane for the Component
of Mood which here has one System with two features,
+hortative
and
+indicative:
hortative
indicative
194
the
(1)
The feature
is realized
+hortative,
of Polarity
in Ancillary
Verbs,
see 10.1
: 1.1)
E=Dles:
J. a- kaka xel"p
he again vient
(he vientu again)
2. kakaan
again(imp
(Go again)
8.1
xep
go
Ordering
:2
of Verbal
Suffixes
The several
ORDER
CLASS
4-
123
Der 2a
Der 2b
Der. -1 Der 2b
567
-'3)6r 2b
Infl-ex.
'Der 1
Proh.
--in
es
ROOT
aml
and
_U
-wund
a
an
--inja
-ind.
................
the
diagram.
by
indicated
the
in
above
sequence
ITote: Verb Suffixes
occur
Only one Suffix from each frame may be chosen, except for Suffixes
bracketed inside a frame, which may occur together.
to a frame give an option of selection
Lines joining
of
frame
Lines
frame.
the
Suffix
a
select a certain
crossing
within
any
to
five
1rames'may
Suffixes
of
up
Suffix to the exclusion
others.
of
frames
two
in
from
Suffixes
but
together
vertical
never
occur
arrangement.
8.1
Function
According
to differences
two Classes,
Lexical
in their
FunctiOni
and Ancillary.
195
into
(1)
8.1
Lexical
: 3.1
The Lexical
Verbs manifest
the Lexical
Group.
Exam,ole:
ka
A nalon ngaax bixe
untaang
have time
& one
woman after-all-not
(And a certain w9man happened not to have time)
8.1
: 3.2
Ancillary
The Ancillary'Verbs
A6
manifest
divided into
the Ancillary
Elements
the Auxiliary
Verb,
of Verbal Group
and the Aspective Verb.
Auxiliary
Verb manifests
the Auxiliary
Group.
Example:
yilan
a kaxe
& no-more be-able
(he was no longer
8.1
: 3.2.2
The Aspective
pul
it
lift
priangg
to-lift
able to
Verb
Aspective
Verbs
3) 15
it)
(Verb
the
nanifest
Class
Perfective
2b
Element
of
the Verbal
Group.
ExanDle:
tievi
ro
=e Ylul
a S),
T-op)
blowflies
&eat him
(and the blowflies
sta=ted
E 16
to bite
him)
_Class
1
2a
2b
Type
1
IIa,
IIa
196
IIb
8 (2)
SECTION 2.
CHAPTER 8.
The Nominals
into
classes
howeverv particular
structural
classesp
in section
characteristics
at greater
delicacy
in common.
These
apply
only
to certain
headings.
Structure
8.2 :I
The Nominals may consist of two Elements, the System Element and the
Both Elements are obligaiory
Source Element.
in all Nominals except
(8.2
Simple
Pronouns
Proper Nouns (8.2 - 2.2.1.1)
and
which
: 2.9.1.1)
The Structure
have only the Source Element.
of the Nominals is therefore
the following:
Formula:
Classes
Manifesting
Nom
for
(Sstm)
Sce
under the
headings.
are selected.
8.2
:2
According
ninction
to their
Function
t 2.1
Demonstrative
into:
Word, Specifier
Word, Possessor,
the
and Pronoun.
Article
The Axticle Class manifest6 the Determiner Element of the Nominal Group
(3-1 : 1-1).
It never occurs'in
a Complex. Its Source Element is
(10.1
by
the
Article
Root
manifested
s 4).
197
8 (2)
Element
Manifesting
Source
Ulon
One
Example:
: 2.2
8.2
t 2.2.1
Proper
The Proper
Surface
its
of
D5
the
into
Nouns are
Structure
and Structured.
Proper
: 2.2.1.1.
Proper
un8
day
Structure
basis
two types,
8,2
Rooi
Noun
8.2
On the
Article
Class
the
the
Source
names of
Element.
and localities.
personalities
ExaMDles:
personalities
localities:
8.2
: 2.2.1.2
The Structured
is
manifested
Noun Stem (9.2
by : Neutral
Root
Nominal
(10.1
t 2);
I
Manifesting
Classes
Root
Neutral
Noun Root
Noun SteM
usual
Structure.
Noun Root
Element
The Source
(10.1
t 3);
or
: 1.1).
Element
Source
8.2
Structured
ExamT)les:
Ilivell"
plik
kamaanh
"bag"
katetan
"story"
Classes 1 to 6 with
(see 10.4 : 1.2)
Sub-classes
Head of
acoordlzig
to
Function
the
the Nominal
198
(3-1
: 1.2)
8 (2)
(Mcamples 1 and 2). It may also manifest
(9.1 : 2.2).
Type
Ilb
Stem
of
the Grammatical
Element
ExamDles:
1.
Ninx namOnx
nan
that
Man the-said
(The said man
....
A2
2.
kat8tan nalon
ninx nasien
a- certain man chief
story
(A story of a certain man who was a chief)
Al
uri. P.A
desiring-rains
(Senegal Coucal)
8.2
: 2.3
Numeral
Noun
by a plural
Concord Prefix
in Numeral Noun
Class 1, and
Elements
System
Source
Manifesting
Concord Prefix
: Class 1, plural
Class 2, singular
Numeral Noun Root
Exam-ole:
Class
1.
1
kwas
ppent
hundreds
(800)
Class
eight
2.9mil
thousands
(10,000)
Classes
untaaja
ten
199
8 (2)
2.4
8.2_:
Adjective
The Adjective
It
mayl*but
Adjectives
(10.1
6);
:
: 3);
(10.1
(10.1
Adjective
Lexical
Stem (9.2
(10.1
1);
Neutral
Root
: 2);
:
Verb Root (10.1 : 1-3), or Interrogative
Noun Root
Root
32191.
V-1
Element
Manifesting
Source
Class
Adjective
Root
Adjective
Stem
Neutral Root
Noun Root
Verb Root
Inte=ogatLve Root
Examles:
root:
adjective
stem:
adjective
(nominalizinal
stem:
adjective
(mixed)
neutral
ub8s upyak;
dog big
(a big dog) .
nhean naxgkal
person righteous
(a righteous
person)
ub8s ujinal
dog black
(a black dog)
bko bviAlu
tree young
(a young tree)
bko byampal
tree tall
(a tall
tree)
nhaan nat8banxen
person second
(the second person)
ub8s uwaaJenxen
dog third
(the third
dog)
bko bbaakenden
tree Tourth
(the fourth tree)
nhaan nafex
person behind
(the person at 'the
back)
root:
ubos uchinx
dog companion
(an accompanying
dog)
nhnan naties
person small
(a small person)
noun root:
verb
nh.qnn naw.r
person good
(a good person)
bfex
back
back
bko
tree
(the
bnkonch
middle
tree)
middle
tree)
Uix
uko
animal-fly
(bird)
root:
interromative
bko
tree
(the
rt:
ubos uoin
dog which,
(which dog.? )
nhaan naom
person which
(which person? )
200
bom
bko
tree which
(which tree?
8 (2)
8.2
: 2.9
8.2
: 2.9.1
Nim,oral
Structure
Porniula:
Sce : Num.R.
Sstm
Num
6.
Thus,
and
is
to differences
Element,
regarding
following
Types:
by a Concord
manifested
according
this
Numeral
the
in
Prefix
the
Sets
la,
2b,
3) 4)
Structure-
Constituant.
may be luxther'divided
the
into
"asic
Concording
Von-basic
Basic
2.5.1.1
8.2
-:
The Basic
Numeral
-II
(Numeral
Numeral
has the
Non-concording.
Type 1. )
SYstem Element
of
the
is
the
following:
L-
by the
manifested
(sg. ) and g- (pl
forra
alternative
"."..e Basic
.111fumeral
Raaj "six"
8.2
Non-basic
: 2.2.1.2
("Numeral
Nuncral
_
TyDe 11. )
The Non-basic
8.2
Concordinr
: 2. . 1.2.1
Numerals
The Concording
Sets
prefixes
of
They are
the
la
have
2c,
(Numeral
Numeral
the
6
follow
or
/(na)lole
.
(baltLebJ(ba)t8bar
: 2.5.1.2.2
The-Non-concording
Concord
Prefixes
plu=al
by'one
manifested
inG the
rules
of
of
the
Concord.
following:
(na)loii
8.2
to be either
Zype Ila)
System Element
3, '4,5,
by the basic
i. p Orson)
llonell(e.
"two"
(ba)waanx
"thxeel''*(e*g.
(ba)baaker
11fourl,
Non-concording
Nume=als
have
Numeral
the
(Numeral
System Element
however,
do not
which,
no longer
used; see 7-1 :0
follow
the
peopl'e)
Type lIb)
manifested
rules
of
by
Concord.
They
8 (2)
are
These
"fossilized".
are
the
following
ones:
kanhen "five"
kwas "eight"
8.2
: 2.5.2
Function
Numerals manifest the Factor Element of the Digit Phrase. There are,
however, limitations
Complex.
on their functioning
as members of an Additive
(Digit
Phrase Type Io or Mc).
Considering
these limitations,
vie.; aay assign
All
a manifesting
the final
(h.a L__
lon/(ka)lole
Sub-class
Note:
b manifesting
Trio identical
Complex (3-4
8.2 : 2.6
the initial
"one"
_(e.
g. 4ouse)'
-paaj
"six"
lwas
"eight'.
'
Demonstrative
Distributive
Word
is manifested.
The Source Element is manifested
Class (10.1 : 8).
Blements
Manifesting
System
Concord Prefix
Source
Demonstrative
202
by the Demonstrative
Classes
(alternative
Root
forms)
Root
8 (2)
Example,:
Gi
xmaal achi
xi blay
They hare they were in yard
(Haxe' and his companion were in the yard)
8.2
: 2.7
Specifier
The Specifier
Demonstrative
: 2.8
(10.1
(3-1
the Specifier
Class
: 2.2-3).
: 10)
Its
(10.1
said"
by the
: 9).
Element
Manifesting
Source
Specifier
-1ch
the
manifests
Its
Source
"belonging
to"
Element
Class
Root
A2
ufesta
feast
Head Element
Element
Example:
8.2
: 2.2
8.2
: 2.9.1
On the basis
Blko b8n
T=ee that
(The t=eo
chix
is-not
is not
is
or -minh
of
manifested
the
Noinlna3
Group Type
by A Possessor
"mine".
Manifesting
Source
Types,
two
v
Element of the
Source Element is manifested
Possessor
The Possessor
Ile
Ninx nam8nx
nan
aro
Man the-said
that he did
(The said man gave a feast)
Example:
8.2
Word
Specifier
Rb 90
Possessor
Class
Root
b1chu ayou=s it
it
you=s,
chi bminh
is
e
is mine. )
Structure
Pronoun
Structure
of its
Simple
Surface
and Structured.
203
into
Root
8 (2)
8.2
The Simple
the
: 2.9.1.1
Pronoun
Proximal
The Proximal
has only
and Interrogative
Pronouns
Element.
This
Type
includes
Pronouns.
the
are
Source
list
Pronouns,
both
They aret
and plural.
singular
the
singular
plural
person
inji
wund excl.
2-nd person
wi
Ist
inja
incl. )
ind
Pronouns are:
The Inte=ogative
yen
I1who?II
we
"what? It
Exam-Dles:
Vli,
xjgku,
m-
E 77
wbxaax
You, Bush-fowl,
you good-axe-not
(You bad Bush-fov7l)
An
We
pxo xi?
m- bi
do here?
I'lhat you came what to
(What have you come to do here? )
8.2
: 2.9.1.2
The Structured
manifested.
(10-4 : 1.2)
Structi=ed
Pronoun
-B
(Pronoun
13
T-y-pe III
(Distal)
(*
the
fo=s
selecting
alternative
where applicable
with
the restriction
that in Class 1 the n- allomorph is selected).
The
Source Element is manifested. by the Distal
Pronoun Root -ul (10.1 s 11).
Elements
Manifesting
System
Concord
Source
Distal,
Prefix
Pronoun
204
Classes
(alternative
Root
fo=s*)
8 (2)
Exami)les:
8.2
-. 2.9.2
Nul chi 8n
the-one
He is
Ait
KLA
they,
chi wul,
it
is
Function
8n
laang
InLi ni
uyamax
mI
whom you deny whom meat
(You refused to give me meat)
205
A17
8 (3)
CHAPTER 8.
8.3
This
SECTION 3.
__
The-Quasi-Nominals
Introduction
:0
includes
section
the Verbal
Noun (8-3
The Verbal
:1
may
Noun
The Verbal
8.3 : 1.1
Structure
The Stracture
: 2).
Noun is
the followings
VERBAL NOUN
SystemlSource
Both
Elements
axe obligatory.
Their
manifesting
Elements:
Manifesting
Classes:
System
Infinitive:
Gerund:
Concord
Concord
Source
Lexical
Verb Root Class (10 1
j)
Neutral
Root Class (10.1
:
Verb Stem Class (9.2,. - 1-3)
8.3
: 1.2
8.3
: 1.2.1
Prefix
Prefix
Classes
Set x (10-4
Set w (10-4
are
as followst
: 1.2)
: 1.2)
1-3)
Function
Infinitive
The Infinitive
manifests the Head Element of Nominal Group Type IIe
(3-1 : 2.2-5).
The Infinitive
also has considerable
verbal force:
(Verbal
6.1
2-4
Group) and 5.2
28 (Infinitive
Clause)
see
:
.:
ExamT)le:
bkul
kato
pxong
pon
house visiting
their that
(house at the place which they were visiting)
Gerund
: 1.2.2
The Gerund manifests
Hb 12
8.3
e. g:
Hb 67 - 68
a (3)
8.3
:2
0.3
1 2.1
THE ADVERB
According
Structure
to differences
into
divided
in their
Structure,
Simple
Associative
Suffixative
Compound
Prefixative
Simple
2.1.1
Adverbs
Simple
are
(Adverbs
Adverbs
Type, I)
They may be divided
mono-morphemic.
into
Free
and
Associative.
8.3 : 2.1.1.1
(Adverbs
Free Adverbs
Zy e la)
: 2.1.1.2
Mak "much";
affixcq.
fan "to-morrow",
Adverbs (Adver'h3Type
Associative
1b)
Associative
8.3
T)l C!0:
: 2.1.2
Compound Adverbs
The Suffixative
gives
Type II)
of a Root
consists
Compound Adverbs
will,
and an Affix,
accordingly
either
be divided
a Suffix
into
and Prefixative.
t 2.1.2.1
consists
(AdveAs
or
Suffixative
Adverb
could
of a demonstrative
the word its
(Adverb
Adverb
adverbial
be called
root
a I'deictic
i/6n/An
in
in
in
this
that
that,
207
Adverb"
and a suffix
The Suffixative
value.
ink "thus
onk, "thus
ank "thus
Type Ila)
way"
way
(unseen)
-enk
Adverbs
way-,
because
"as
if"
ax:et
it
which
()
Exam-ple:
juabaxer ink we?
amthus what
& you are-sad
(why are you sad in this way? )
8.3
: 2.1.2.2
Prefixative
in the Constituent
(Adverbs_Type
Adverbs
to differences
According
Hb 39
divided
IIb)
Structure,
the Prefixative
into:
: 2.1.2.2.1
(10.1
Set
consist of one of the Prefixes
of
y
s 1.2)
(10.1
Element
the
System
the
Root
Demonstrative
and either
manifesting
(10.1
Root
Pronoun
the
Interrogative
Root
Distal
11)
the
or
:
or
(10.1 : 12) manifesting
the Source Element.
ExamDle:
Adverbs Type Ilba
ka - k6r
xi
Itll
smear here
(I shall smear oil
8.3
Vll
ka - ker x8m?)
)
smear where?
(Where shall I smear oil? )
here)
8)
E 18
: 2.1.2.2.2
(10-4
the
Prefixes
Set
consist of one of
1 1.2)
of
7r
Element
the
System
Noun
Root or a Verb Root manifesting
and
of
a
manifesting
the Source Element.
Adverbs Type Ilbb
ExamDle:
da - tukari
rim(imp)
you
Run fastl
8.3 : 2.
According
into
the
uch&r
fast
Function
to
differences
following
in
their
fLmction,
the
Adverbs
may be divided
Classes:
CLAUSE
AlISIPIA21C
JA3
NOMINALGROUPIIh
D IH IR IQ jQn
1 N'll, 21-13
ADVERB
208
__
2.2.1
Adverb
Class
the Adjunct
1 or the Adjunct
Exam-oles I
Ad*. 1
H
of the Clausc
Adj. 5
baand
-auan
On the mor--ow& he came
(a
baand
(he came in the
fan)
morning)
F 25
kak
taakal
a na-bi
kak
taakal
a- bi
yesterday & he came again
he came
aaain
yesterday
(For the diff erence i n th e Tenses see 6
2.31
.1
8.3 : 2.2.2 Adverb Class
The Adverbs Class 2 manifest the Adjunct 2 Element of the Clause.
"all" .
They are: bux "also" and "blien
Examnle:
bux wul
A nay6
r6 - jai
(cp)
& wine-tapper
said also him
(And the wine-tapper also said to him)
Note:
This Class
T.Ibon, inji
Viell, I
often
Jib 29.
to injury,
Adverb
: 2.2.
_3
The Adverbs Class 3
8.3
"Echo
the Adjunct
bux
too
bux
A =aal
too
&. haro
(To add insult
the
manifests
Hb 214
Adverb
Hare
Class
on the
bed)
manifest
11 of
fell
the
Auxiliary
the
They include
3 of the Clause.
(marked with * belo-. ), e, g.:
Adjunct
E, 68
Uyamxc a- ay
mak
Ileat
it
sour
much
(Meat is very sour. )
Umaal kaka jot
pfal
Vall
to-cheat him
Hare again began
(Hare started
to deceive him again)
8.3
: 2.2.4
The AdveAs
jipan
ahe spoke
(he spoke
Adverb
Class
6nk
like-that
in that
Class
4 manifest
manner)
kak*
more
the Adjunct
209
3 of the Clause. E. g. s
E 70
16
: 2.2.5
Adverb Class 5,
- ,
The Adverbs Class 5 manifest the Adjunct
8.3
3 of the Clause.
Example:
au& he
uj8l-. u
Bush-fowl
ruk
left
(and left
11b'37-38
Adverb Class 6
Exam
ahe
baand xi
xari
ie-re today
came
8.3
: 2.2-. 7
The Adverb
Adverb
Class
Class
71
7 manifests
the
Head Element
of Nominal
Examle:
ja
da
ron
ri
onk
say as
so as you
(this
is the way you say)
P 33
TYPE
la
Ia
la,
4
5
6
7
Ilb
lIa
Ib
Ia
11 11
210
8 (4)
CHAPTER 8.
8.4
SECTION 4.
The Particles
Introduction
:0
The Particles
are Units
Propositions,
Ideophones,
Particles
8.4
Onomatopoeia,
Paralinguistic
Clitics
and
(4-1
t 1).
origin.
The Introducer
:1
The Introducer
Class
Sentence
the
manifests
Introduction
Exam-ole.Yoo,
Yes
8.4
a
xjgku
and bush-fowl
nAx
stood
Rb 15
The Markers
:-
Participant
in the Clause.
Their
usual
the definition
Clause and
of the Clause as a Peripheral
they are thus a part of the Projection
Plane for the Component of Mood
at Clause Rank. Markers may peripheralize
a whole Sentence, but occur
Clause of that Sentence (see 4.2 :2 and 3). The Markers may
Role of Emphasis, the features of the Theme
also have the Participant
Component being realized
in the exponents of the Closing Marker Element.
in the first
8. A : 2.1
Structure
On the basis
Constituent
Structure
are further
described
in 8.4 : 2.2,
Function.
I
onomorphemic
Polymorphemic
: nitial
Closing
8.4
: 2.1.1
The Marker
I-Tonomorphemic Marker
Type I has only
the
(Maxker
9ype 1)
Source Element.
211
along with
8 (4)
Exam-ole:
: 2.1.2
8.4
"in
pa
Polymorphemic
The Polymorphemic
to"
order
(Markers
Markers
Type II)
Markers
manifested
of the Polymorphemic
The Structure
Root (10.1
by a Demonstrative
8).
be stated
as
b
follows:
"Ii
Fo=ula:
J= Sstm
See
Elements
The I
System
Concord
Source
Demonstrative
the
ers manifesting
have
Clause
one minor
variations
optional
basis
11amifesting
obligatory
limited
of these differences,
to
(alternative
Prefix
Initial
Classes
forms)-
Root
er Elements
and Closing
difference
either
in
Initial
Structure
or Closing
specified
of
the
and certain
On the
position.
as Initial
or
Closing.
8.4
: 2.1.3
Initial
Marker
(Marker
Ty-oe IIa)
Marker is manifested
-i.
by the Demonstrative
ExamT)le:
Hb 16
u- n.x
xi
xi
17- he stand in
in
(where he was standing)
Clause (5.2 : 26) except where the Aspective Prefix kIn the Integrated
(continuous)
(10-4 : 2-3) is interposed,
the Initial
Marker is conflated
(10.4
Integrating
the
Prefix
: 2-4). In this case the basic
with
forms of the Concord Prefix
are selected
instead
of the alternative
ones,
: 2.1.4
Closinq
Marker
(Marker
For detailed
Type IIb)
the derivational
examples of
affix
"thus",
-enk
of the
In the
selected.
allomorph
is
(8-4
be
Emphatic
Marker
may
an
: 2.2-7)
Root manifesting
the Source Element of the Closing
(if non-emphatic)(Example
(if
1).
or -8n
-i
Position
Demonstrative
the
so
Mar or may be either
(Example
2).
emphatic)
Exam-oles:
1.
upre pi
food which he
Rb 83
re pi
ate which
2.
k- re w6nk
zendin ko
wi
give-me thing which you eat which-the-one-thus
(Give me that thing you are eating)
8.4
: 2.2
A 32
Function
below.
The Peripheralizing
Classes as illust-xated
Markers
in the following
are farther
diagram:
Report
Single
Peripheralizing
Purposive
'odificational
L Paired
Adjectival
Emphatic
213
divided
into
5 (4)
8.4
Perhipheralizing
: 2.2.1
The Peripheralizing
They axe further
8.4
: 2.2.2
Markers
specified
Single
(Markers
Markers
define
1 and 2)
a Clause as Peripheral
and Paired.
as'Single
(Markers
Markers
Classes
Class
1)
8.4
: 2.2.3
Marker
*ReDort
(Marker
introduce
Reported
"that"
ne*
Ilif it
manifesting
Class
la)
Speech, functioning
: 2).
in the first
They ares
: 2.2-4) frequently
3 of the Clause.
occurs with
ne.
: 2.2.4
(Marker
Purposive
Marker
Yaxkers
function
The Purposive
Olass
lb)
in the Purposive
Clause (5.2
: 22).
They
are:
,pa, bi
"in
order
"lest"
to"
ro I ri
(the forms axe in free fluctuation,
-with pa (which is of
Portuguese Creole origin)
being more frequent than bi)
Exam-oles:
bjelan
pa na-yazzul
to he fetch-for-her
portion
(to fetch her portion for her)
8.4-:
2.2.9
PaiTed
Markers
A8
(Markers
Class
2)_
Modificational
Marker
The Yodificational
Mnaxkers function
The Concord
manifesting
Prefix
the
the Modificational,
System Element
does not
Clause
(5.2
carry
any
24).
8 (4)
It
agrooment.
is
from
The Modificational
bi
.....
Set y.
Markers
bi
are:
indicating
tima
or
or Manner
xi
indicating
ri
ri
indicating
-place
place
pi
pi
indicating
manner
xi
.....
.....
--
sality,
or manner
L'%-amDle:
bi
koulon - bi
n-ro
n-chi napax
something when I(past)
when I was child
(something from the time when I was a child)
8.4
: 2.2.7
The Adjectival
Adjectival
Markers
Marker
(Marker
function
in'the
Class
2b)
Adjectival
Clauses
(5.2
'25)-
: 3).
EXDXAT)le:
F 17
m-baandi ML-1
un8 widay whioh I return
which
(on the day when I return)
8.4
: 2.2.8
Emphatic
Marker
(Marker
Class
The Emphatic Marker manifests the Closing Marker Element in any Clause
Type. The Emphatic Markerv when it occurs in Subrogated Clauses
(5.2 : 23), is therefore
the same speech item as the (lineally)
second
the Closing Marker Element.
Its
of the Pai=ed Markers, manifesting
Emphatic Function is signalled
by the choice of the Demonstrative Root
-8n manifesting
Icamle:
Uchi pfingin
killing-ma
if
(if
(you say)
pi
which
I ought
fier
n-ro
p8n
I did which need
to have been killed)
219
Ila 63
8 (4)
The Connectors
8.4
:3
8.4
: 3.1
Link
Nominal
for
a preference
dialects.
Examples:
1.
ni
uj&ku
=aal
hare
and bush-fowl
(Haxe and Bush-fowl
ni
untaaja
ton
(sixtoon)
ngit.?
3-
Y'ld
paaj
six
hrase Troa Ic
paaj ni ulon
and one
six
(seven)
Adverbial
4.
fexax
a
they were-friends
were'friends)
COMDlex
Phrase
Digit
2.
Group Complex:
Nominal
Additive
11
un 9,3-
Group
a-
pea
ni
ubon
he overcome-was
hyena
with hunger
(Hyena was overcome with hunger)
216
Rb 1
8 (4)
8. A : 3.2
Verbal
Conjunction
The Verbal
1.1.2)
Example:
Conjunction
Amctions
Aua suaxax,
re,
aumob
unel,
a fing
B 18
& he caught hyena
'& he ate & not-fall
& killed
(And he ate it, but was not satisfied,
and he caught the hyena and killed
8.4
4 The Preposition
8. A
4.1 Structure
has the following
The Preposition
Structur6j
both Elements
being
it),
obligaory:
PREPOSITION
Systeml Source
Elements
Manifesting
System
(10-4
Prefix
Set
)
1.2,
'Concord
y
-*
ioot
(.10.1 - 8)
Demonstrative
Source
8.4
Classes
Punction
: 4.2
The 'Preposition
manifests
Group. (6.2 : 1)
Adverbial
the
obligatory
Prepositional
Element
of
the
"xam-oles:
katim Babi
chix
xi mtum
in mouth
name You-who-came is-not
(nobody calls - the name You-vtho-came)
Hb 45
uiiiew
ku
kor
vail ri'
a u- ruka uj6.
_
]
he
left
bush-fowl
& he
alone
n house
(and he left
the Bush-fowl on his own in the building)
te
xari
Vno Pi
day like today
till
(until
this day)
8.4
:5
38
-Eb
C 17
Ideophones
Ideophones
are Paxticles
which collocate
almost exclusively
with the Verb or
They convey the notion of superlativity.
Nominal which they qualify.
They have no Structure,
and do not display the feature of Concord.
They are,
e. g.:
ufaachal
ujinal
fas/farr
=
=
217
brilliant
charcoal
white
black
8 (4)
deep blue
dark green
crimson red
fall
to-. the brim
midnight
ukolal nhat
b6p
uf8lal
ujankal fuu
ch= lij-.
myengFe-s jolakok
8. A :6
Onomatopoeia
J--LizWParticles
are merely
Some exponents
of this
an imitation
kapak
kab6l/kabat
kaf6l
liviglivigliu
b8lab8lab&la=
acanDles:
sound
sound
sound
sound
sound
of
of
of
of
of
a 'matchet hitting,
a omething)
the ground)
a stick hitting
a person falling)
through the'air)
a stick flying
death-rattle)
a na, - ja
& he
said
bul
it
ptibi
matchet
kapak
"whack"
Hd 11
it (head) with
yer
au& he fell
(and he fell
ja : Bglabglabgla.
xi uxia ,au& he said
on gTound
....
on the ground with a death-rattle)
8.4
:7
Certain
Paralinguistic
her
-matchet:
"whack". )
-
Rb 130
Clitics
Particles
8 (4)
8. A :8
Particles
of Foreign-Origin
of foreign
origin
finishes")
action,
(from
ba "past"
The particle
may follow
ba, "past"
and Portuguese
Group to indicate
acaba, "he
completed
e. g:
ba
ba, - x8ox
they call-not(past)
(If
they don1t call
katimu
....
name-your
your name
r'"I
a number of loan-words of "adverb" type, mainly from
There are further
Wolof,, or Mandinka, which function
Creole, Frenchq English,
unstably in
in the Sentence or Adjunct in the Clause, e. g;
the position
of Introducer
apre
rek
(from French)
(from Wolof)
"certainly"
"after"
219
9
CHAP-TER
9.
THE STEMS
Contents
-page:
Stems
Introduction
-The
Structure
9
9.1
Affixative
Nominalizing
1.1.2
Verbalizing
1.2
1.3
Agglutinative
2.1
'Reduplicated
2.1.1
Fully
221
223
24
224
225
226
226
227
229
229
2.1.2
(Stems
Type Iaa)
Stems
reduplicated
(Stems
Ilab)
Type
Stems
Partially
reduplicated
2.2
Serializing
Function
9.2 :
230
230
Stems Class 1
230
Stems Class la
230
1.2
Stems Class lb
231
1.3
Stems Class le
231
Stems Class 2
231
220
9 (0)
CHAPTER 9.
9.0
THE STEMS
Introduction
the language,
but pertains
the Verbs, the Nouns, and the Adjectives.
only to three categroies:
It
has been created to highlight
the optional
intermediate
stage bet7een
the Morpheme Rank and tho Word Rank, at which certain Roots combine
Morphemes, Roots or Affixes,
be changed
and may as a result
The changes taking place at ,the Stem Subwith regard to their function.
to Nouns and Verbs (for Adjectives
rank relevant
see below), may be
diagrammed as follows:
with
other
throughout
this
chapter
sc. Lexical
221
Verb Root
9 (0)
to function
to function
Class of Affixes,
in either
ROOT
NOUN ROOT:
VERB ROOT:
WORD
bonax
ubon "hunger"
bonax "to be hungry"
xefi
xef
Pxefi
xef
mlik
lik
liki
liki-
T)
AM
VERB ROOT:
"to sit"
"seat"
"water"
"to fetch water"
i "water-pot"
Am
"to bite$'
oromaj "tooth"
romar
nar8mar "nag"
"to nag"
rOmar
,
f ex
"to follow"
"back"
ufex
fexar
bfexar
"friend"
fexar
"to be ixiendly's
ROOT: fex
and function
STEM
r8maj
NMRAL
unit
the
e. g.:
bon
in the diagram,
symbolized
of Affixes
ni_g
nigesaan
"to
jZ
p..
nigesaan,
kanigesaani
222
manner:
look"
"to
unlock
"key"
9 (1)
CHAPTER 9.
STITA STRUCTURE
1.
SECTI&
as follows;
may be'diagrammed
STBM
FL-exTGraM_
Both Elcments
are obligatory.
Elements:
It
will
under
Manifesting
Lexical
Grammatical
Derivational
Suffix C-lass 1 (10.2
Derivational
Suffix Class 2 (10.2
Verb Root Class (10.1 :1
Noun Root Class (10.1 : 3
Neutral Roo Class (10.1 : 2),
Noun Class k8. '2 : 2.2)
Stem Class 2 (9.2 : 2)
to
be convenient
one heading
be Verbalizing
or
the
restrictions':
can be only
in
deal
this
Verb
the-Stem
the
with
Section.
the Verb
Nominalizing
we may diagram
as follows;
Classes:
Noun,
While
the
Verb
or Mixed.
Types
on the
and Adjective
Stems Nominalizing,
Stems cannot
there
be Serializing,
Having
basis
these
of
are
only
Stems
of
course
-hvo further
and Adjective_Stems
restrictions
their
Constituent
in
mind,
Structure
9 (1)
Nominalizing
Categorizing
Verbalizing
Affixative
Non-categorizing
Mixed
- partially
Reduplicated
Agglutinative
fully
-Serializing
CITATION PARADIGM:
Ty-pe I. Affixative
(a) Categorizing
(b) Non-categorizin
(c) Mixed
it
to 11
rukesar "leave some',
(fm. nig "to lock")
kalligesaani
"key"
(aa) NominalizinE
karaani
(ab) Verbalizin
Amlutinative
T7me II.
(a)
(b)
I'mugIf
Reduplicated
(aa)
partially
urenchench
(ab)
fully
kaliklik
Serializin
uko-oxax
"cockroach"
(fm.
uko
pxax
9.1
: 1- Affixative
The featu=c
of
the
9.1
: 1.1
The feature
is
affixative
Darivational
Formula:
Stems (Stems
Lex
Affix
Catelzorizina
Affixes
of the De=ivational
Gra=atical
Element.
Formula:
Lex
Class
Stems (Stems
+c tegorizing,
"aninnnIll
"grass")
Affix
Class
: the
presence
manifesting
the
of
one of
Grammatical
the
Affixes
Element.
2
11ypeIa)
is realized
IIdrawuate:
Type I. )
in
realized
Class (10.2)
?)
rench
(.fm. lik
"lightning"
"snake"
(Ln.
in
2a
ON
9 (1)
9.1
: 1.1.1
Nominalizing
Stems
(Stems
Type Iaa)
rThe Nominalizing
Stem
Iaa
Lex
Gram
Der. Aff.
2aa
Example-1:
pLiki
"water-pot"
mlik "water"
PLI-11-"Viellil
1
lik''Ito
fetch
water!,
-1
Example 21:
225
9 (i)
t 1.1.2
Verbalizing
The feature
.
Affixes
of
+verbalizinp
9.1
the
is
Derivational
in
realized
Affix
Lex
Formula:
Class
: the presence
of
20 (10.2
2.1. *
the.,
one of
2ab
Example:
wara
"to
be good"
The feature
Affixes
Stems
Non-cater-orizing
- 1.2
is, realized
+non-categorizingr
of
the
2b (10.2
: 2.2)
Affixes,
the
member being
Affix
Derivational
first
(Example
(Stems
2); it
Class
of
in
of
; the presence
(Example
(10.2
2ac
: 2.1.21)
an exponent of
Class 2b. (Example
226
1), or C2ar
a. Comple. of
may be realized_ln.
member being
an exponent
Type Ib
Class
3)-
1, and the
second-
9 (1)
Lex
Fo=ula:
Example
Gram : 1)er. aff. 2*ac/Der. aff. 2b/Der. af. 1/`)er. aff. 1 Der. aff. 2b',
1-.
animx "wife-to-yrife
in a
relationship
polygamous household"
bnim "ma=iagell
Exam-ole 2:
btexax
ufex
I fexar
"friend"
fex
"back"
with"I
"follovil'
3:
ace-m-ole
12Mhe-sar
irul-. esar
$,leftovers"
ruk
9.1
: 1.3
The feature
of
+mixed
the Derivational
(10.2
Class
2ac
.---A
leave
11-coleave
food"
lochindl:
Type Ic)
in : the
realized
Class 1 (10.2
Affix
is
"to
9 (1)
Formula:
Lox
Rxamnlo:
I
"key"
kanigesaani
naEes-'Ito
Vote:
"to
nires.
It
Type of Mixed
and the
Affix
Nigesaan
synonyms.
lock"
literally
means
to be unlocked".
cause
A opecial
-P-,
LaI
"to
unlock"
Element
Grammatical
Class
Stems is
Element
2b (10.2
: 2.
the
manifested
fts
Structure
Root
228
Numeral
by Numeral
by Derivational
Adjective
Numeral
Ordinal
Affix
Root
Adjective
Class
Class
Stem.
3 (10.1
7)
9. (')
Examples,:
(*)
"the
natebanxen
second person"
Concord Prefix Class 1 (human being)
na ........
teb.....
Numeral Root Class B
fitwoll
"to be two"
anx.. Der. Aff. Class 2ac
"causing to be tivol,
an Der. Aff. Class 2b
9.1
:2
The feature
is
+apglutinative
i. tem manifesting
the
(10.1)
a Root
either
Stems (Stems
Agglutinative
Type II)
in
rQalized
Grammatical
Element.
or a whole
word,
of a lexical
presence
The lexical
item
may be
(8.2
1)
Noun
or
;
(8.1
a Verb
Agglutinative
: the
as Reduplicated
specified
2.2)
and
Serializing.
9.1
Reduplicated
: 2.3.
The feature
to whether
is
+reduplicated
item
lexical
Stems--(Stems
in
the
the
Reduplicated
9.1
- 2.1.1
both
lexical
the
T_ype IIa)
in
realized
Gra=atical
item
is
and the
reduplicated
Fully
reduplicated
: the
Lexical
fully
specified
(Stems
presence
of
the
Elements.
samie
kccording
or partially,
as;
Type lIaa)
Ibcample:
lichlichan
uliaf
gbody
one shal: e-shake-cause-to
(we'make our bodies shake and shake)
(Notes lich
"shake")
2.1.2
Partially
redunlicated
E 50
(Stems
Type lIab)
Example
urenchpnch
cockroach
Other
Ordinal
Numeral s are: -chak "first";
jenxen
"third""
Laa.
-%wa
'Tourth";
11-Pifth";
"sixth";
-baakenden
-_Daqjenxen
-nhesnaxen
"eight"
-ivasenxen
229
9(2)
_9.1
-. 2.2
The feature
or Verb
Stems (Stems
Serializing
is
+serializing
Class
in
realized
the
manifesting
Tjpe_IIb)
-. the-preaence
Grammatical
of
the
Noun Class
Element.
Example:
ukomaal
animal-walk
(hippopotamus)
uko2Lax
animal-grass
(snake)
urI
desiring-rain
(Senegal Coucal)
ST2M MICTIOTI
MUTTER 9. SECTION 2.
According
ukoi)ula
-animal-cravil
(snake)
in their
to differences
function,
as follows:
9.2 :
_1
.
Stems Class 1
Stems Class
They are
2.2
.
Stems Class
(8.2
1 manifest
divided
accordingly
: 1.1
the
Stem Class
la
manifest
Element
Source
Stem Classes
into
pjiki
la,
Adjectives
lb-and
or Verbs.
1c.
la
the
Source
Element
: 2.2.1.2).
Mcamp2,e:
of Nouns,
"waterpot"
230
of
the
Structured
Nouns
9(2)
9.2
lb
Stem Class
1.2
ufaachal
_3
(8.2
"white"
Stem Class le
Verb (8.1
Example:
Ul
j8kE;
a
he learn-cause-him
(he teaches him)
9.2 :2
Stem Clans 2
the Lexical
"key"
Type
Class
.
la
lb
Iaa
Ic
le
Iab,
Ic,
12.
ICIIa
Ilaa
_]
231
10
CHAPTER 10.
THE MORPMES
Contents
z
236
The Roots
10.1
Verb Roots
236
236
Verb Roots
Auxiliary
1.1
1.1.1
Auxiliary
236
1.1.2
Auxiliary
237
1.2
Aspective
1.3
Lexical
Verb Root
237
Verb Root
237
Neutral
2.1
Roots
(Classification
Noun Root
240
Article
240
Adjoctive
7'
241
Demonstrati-, e Root
242
Specifier
Root
242
10
Possessor Root
243
11
Distal
243
12
Interrogative
1.
2.
2
2.1
2.1.1
.
2. 1.2
2a
2aa
2ab
2.1.3
2ac
2.2
2b
)238
Lex.
V.
P.
R.
llcut..
of
and
240
Root
Root
240
Pronoun Root
The Derivational
10.2
238
Root
243
244
Affixes
Class maintaining
244
Affixes
246
Nominalizing
Verbalizing
Neutral
246
Affix
Transitivizing
2.2.1
T4e reciprocal
2.2.2
The factitive
2.2.3
The benefactive
order
(ist
suffix)
order suffix)
(2nd, 4th,
Affixes
suffix
suffix
232
246
suffix
246
.
246
5th order)
-el
248
-and
248
-ar
249
:L
10.2
2.2.4
The passive
2.2.5
The causative
2.2.6
The instrumental
suffix
250
-a
suffix
250
-an
suffix
251
-iia
10.3
252
10.4
The Inflexional
253
Affixes
(Concord Prefixes)
Nominal Prefixes
253
254
Number
1.2
Lexical
1.2.2
1.2.3
The lexical
1.2.1
256
Classes
Classes
259j
261
261
1.2-3.1
Diminution
262
1.2-3.2
Magnification
263
1.2-3.3
Typification
263
1.3
2
Semantic Classes
263
Prefixes
265
Verbal
2.1
Infinitive
Prefixes
265
2.2
Identifier
Prefixes
266
2.3
Aspective
2.4
Integrating
Verbal
Prefixes
268
Prefix
268
268
Suffixes
3-1
Imperative
3.2
Negative
Suffix
Suffix
233
269
269
10
CHAPTER 10.
THE MORPHEMES
Following
Bolingers
as Source
morphemes
(1968,56),
usage
the
morphemes are
Where words
or System morphemes.
classified
have been
for
instance
System
Elements,
and
structurally
(Source
(System
Source
the
the
Verb
System),
Source)
Noun
the
and
+
(i.
the
Roots
the
Source
Elements
those
e.
which manifest
morphemes are
in both Noun and Verb) an& the System morphemes are those which manithe
fest
System Elements
(i. e.
Concord
and Negative
Suffixes
in
Imperative
this
a further
classification
In
and grammatical.
carry
lexical
modify
that
grammatical
in
the
Source
into
divided
chaxt
general
meaning
meaning
and grammatical
of which
are
those
lexical
which
which
may be explained
on
merely
in
as indicated
be classified
below:
Gramnatical
Lexical
Root's
Source
Derivational
Pronoun Suffixes
System
Although
and
those
are
morphemes
morphemes
terms.
Noun,
of morphemes into
lexical
or the meaning
the
classification
terms,
in
Prefixes
the headings
Inflexional
axe different
Affixes
Affixes
(Bolinger-cross-classifies
the
the
independence)
to
their
degree
resulting'
of
according
morphemes
Bolinger's
in
to
those
four categories
morphemes
of
correspond
59). The morphemes are described in this chapter
diagram (ibidt
the
diagram,
in
to
the
as
in four sectionst
sections
corresponding
follows:
1. Roots
2. Derivational
Af-fixes
3- IronounSuffixes
4- Inflexional Suffixes
The Aspective
the Source
somewhat anomalous. They are Source morphemes, manifesting
to assign any
Verb, but it is difficult
Element of the Ancillary
independent
lexical
234
Auxiliary
Verb Roots do
10
however
sake,
ca=7
they
are
all
Some morphemes
which
function
Manjako,
lexical
independent
described
axe not
with
included
as monosyllabic
and are
described
meaning,
in
the
in
words,
Chapter
other
this
which
so,
for
Roots
Chapter.
are
convenience'
in
Section
1.
relatively
few in
8.
235
10
CHAPTIM 10
10.1
SECTION 1,
Verb
:1
(1)
The Roots
Roots
Auxiliary
The Auxiliary
Verb Roots
Verb (8.1
in the Auxiliary
- 3.201).
or +negative
.1-positive
identical
its
with
realization
the realization
in
roox "used not to" is identical
with roox meaning "(he) did not");
is so-much "fossilized"
other cases the realization
as to make the identi(e.
fication
of morphemes scarcely possible
g. kaxe "no .longer"),
and in
Verb Root,
one case the negative feature is contained within the Auxiliary
no part of which bears any resemblance to the realizationa
of the +ie-atLV_e
feature elsewhere (ri "not").
Some of the Auxiliary
their
10.1
according
to
usage,
see 6.1
: 1.1.1
Mie Auxiliary
Type Ha
(Basic
Auxiliar
their
,y
Verb Roots
Ancillary
function
t 2.4.1
in
(Verbal,
Verb Roots
Class
Verb,
Class
I manifest
8.1
the
Types
For
examples
Group).
1
the
: 1.2.1).
236
of Verb.
Source
Element
They are
the
of Verb
following:
10
+positive:
(ya)
a
"when" (in
"used to"
ro
free
(1)
fluctuation)
+nejMtive:
bixe
kaxe (kakaxe, kaxexe
(nexexe,
nexe
nekaxe
(rix)
ri
*nek
roze
*rOr
10.1
: 1..l.. 2- Auxiliary
"after
all
"no longer"
"not yet"
(rix
"not"
ri
"meant -o,
Verb Rodts-Class
not"
, (in free fluctuation)
(in free fluctuation)
and Subj.,
with Infinitive
elsewhere)
but no riore"
+positive:
*am
*I-ak
ama
kaka
ron
rora
ruka
*ror
*ruk,
10.1 : 1.2
Aspective
"still"
"again"
"from time to time" f "by and -by"
"before"
"come to"
Verb Root
10.1
1.3
supervening
ka
continuous
ro
completive
'Lexical
Verb Root
Grammatical
237
sO)
10
Source
Root
Lex:
Adj. St.
Source
Verb
AM
Lex:
Vb. St.
a-rom
tap
Ix
p.K8maj
tooth
he wao-bitten
a
he
tan
hit
Ix
a
-he
t. nna
Ytas-:hit
ka.a Max
a kick
UIX
fl -yi ng
Hew
he
Lex:
Poun St.
a- x8ma
he bit
Ach
fhch
a
it is white
nig
iliac 0
lzaaigesaard
he locks
he
tuilocks
key
Root manifests
The Neutral
(8.1
1 1.1)
the
Source
Noun (8.2
the
and of
Element
Lexical
kdfachal
white
Roots
lieutral.
10.3. :2
(1)
Stems (except
of
Elements
the
of
Verb
Lexical
: 2.2)
the
manifest
aml es
Source:
Verb
Root
a- lik
lik
10.1
2.1
Roots
Class
lie
married
marria, -,e
co-wife
Class
of Lexical
function
the
following
functioning
ka
naam
baand
Roots
water-pot
nanimx
the
1
v;a--te viell
bnim
(5-3)t
into
pliki
nim
their
Transitivity
pjLik
a-
Classification
to
According
divided
mlik,
Yetched-water
he
rilm
Lex:
11oun Stem
Source:
Noun
functioning
sOb
f ux
no:
nak-
in
the
Lexical
Verb Roots
and Neutral
Roots
Types
of Clauses
as listed
various
Verb Roots
and Neutral
Roots
may be
Classes:
in
the
11on-agentive
Clause,.
therewas,
there is
it seems, it seemed
it has come (i. e. the
in
it
the
Processivo
rains
the
the
it
blows
wind)
sun) shines
is noon
238
Clause
time
(5.3
(5.3
1);
has come)
'- 4);
e. g.
under
lo
Roots Class 3
functioning
chi
yer
xef
'Roots
Class 4
Roots Class 5
Roots Class 9
exist
fall
sit
: 6) e. g.
anx
rich
"be open"
"be shut"
in the Qualitative
Clause (5-3
: 8);
functioning
functioning
functioning
functioning
xend
laang
YAI*
functioning
pe
Roots Class-10
e. g.
functioning
fing
kob
win
Roots Class 8
,
5);
Clause (5-3
ya
xep
baand
Roots Class 7
Clause (5-3
in the Resultative
nhikex
yamp
jank
Roots Class 6
in the Stative
functioning
niam.
sinx
(11/
e. g.
be thin
be Iong
be re(I
in the I"'inetic
Clause (5.3
9);
-*
e. g.
go
go on
arrive
in the Directive
Clause (5-3 : 15)
(5-3
16); e. g.
Instrumental
the
Clause
and
kill
hit
see
17); e-uin the Beneffactiv6 Clause (5-3
give
deny
take from
in the Respective
surpass
in the Middle
Clause (5.3,:
Clause (5.3
1B);
19);
eg.
e. g.
be confused
tremble
in the brgative
Clause (5-3
24);
e. g.
be full
be half-full
be too full
in the Descriptive
be equal to
seem to be
be called
239
Clause (5.3
: 31);
e. g...
10
10.1
(1) .
Noun Root
:3
The Noun Roots manifest the Source Element of the Noun (8.2 : 2.. 2) or
(8.2 :. 2-4) and the Lexical Element of the Stems (except Type Iaa)
Adjective
0).
Exampless
Sources
Noun
Root:
ubon
hunger
nkonch
pnkonc. h
middle
Lexi
Stem
'Verb
bonax
be-hungry
bon
10.1
Sources
Adjective
bn1conch
the middle
one
-mil
"thousand"
-sent
"hundred"
-nIMLa
Root
Article
10.1
_5
The Article*Root
(8.2 : 2.1).
Class manifesto
Root is
The Article
-lon
10.1
AdJective
The Adjective
(8.2 : 2.4).
Example:
-ties
napax paLies
child small
(a small child)
"ten"
the followingt
"one, a certain"
Root
the'Source
"small"
240
(1)
10
10.1
Numeral Root
:7
their
diagram.
of the allomorphs
Allomorphs
appearing
is illustrated
in figure
A function
to
in the follovring
in the Numeral Word
("cardinal"
in the
numbers) and allomorphs appearing in figure B function
Thus -tgbar/-t8b
"two", are in free fluctuation
Stem ("ordinal"
numbers),
for the cardinal
numberl but only -L8b occurs in the ordinal.
-lon
1,
-lole
-t8bax
112
-t8b
-waanx
I11 -ivaaj
-baaker
-baak
1
-nh&n
paaj
5
6
8
-was
B
Note:
The ordinal
"first"
is
formed
from an adjective
root
"first".
-chak-
Exam7)les:
banhaan batgbar/batgb
tv6:;,
people
(two people)
banhaan bawaanx
three
people
(three people)
banhaan babaaker
people four
(four
people)
nhaan nat8banxen
pexscn second
(the second person)
nhaan nawaajenxen
person third
(the third person)
nhaan nabaakenden
PEram fourth
(the fourth
person)
Note:
The Numeral
"one"
a
na - xAp
ulole
and he
went one
(and he went oxice for
all)
241
force
in
the
following:
10 (1)
kati
auprim
and he raised voice
-(and he cried aloud)
Hb 131
plole
one
kamint
kalon
running one
(run very fast)
Demonstrative
10.1
Hb 133
Root
The Demonstrative
Word (8.2 1 2.6)
(Example 2);
for
the function
of Thematic
in realization
The Demonstrative
of the Demonstrative
Roots -i
and -8n
features.
Roots are:
-i
"this"
-8n
"that"
-an
"that
out. of sight"
Mcampless
Dem
1.
2.
3-
10.1
Hb 26
naxong ni
this
vioitor
Marker
u- re p!
pre Pj
lie ate this
food this
(food which he ate)
Prep
ri pyonggi
17nhammock
(in a hammock)
Specifier
:9
Root
(8.2
The Specifier
-m8nx
A 20
Root
The Specifier
2-7).
Eb 83
manifests
"the
the
Root
Source
Element
is-the
following:
of
the
Specifier
Word
said"
Ebc-qmple:
Mbon,
Well,
(Well,
Kanhaay
Ranhaay
*the
kapAnx
that
mentioned
Sickly)
said
k8n
that
Hb 91
242
10
10.1
1 10
Possessor
Root
The Possessor
Root
(8.2
The Possessor
s 2.8).
(1)
Class
manifests
Roots
-minh
"mine"
-Ich
"belonging
the
are
Source'Element
the
the
of
Possessor
followingt
to"
Exami3le i
ka - chi
uf8ri
be
dinner
will
(the dinner
will
10.1
1 11
Pronoun
Adverb
Pronoun
Distal
Pronoun
The Distai
Rb 58
wtchu xari
yours today
be yours today)
Root
Root
manifests
the
(8.2
The Dista
Pronoun
Root
is
-a
"3rd person"
the
Source
Element
of
manifest
the
Source
the
Structured
Element
of
followingt
ExamT)lo t
Upit
Sand-fly
(Band-fly
10.1
t 12
kar6mb
ape
wul
pxim
him(Mosquito)
thickness
log
she surpasses
him in the thickness
surpasses
of her legs)
Root
Interrogative
The Interrogative
Root is
The Interrogative
2-4)
the following:
"question"
. -BM
Example
Achinxu
Companion-your
ahe
chi
is
E 67
x8m?
were
243
the
10 (2)
CHAPTIM10
The Dorivational
SECTION 2
The Derivational
Affixes
Affixes
are suffixes
which manifest the Grammatical
Element of Stems Type 1. They are divided into classes according to their'
influence
between other grammatial
on the syntactic
relationships
existing
Affixes
these syntactic
of Class 1 do not affect
relationships,
is in the extension (or on the contraz-j,
Their only contribution
limitation)
They
of the area of meaning carried by the root to which they are affixed.
label:
Class maintaining.
are given the traditional
units.
the syntactic
of Class 2, on the ot4er hand, do affect
relationbetween other grammatical units.
They axe given the
ships existing
label:
Class changing.
"Llhey are further
traditional
divided into subAffixes
to the extent
according
classes
influence
syntactic
the nominal
or verbal
in
features
that
in their
realized
("Transitivizing"
Affixes.
are
The Derivational
the
of
Transitivity
They are
here
means also
Component
therefore
termed
"passive,.,,
may be diagrammed
influence
presence.
Affixes
For example,
in the Verb.
Rank,
Clause
may function
The
influence.
syntactic
of affixes
They influence
Rank.
of their
at
Rank
Clause
Transitivizing
"benefactive",.
)
etc.
as follows:
Class maintaining
Class changing
Hote:
10.2
,
For
ordering
ordered.
-
11
Class
of Verb
maintaininir
affixes
Categorizing
Transitivizing
see 8.1
suffixes
Affixes
12;
(Deivational
only
Affix
Verb
Class
suffixes
are
1)
10 (2)
same order.
Examples t
( Lnd)'
repeating
,
a - x8pand upi
he took
the goat
(he took the goat)
undoing
(physical)
mex
a- bual
he covered house
(he covered the roof
ahe
(he
fej
pchap
' carved fetish
carved a fetish)
ahe
ingi
nij
washed clothes
undoing
a- x8pandand, unkanel
he took-also
sheep
(he also took the
sheep)
(-. ts)
with
thus
ahe
the roof)
a- fej s
pchap
.
he chipped-off
fetish
(he chipped pieces of wood off
ingi
a- nij. 2L,
he washed-off clothes
(he washed the mud off
the f,
the clothes)
(-ts)
-(notional)
amp
a-i
he took-hand
(he took him by the hand)
ahe
straw)
a- buales
mex
he uncov`ered house
(he took the straw off
ajamp. 2.sa
he pardoned
i. e. (he undid the
(111b80)
offence)
'(Hb 113')
pokes
he re: Cu-sed strenuously
i. e. (he undid the. matter
by his
pok
refused
refusal)
(7eLllh)
achaxenker
he died-as-if-to-himself
(he feigned
death)
chax
died
apaoximating
(E TO
(-I)
ap8n
he vient-out
(he left)
a
na - yelin
&
she
sent-me
(and she sent me)
ap8ni
he vienT-out
(he left
and is
a na- yeliin
.& she sent-here-me
coming)
245
A 11)"
10 (2)
Class
10.2
:2
10.2
t 2.1
(Derivational
Affixes
Class
2)
AM
(Derivational
Affixes
Class
2a)
changing
Categorizin
Affixes
The Categorizing
10.2
Affixes
1 2.1.1
VeAailizing
(Derivational
Affixes
Affixes
the
manifest
Stem (9.1
Nominalizing
Nominalizing,
aret
Nominalizing
The Nominalizing
xes
Affix
Grammatical
They are
: 1.1.1).
and Neutral.
Class_? L
Element
follovingt
the
the
of
.
=a
-al
Examples:
10.2
pliki
: 2.1.2
Affix
The Verbalizing
Stem (9.1
: 1.1.2).
(Derivational
Affix
Verbalizing
is
the
Affix
Grarrmatical
the
manifesto
It
blacksmith;
-
naxakaj
= water-pot;
following:
lst
us8bal
Class
Element
order
Verb
- rain
2ab)(lst
of
the
order
sf*
Verbalizing
suffix:
-a
Examples:
10.2
ahe
: 2.1.3
uyala;Iahe
grows
Neutral
Examples:
YAxa,
io-good
(Derivational
Affix
may manifest
9-1 : 1-3)-
Class 2ac)(Ist
the Grammatical
Its
occurs with
-enx
-anx
occur
with
-enx-anx
-end
occurs
only
with
occurs
with
other
roots
having
finall
the following:
/m/
Root
lof
Noun
ulof
thirst
Verb
a-lofenx
he is thirsty
bon
ubon
hunger
a- bonZ
he is hungry
lim
uliE; i
shade of a
iiving
thing
a- lim
he covers
246
order
suffix:
allomorphs-are
-X
.-ax
Affix
Root
baak
"four"
10 (2)
: 2.2
10.2
Transitivizing
The affixes
changing
Verb suffixes
class
Affixen
(Derivational
the Transitivity
relationships
may be selected.,,
2nd order
Affixes
within
Class 2b)
the Clause, are
suffixes
reciprocal
-1 occurs
4th order suffix
-el/-1
following
/r/,
/I/
and
instrumental
-na,
5th order
suffix
factitive
benefactive
causative
passive
-and
-ar
Er-amples follow
combinations
of these suffixes:
(For morphophonemic change of /A/ to /a/ in suffixes
see 2.1 : 5-4)
of possible
Examples:
thmbander. - 'Work hard"
thmb
and
ar
2.
x9pancla:
x8p
and
a
neelers
me
el
ar
j8tela. j8t
el
a
be heavy, hard
cause to
for oneself
"be led"
to go.
cause to
(passive)
"know each other"
to "know
mutually
for their own'benefit
"stacked
to place on
mutually
(passive)
(10-4
this suffix
the
may be conflated
with
negative suffix
-E%:
jokanex
in:.
jokaanx
"he
teach,
does
resulting
or:
e.
g.
not
-aanx;
247
10 (2)
I'Mther
bofelen:
to unite
mutually
cause to
bof
el
an
"be rained
s8bara:
on".
to rain
to rain-wet
(passive)
o8b
ar
a
7-
together"
chumana:
"be filled"
chum
-an
a
to fill
cause to
(passive)
These suffixea
10.2
will
The reciprocal
: 2.2.1
The reciprocal
Roots
of
suffix
Classes
conflated
now be discussed
7-
-el
10.
the
either
with
nuffix
in detail.
-el
is
a 2nd order
It
seldom
suffix.
by itself,
stands
benefactive
hffixed
be
may
It
suffix
but
the
-ar,
mostlY
passive
to
is
suffix
Directive
factitive
In
this.
it
the
the
suffix
shape
mutates
or
-an.
(5-3 :- 17) Clauses into Middle-transitive
(5-3 1 15) and Benefactive
Clauses (see 5-3
25)inner-transitive
-a,
or
Examples:
kabuab
bamp.Rl(*)
ahe softened-up
run-palm-branch
(He softened
the run-palm
branch
by repeatedly
it)
hitting
8n
ka
A
niamlen
wi
xmaal,
,
lose-reciproo.
the-one
Hm, Hare
you will
-cause-to
(Hm, Ilare, you are the one (of the two of you) who lopt)
10.2
t2.2.2.
The actitive
The factitive
Roots
of Class
Kinetic/Directed
suffix
suffix
-and
b mutating
Clause
is
a 5th
-and
order
It
may be-affixed'to
Clause (5-3
10)in'60o a
suffix.
the Kinetic/Non-directed
(5-3
: 11)
Hb 85
(Example
1).
It
may also
248
the
be affixed
10 (2)
to
the
the
root
is
see", which
Clause (where rrin
Directive
(5-3
Clause
"to
win
(Example
: 30)
the
one of
Class
to transform
a Double-transitive
into
may occur)
7 Roots,
2).
Mcam-ple
s
1.
a- chi 7d katukand
undl
hyena it
was in running-with
(Hyena was running away with
2.
ma - winand
I
saw-carrying-away
(I saw a cat carrying
undazli uyaax
cat
rat
away d rat)
The benefactive
10.2 : 2.2.3
B 20
ikyamax
meat
the meat)
suffix
-ar
to
is
5th
It
be
affixed
a
suffix
order
suffix,
may
-ar
(or
(5-3
4)
Classes
2
the
Processive Clause
Roots of
$
or 3, mutating
Clause (5-3 : 15) (EXamP10 1),
Stative Clause (5-3 : 5)) into a Directive
The benefactive
decided partly
of the mutated
based on semantics,
restrictions
collocational
danger of ambiguity,
be little
although both processes
identical,
starting2
Type of Clause,
this,
To. illustrate
this
appear to be
mutate a Directive
we shall
Clause by affixation
of
suffix:
Directive
Jon aJohn he
'Directive
Jon
aJohn he
The lexis
of
the
Examples:
though
Clause
Benefactive
j6ng
cooked
Jon aJohn he
Clause
Middle
fing
killed
Predicae
their
j8nCgx
(something
cooked
fingar
killed-himself,
the
type
of Mutation
Structure
is
249
for
someone)
Clause
Jon
aJohn he
defines
Surface
Clause
the
same,
in
their
the
above
Deep
two
10 (2)
is different.
Structure
of the first
The Subject
Mutation
is Actor,
Mutations
2.
10.2
ufux a- fux
blew
wind it
(The wind blew)
.
ufux a- fuxarul
bl4; w--on-him
wind it
(The wind blew on him)
fing
unkambe
wundkai
pig
we - shall kill
(We shall kill
a pig)
E
34
finggind
unkambe
wundkai
pig
we - shall kill-for-you
(We shall kill
a pig for you)
Jon a- wambax
gtie-, v E 15
John he shoo'e--d-fxom-himself blow-flies
(John shooed the blow-flies
wuay from
himself)
The passive
: 2.2.4
suffix
is
5th
a
order suffix..
-a
It may be affixed
in the Operative
and mutates
the Operative
Clauses
Examplem
.
to Passive/Goal
CM 22 - 23
bupa
be beaten
to Passive/Reciient
Benefactive
Jon ka - fingar
kill-for
John will
(John will
kill
Note: -Passive
: 2.2.5
unkambe;
gul
them pig
a pig for them)
Mutations
which it
fingara
g
they-will
be-killed-for
(A pig will
be killed
are subject
The causative
and 9)
Mutations
ka - kame
bup bnim
bnim
ka - kaxe
ion
John will
will
no-more
no-more beat marriage;
marriage
(There will
be no more beating
in the marriage)
10.2
to Root-s
functioning
Directive
-a
to the restriction
unkambe
pig
for them)
E 24
at 5-3 : '23-
suffix-an
is
5th
It
Roots
be
to
a
order
suffix.
may
affixed
-an
in all Extensive Clauses except
or 12f functioning
transforms into Directive
Clauses (5-3 z 15).
250
10 (2)
Examples
Qualitative
to Directive:
Jon
a --yAmp2a
pchar
John he lengthens
rope
(John lengthened
the rope)
ion a- y&mp
John he long
(John is tall)
to Directive:
Kinetic
Jon
baand
aJohn he arrived
(John arrived)
Middle
Jon a- baandanul
John he arriv7e--cause-to-him
(John took him home)
kato
house
to Directivev.
Jon
n*am
aJohn he lost
(John was lost),
Ermative
Jon a- niaman
Tant
John he lost---cause-to Tant
(John caused Tant to be lost,
confused)
to Directive:
pigman a- anx
it
is-open
door
(the door is open)
to Directive:
Descriptive
Jon
aanxan
pleman
John he opened door
(John opened the door)
Tant
Jon a- naam
Tant
John he is-like
(John is like Tant)
Jon aJohn he
10.2 : 2.2.6
Tant
ki
katoul
ni
naaman
house- with this Tant.
be-]i-kehis
cause
(John makes his house look like Tant's)
The instrumental
The instrumental
suffix
-na
is
be
It
4th
a
affixed
order
suffix.
may
-na
Roots of Class 7 mutating the Directive Clause into an Instrumental
Clause (5-3 1 16).
suffix
ample -Mutation
ahe
re
eats
pre
rice
a. - rena
he
eats-with
(he eats
ride
251
pre
rice
with
kataam
spoon
a spoon)
to
10
the
are the 8th order Verb Suffixes manifesting
the NominalClause Complementj b=d the Nominal Suffixes manifesting
They are identical
Group Relator.
in all but the Ist pers. sg. -, and will
zerson
Set 1
lst
-inji
_u
3.r d
plural
Set 2
-in
2nd
singular
ul(*)
lst
excl.
-Ymnd
lst
incl.
-inja
2nd -
-ind
and Set 2
Examplesf
1. (set 1)
2. (Set 2)
a-
ii
a-
jiin
chi ub-8sinji
is
dog-my
is my dog)
he
laughed
he laughed-me
(he laughed at me)
ait
(it
chi ub8s
is
dog
is a dog)
ait
(it
this
suffix,
to the Semantic Class la,
item 'has
the specification
252
10
CHAPTER10.
Introduction
10.4 :0
The Inflexional
Affixes
Features
: 1);
Verbal
in three
sub-sections:
(10-4
2); and Verbal
prefixes
of various
section.
be discussed
will
(10.4
Nominal prefixes
(10.4
: 3).
suffixes
this
SECTION 4.
The affixes
Nom-. pref.
diagram':
Ranks
Word
Lexical/Semantic.
Number
in
of the
in the following
Component
Affixes
discussed
to the projection
are relevant
Ranks, as indicated
Components at various
in the affixes
Group
Sentence
Clause
Class
Person
Number
Vb. pref.
Lexical/6"emantic
Number
Class)
Mood
Tense
Polarity
Aspect
Vb. suf..
10.4 11
In
the
3.3,
Class
the
Polarity
Mood
(Concord Prefixes)
-Nominal Prefixes
Concord
Lexical
:3
Prefixes,
or Semantic
exponent
of
features
Class
may be Nominal
viz.,
manifested
in
the
or Verbal.
the
selection.
Components
are realized.
of
Class
of
in
This
of
253
of Number and-
As described
the Nominal
the
Nominal
the
exponents
Concord
same Concord
in
Sectior.
Group governs
Elements,
of
other
is
generally
Prefixes
Concord
overt'
in*each
-10
Noun Classes axe therefore
described in this section,
concording item.
rather than at 8.2 :2 where the Noun is described2 because the'same
to
Concord
Prefixes
selection
of
applies
other Word Classes which manifest
the Nouns.
Concord with
(8.2
the
System
Element
Nominals
manifest
of
: 1);
(8-30of
(8-4
Verbal
Nouns
Markers
Type
11
of
: 2.1.2);
of Prepositions
(8-4-: 4-1); and of Adverbs Type IIb (8.3 : 2.1.2.2).
They may also
the
Class.
because in this
forming
their
plural
similarly
also
form their
into
be divided
Each Set*of
having
includes
singular
variations
or mally
similarly,
in the singular.
those for
thc; vaxious
to Nominals(*).
Semantic Class is
of Number which relate
to the choice of Concord Prefix,
in that under certain condit -ions
relevant
(see 10-4 1 1.3) the Semantic Class overrides
the Lexical Class.
features
description
A detailed
of features
followsl
realized
Lexical
appears
on page 258.
10.4
: 1.1
Number
The features
(*)
For
features
of Number relating
254
to
the
Verbal
Group,
see 6.1
: 2.1.
10
I
non-coun
lective
col
f
(5d)
mass
-2
5)
-
(6)
neutral
term
(1
singular
(19 29 3)
plural
I-count
(4, -5)
singular
3 term
definite
plural'
indefinit6
From the above diagram it
in cleax
plural
that
"onell,
-lon
or generally
or that
the referent'
is a small, readily
known number. For
ascertainable
example in the Sentence "Bring the chairs here", -the-number of chairs
to is known or readily
ascertainable,
referred
plural,
so the definite
is used even in the absence of a Numeral.
Similarly
kuani "fingers"o
kk8s "eyes" etc. definite
plural
with such Nouns as I--,
On the other hand, for such Nouns as mko-11trees'19
is normally used.
kxefi
"chairs",
signifies
that
the referent
is an unquantifiable
in the prefix
such as groundnuts,
number of objects,
and is realized
(indefinite
"groundnuts"
e. g. s MDiex
plural
- rarely used), uDiex
(indefinite.
"groundnu .ts" (collective
ixefi
"sto6lb"
plural),
plural);
u-,
in a rest-shelter".
The feature +mass, signifies
as
in the prefix
a liquid
or similar
substance, and is realized
referent
The feature +neutral
e. g: mkAr "palm oil";
mnir 1animal fat".
applie3
to only a few Houns which are described at 10.4 : 1.2.1.
uxefi-11seats
255
10
10.4
Classes
Lexical
: 1.2
A-Lexical
affixes
from only
the majority
of roots. may select affixes
(e.
has
the
Set
no other selection
nossibilit
DOS
root
g.
-b^s
Although
Set.
Set:
one Set,
Zb8s "dog")
pl.
ub8s,
sbme-roots
may select
one
affixes
c. a. 7oham:
e
Set:
t
_ __ J
Engli Ph meaning
plural
ringular
definite
*indefinite
ucham.
'gehxa
palm-nut
kacham
icham
procesoed palm-nut,
or palm. kernel
4a,
pcham
kcham
mcham
raw palm-nq'.
4b
beham
Ucham
mcham
palm-1-Irce
cluster
_-A
distinguishes
Halliday
grammatical
and lexical
terms ofpoxadigmatic
oppositions,
of morphemes into
general
that the classification
in
not
easy
,'lexical"
of
of
is
thesis
this
to
"entity"
entity
purportedly
Set:
maintained.
decide
which
the
since
while
root
part
represented
singular
nak-o
2a
2b
uko
ko
3
4a
kako
pko
bko
4c-
Tko
xj-,o
lexical
by the
a grammatical
of
ko merely
the main
la,
4b
In
term,
the
and it
is
lexical
next
appears
and grammatical,
oxv-mple, for
the. Noun is
ilv is
instance,.
"grammatical"
to have
is
and which
the meaning
4-
load, namely
the
is
by the
supplied
in broad
items, only
definition
prefix
of
which
-,,-h
hind
is
item:
-ol=al
definite
indefinite
English
-0Or oil
ani mal
thing
grCo
Gko
iko
kko
Gko
Object
mko
mko
stick,
urce
little
place
bead
th-ing
10
However, the membership of the Lexical
-orientated,
and arrive
true that most Nouns with
human referents
belong to Lexical Class 1, but
belonging to Class 5a, and bfexar
some do not, e. g: pchen 'Indighbour"
belonging
"friend"
Besides there
in i-)..
to Class 5b (forming plurals
included
Lexical
in thiS
Class (Nasiembaxi
belong
various objects which also grammatically
number of Nouns designating
The remaining Classes are so heterogeneous,
that one has to
to this Class.
group together
in Lexical.
"plantation
of",
e. g. kapiex
kafinhe "plantation
of groundnuts",
of sorghum", and in Lexical
(b-.
5b
Class
g- i-) where about 5% of Nouns have the meaning "group of"
"plantation
or "bundle of"
bmaani "bundle
for
diminution,
The features
257
10
singular:
1a
(n-/O-)
na-
2a
.b
mass:
definite
plural
Col.
-(indef
ba-(bk-/b-)
ba-(bk-)
a(W-)
U-
99(k-)
3
4a
U-
p-
p-
k-
M-
b-
b-
9-
M-
r-
9-
M-
p-
k-
i-
b-
9-
i-
M-
9-
b-
c
5a
M-
Xkce2-
ma-
tions
ba-
CD
(D
Cl)
(D
C+
C+
rn
(D
Ci.
Notes:
forms are alternative
1. The bracketed
described
mhere relevant
-places,
forms which
in'the
text.
occur
in
only
in Class 4 is merely
2. The repetition
of the singular
prefixes
Sets w, x, and y.
convenience of listing
The prefixes
listed
as exceptions
258
a fer,
for
10
Thel-Tembership
: 1.2.1
10.4
Lexical
the
of
Classes
Class 1
Its
in ba-.
of human, superSingular
is formed with the prefix
human and sub-human beings.
-na(sub-class
lb).
In Sub-class la the beings are
la) or a- (Sub-class
(Example
(exceptions
1)
Nouns
to
this
in
individuals
are
as
viewed
Example 21 denoting family relationships),
while in Sub-class lb they
Class 1 forms plurals
membership consists
(Example
holders
kinship
3)family
of a certain
or
status
are viewed as
An exception is a Noun of Class la where the collective
prefix
u-, is'
(Example
4)for
plural
used
Exam-oles:
"chief";
1.
nasien
2.
namaaka
3.
ab6k
4.
napax
"first
"child",
Class
Class
2 forms
Nouns with
jjanjn
wife";
daughter";
"son,
plurals
"God";
Nasiembaxi
upax
axa
"girl";
nam-p6li
"second
"younger
nalem
wife";
"third
wife";
Lix
"kinsman";
mixed,
although
sibling";
"children'14
Its
in. -.
animal
referents
(Class
the
uprefix
with
(Class 2b) (Ebcample 6).
belong
2a)
is
membership
to
Class
(Example
2.
Its
5) but
there
"dog";
uko
are
singulars
is
all
formed
one with
Ebcam,
oles:
"house";
5-
uniew
6.
ko "thing".
unkambe
"pig";
ub8s
1=-humanll:
"wilct animal";
Class
(Eample
in
i7).
kain
3
forms
Class
and plural
singular
forms'(Example
Nouns belonging to this Class have no plural
a-amDles:
7.
kamaanh "bag";
8.
kapaab, "forest-clea=ing";
karaani
"drinking
kambach
mu-11;
"circumcision".
Certain
8).
10
Class
The features
+definite
Indefinite
plurals
Sub-classes
three
definite
plural:
(Example
10);
are
plural
or +indefinite
formed
in
to
according
Sub-class
Class
m-.
the
the
of
(Example
9);
(Example
40
to
apply
4 may be divided
formation
4a,
and Sub-class
plural
this
Class.
into
singular
and
Sub-Class
4b
11).
ExamDles:
9.
Plele_
"orange";
10.
blele
"orange-tree";
11.
rx6b
"little
pcham "palm-nut";
"fruit";
pb8k
pjenj
beham "palm-tree".,
"egg";
211A_
"forest";
fish".
it
the choice
requires
class
The features
Indefinite
pluras
(and if.
singular
into
+definite
Dlural
are
formed
5c (m- g-)
In Sub-class
in
i-.
5b there
Example
plural
According
definite
applicable,
5a (2- h-) Example 12.
Sub-class
and Sub-class
or +indefinite
plural)
apply
the
to
Sub-class
5in
,
may be divided
5b
the
Example. 13;
14-
is a small
semantic
grouping
of human beings in
other human beings
their capacity
(Example 15).
Class
differences
it
prefix
to
forms
no plural
(Example 16).
Examples:
12.
-okes "eye";
13.
bjaam
14.
mtum "mouth";
15.
bfexar
16.
mlik
-Clans
-oxim "leg";
"a bundle
'If-ziend";
"water";
of
mtaa
pkanda
"gourd,
sugar-cane";
bnonx
"upper
in
bnhaasar
mta%7 "milk
story
"enemy";
(cuxdled)II;
calabash";
"game";
a house";
bchuobar
mlus
mrun
"Clay
'IbOY/girl
"milk
(fresh)";
flask";
friend";
'
mkgr
The Nouns in
adding
(Example
Class
a Quantifier
6 have
form.
Plural
is formed
only a singular
(Example 17) or a Demonstrative
Word in plural
18).
260
by
"oil".
10
0
lhcamles:
17.
xk-o "place";
18.
mnak "brother/sister
10.4
: 1.2.2.
"two places"
xko xt8b
(older)";
Foreign
(i. e. brother/sister
1, those)
Nouns
seem to continue
its
Lexical
(pl.
the
2nd
Class
with
prefix ujs-)
(Example
(or
into
fitted
Lexical
Class
2
21)
na-, Lexical Class 1,
and
if human). If what the Manjakos believe
is true, namely that they came
Other foreign
that
Yanjako prefix,
roots
FocamDles:
19.
20.
21
21.
22.
10.4
(pl.
"eagle"
=abankanlc
"green
unchilaank6n
blimb8n
"thistle"
The lexical
: 1.2.3
As was mentioned
with
which
babaabu)
these
the
above,
Concord
fm.
headed
load
Wollof
"plate"'
man"
sunbird"
of
some roots
Prefixes
"white
prato
the
Concord
have a low
may carry
potential
Prefixes
communication
a heavy
regularly
lexical
potential
load.
have multiple
and
Roots
affixation
10
of various
with Concord Prefixes
possibilities
was that of ko "something" which by, affixation
Source Element of at least
high
Such roots
Concord Prefix
Sets.
could
Nouns.
potential
communication
is small.
Prefixes
various
seven different
Sets.
Other roots
load carried
have a
by the Concord
3,4a,
Classes
Their
role
to give information
about the
in Folktales,
about. the fictitious
is
the referent,
of
or,
quantity
or
size
that
is
the
to say,
referent,
of
nature
yagnification
and Typification.
the
Diminution
of
of-Lexical
Classes
is
referent
with
the
by affixing
effected
4c or 6 to
4a,
occurs
usually
which
Diminution,
the referent's
Diminution
: 1.2.3.1
10.4
Sets of Lexical
the referent.
identifies
a root
Concord
of high
Prefix
the
one of
prefixes
potential
co=unication
Set of
another
Lexical
Class.
However, if'one
meaning other than "bag").
of the, Sets
the
above
occurs with -maanh then the additional..
of
affixes
is that the bag is a little
information
one:
Noun with
a basic
pmaanh
=aanh
xmaanh
"little
bag"
(pl.
mmaanh,
Examles:
/
ryinx
2L.c-8-bj
but
pyinx
'Qx8b
/ xvinx
/ELg_b
(pl.
(pl.
*)
m'Lyinx
mx6b)
(pl.
rmn6li
=381i
only
I dorm. ")
means "girls
The definite
plural
"a little
"little
fish"
mm-ogii
"little
(fm.
man"
(fm.
ux8b
girl"
ninx
some areas
"man")
ynavinxt
"fish"
(fm.
namp9li
"girl")
Minimation
10
Magnification
10. A : 1.2.3.2
Magnification
of Lexical
by affixing
effected
occurs with
usually
is
of the referent
Class 3 to a root
Exam-oles:
"big
impOli)
JO. A : 1.2.3.3
man"
fish"
"big
ix6b)
(pl.
kamp8li
"big
innx)
ka.vinx-(pl.
kax5b (pl.
girl"
Ty-pification
in the
more particularly
occurs only in the Polktales,
(of
Lexical
by
the
It
is
Fables.
affixing
1,nimal
effected
xprefix
Class 6) to a root which normally occurs with the Concord Prefix Set
the
is
2
Class
Lexical
of
and
referent
some
animal
character
whose
of
Typification
Fable.
ExaMDles:
"Hare' ' (fm.
-ar.aal
Y.,Igku "Bush-fowl"
Semantic Classes
10.4 -. 1.3
of Lexical
of Nouns selecting
noticedy'
have
criteria
e. g. Lexical
but
even in
Clause
but
of
exclusion
restriction
not
membership
Class
Lexical
points
at various
the
their
the
Grammar,
in
: 23 where
a human being.
not
5.3
by a referent
So it
is
There
the
to
upi
a-finga
umbanj
"the
uDi
a-finaa
unn-^l
a-finpa
Jon
*uni
263
Yet
followed
is
for
Complement
denoting
possible
is,
was
human beings,
as was observed.
division
a semantic
division.
denoting
referents
it
by semantic
entirely
an overlap,
a grammatical
may be manifested
but
is
Some Classes,
same Set.
almost
1 comprises
1 there
of
the
defined
Class
mentioned
SLr:
from
affixes
example,
in
an animal
to
a
a Passive/Goal
or a thing,
say. -
"the
YrLth a knife"
by a hyena"
"the
by John"
10
therefore
is
necessary
in addition
to the
Classes.
Lexical
features:
human
Inon-human
volitional
non-volitional
The featu=es
are =ealized
1
Class
Semantic
human
SO lb:
non-human
beings
volitional
comprising
SC la:
as follows:
entities
non-volitional
Examnles:
SO la
ninx
=ak
"older
bfexar
"friend"
sibling"
SC lb
^1
iihyanall;
r,,,
,.In
um-n6linch "horse"
SC 2
"tree";
bko
Nouns of
in
words
'Prefix
Class
Semantic
Concord
1 govern
them..
with
Lexical
of
ces
of Lexical
kamaanh
"stone";
alak
Class
la,
"bag"
the
Semantic
of
Concord
is
realized
selection
Class
and Semantic
la
Class
lb
in
Prefixes
in
Concord
in
Concord
Prefixes
Class 2a.
the
Concord
Prefixes,
Semantic
Class
overriding
Lexical
Class,
6)
10
Examples:
Class
Concord of Lexical
naDax nalole
one
child
(one child)
Concord
Class
Semantic
of
bairaanx
Rpax
Three
,
children
(three
children)
10.4
All
Verbal
:2
Prefixes
function
Prefixes
the Verbal
in the Identifier
of the Verbal
(10.4 : 2.2);
Elements
the Identifier
Prefixes
They are the following:
(10.4
Prefixes
Prefix
the Aspective
: 2-3); and the Integrating
(10.4 : 2-4).
They may occur in a Complex of Identifier
Prefix and
(h
Prefix
Prefix,
Aspective
Integrating
Prefix.
Aspective
only)
and
or
forms are discussed at 10-4 : 2.1.
in Infinitive
Prefixes
occurring
Group.
: 2.1
10.4
rThe
of
features
Set
the
nominal
and
+infinitive
(10.4
Prefixes
+infinitive
(see
x
the
reflects
Set
Infinitive
and
table
of
force
+nepative
+-positive
Concord
which
are
are
realized
Roefixes
the
however
Infinitive
realized
2.2).
265
at
in
10-4
: 1.2).
may have.
in
the
I >.
r efixes
Concord
This
The
Identifier
features
Prefix
10
Prefixes
Identifier
: 2.2
10.4
Prefixes
The Identifier
the Identifier
manifest
Elements
in the Verbal
Group as follows:
in Identifier
Sets- 1-8
12
in
Identifier
2
Identifier
12
in
3
-
Sets 2,4,9
Sets 4,10
Polarity
Moodq
Tensev
of
discussed in Chapter 6.
eto.
2('5)
Features
sinz.
-olur.
maNJI)
mavamda-
Nm_
km(op)aj a) kawund-e('3)
v=d-
lat inol.
2nd
gda-
9da-
3rd hum.
no n - h= .
ba-
lst
2nd
3rd
lst excl.
ja-*
d8-
(cp) a-
0-*
x/chax
x-
are
.6
kak(CP)g-
iNm0-
m0(cp)a-
wund-*
wund-
wund-
ja-*
d9-
Zda-
9da-
(CP)9-*
b0-
(op)a-
10
a
2Lng. lst
2nd
-olur. 2nd
all other
in these prefixes
realized
12
11
maNa-
m0-
kaNk-
Nm-
N0
a-
0-
ka-
ITOtes
/n/
N represents
occurring
2.
(cp)
realized
only before
plosives
Prefix.
before
the Identifier
Prefix
axe conflated
(10.4
Identifier
the
of
a consonant
(basic
: 1.2)
forms)
occurring
as follovis:
nasal),
and affricates.
a Concord Prefix
indicates
* indicates
as m, a,
(homorganic
etc
Prefix
and vowel,
consists
is
of a vowel only,
elided;
the
where
vowel
a complex of prefixes,
of
the
the
the -a-
Concord
Concord
or -A-
Prefix
Prefix
is
Consists
elided.
Set 10.
266
from
10
The features
+neg-ative
realized
or +imperative
are
of Set 7 as followss
Prefixes
in Identifier
+infinitive
and either
+negative
+infinitive
i always x-
+ner,ative
+imperative
Set 1:
man - x1s
went-home
Set 2:
xis
man - x8p a
'n
I
returned
went and
Set 3:
man I-shall
Sot A:
man I-shall
Set 9:
in
xisax
I did not go-home
xis
a- ngb.1 Mhe viants that-I
go-home
ind
x- xis
":ot return home
you(pl)
(Do not return home)
kan - xis
man - ja
I-shall
return-home
when-I-or-anyone
(when one returns home)
kak-a
M- xis
man
Y
I -shall
again
return home
(I shall return home again)
kan
in
nexe
- xis
(17-shall
1-not
return-home
yet
set 6:
cset 7:
Set 8:
Set 9:
Set 10:
xis
retu=n-home
ka
x6p
Tshall
(and)
go
home
xis
=etuxn-home
Set 11:
man - kaka
I
again
Set 12:
n-xis
man - kaka n-A
I
again I did I retuxn-home
(I've been home again)
n(1)
xis
go-home
267
(E 103)
lo
10. /
1 2.1;
Annective
"lie AZPactive
'Prefixes
continuous
co=plollivo
cupcz-vening
yxrL. n T)l (in I
Kinta kn - con
=aani
Kinta J`ct) pound rice
('r*.inta wau pounding rice)
1, - t; on
bi
Kinta
bi
=aarii
('t)
Kinta
whon
pound whan rice
(whon Xinta vran poundinG rice)
Wbaand
110TCP)IL=ivo
(lie will linvo arrived)
U nal - xOp
und heTap) nent
(and then lie went)
10.4
t 2.4.
Inter-ratim-
Tho Integrating
Prefix
Profix
is
the following:
_ros_
It
)=
tho following
allo-morphu:
following
vowela
olcar-he-re
N ropromenOtts InI
realized
as a homorganic
nasal
before
plosives
and
affricaten.
500 5.2
1014
: 26 for
.I
7he Verbal
a description
of its
function.
Verb. al Suffixes
Suffixes
the 1--perative
Suffix
rznifest
the
System Element
268
Suffix.
of the Verb.
They are
10
10.4
3.1
InDerativo
The Imperative
is
Suffix
Suffix
is
The distribution
-an/-i.
of
the
allomorphs
0.0 follows:
a Verb Root
following
-an
cloewhere
-i
(Exr-mple
1)
(Fx. =ple
2)
Suffix
Rxnmplen:
1.
tuk-tLn ".run";
2.
tukandi
"call";
4- jam
for
"bind
6. wuli
10.4
"give
The Negative
Vowel,
"laugh"
moll;
tanwund
here";
tuki
Suffix
is
Whon thic
auffixoa
if
following
suffix
follows
3);
"bind"
likariul
meat";
"bind
"run
tanan
"fetch
water
for
him"
us"
here";
p8ni
"come out"
Suffix
the
morpho-phonamic
(2.1
Anaimilation
(Example
water";
the
jiin
Nerntive
: 3.2
following
"fetch
3- r8on
5- tanin
lik-an
1).
It
undergoes the
-ax
to roots ending in a
changes: If suffixed
(Example
(2.1
5-1)
2)
Fusion
1
or
: 5.2)
(2.1
Mutation
5.3)(M=p).
another
suffixg
suffix
the
may be conflatedt
the altornative
reflects
(word finally)
[n]
or
(Example
(10.2
2.2-5)
the two
suffix
-an
(Example
5). (This possibly
or -aanx.
CAI
realization
of the -an suffix
as
causative
-anex
phonetic
(intervocalically)).
EXPIMD1013:
1.
tukax
2. r8ox
"he did
"he did
not
not
run";
call";
"he is
likax
"he did
jiix
"he did
not
run with
not
silent"
269
not
not
fetch
water"
laugh"
the meat";
likaxex
CONCLUSION.
In the foregoing
structures
existing
on actual
utterances
transcribed
and later
with
It is hoped that all the major areas of the grammar
info=ant.
have at least been touched on and yet that a maze of inconsequential
has been avoided.
detail
taperecorded
this
In particular
it
research
to be undertaken.
Manjako
that
nominally
not
always
here will
presented
for
morphemes
root
and with
obviously
purpose
its
relatable
which
the
may function
of various
prefixes
that
of further
seems to me to be an interesting
or verbally
The practical
I trust
open up possibilities
language.
interesting
so many of
with
and rewarding.
about
either'
lexical
classes,
meanings.
supplied
the
original
the undertaking
of this analysis was the requirements
the
discourse
For
this
Literacy.
of
study
purpose,
and
stimulus
for
of Bible
Translation
structure
270
to informal
genealogies
conversation,
for
translation.
Taber
is
adequate
needed
anticipates
each of which
features
be found to be mainly
that these text-cohesive
will
to be analysed,
semantic.
In the field
applied
from formal
of literacy,
the phonological
analysis
in the construction
of the practical
orthography
reading
applied to experimental
here.
be
insights
valuable
could
As was mentioned in the introduction,
being
primers.
has been
and is
Some psycho-linguistic
the grammatical
account
the
hand,
lexis
the
on
and
phonology
one
with
makes contact
but
does
to
deal
the
not
set
out
with
other,
on
and semantics
for
the
However,
detail.
in
practical
purposes mentiondd,
either
'
these other levels of analysis
are not less relevant.
with
1\
271
APPENDIX
THE TEXTS
page
A.
B.
C.
HYENAAND HARE
D.
MOSQUITOAND SAND-FLY
273
276
277
279
E.
280
P.
A DEMONAND A MAN
286.
G.
CHILDHOODPZJINISCENCES
289
.
290
292
302
Hd. 'LIM RM
302
303
304
305
306
306
307
308
308
309
Ile.
CF. FUNERALCEREl-IONIES
PR. H9.7 TO GROWRICE
CR. CHILDHOODRMINISCENCES
CS. H9,V TO CATCHSQUIRRELS
SG. A STORYABOUTA GOBLIN
HH. EYMTAAND HARE
TO. A STORYABOUT TWOSTEP-BROTBERS
272
L.
1.
2.
Ninx namgnx
nan a- ro ufesta
that he did feast
Man the-said
(The said man gave a feast, )
uyet
a na-fing
& he killed
cow
(killed
a cow)
a na-ro
& he called
(and called
banhaan blieng
all
people
all people)
bjelanul.
kada nhaan ng
yaar
each person that-he fetch portion-his.
(each one to fetch his portion. )
ka
bjelanul
untaang pyaar
A nalon ngaax bixe
have
time
to-fetch
portion-her
& one
after-all-not
woman
(One woman did not happen to have time to fetch her portion)
i
nan-chi
abokul
naties
na
wutan
a
&-she sent
son-her who was who little
(and she sent her little
son)
bjelan.
pa na-yaaxul
to he fetch-her
portion.
(to fetch
for
her portion
9.
A ab6kul
& son-her
(Her
her. )
baand a na-n&x
came & he stopped
son arrived
and stopped
a na-ja
nasien:
& he said chief:
to
and said
the
chief:
10.
kaax
ja
Aninji
untaang pbi
ri bjelan
time
to-come to portion
Ilother-my
said has-not
(Yq mother said she had no time to come for her portion)
11.
byAnkaxul.
a na - yeliin
to-take-for-her.
& she sent-here-me
(and she sent me here to collect
12.
13.
14.
it.
Penan.
jaul:
A nasien
Go-out.
& chief
said-him:
)
(The chief
Get
to
him:
said
out.
We
ka An
A na-jaul:
aninu
& he said-him:
What has which mother-your
(He said to him: Why hasn It your mother
A na-jaul:
Inji
& he said-him
I
(He said to him: I
ka
ri
not shall
not
shall
biix?
came-not?
)
come?
wulu.
give-you.
)
it
to
you.
give
273
A
banhaan blieng a ba, - yAnk.
te
15. A napax nAx
& they took.
& child stopped till
all
people
(The child stayed until
all people had taken their
6n:
16. A napax ja
ninx namenx
that:
& child said man the-said
(The child said to that man: )
17. Inji ni m- laang 6n uyamax. M& - mobu.
I'll
I
catch-you.
who you deny who meat
)
(You refused to give me meat. I'll
catch you.
At kIs. Ninx ji:
mobnin
we?
Ilan laughed: Bm, you'll
catch-with-me
What?
).
(The man laughed: Hm, how will
you catch me?
portions.
19. A na-ba
uyamax
pfa
to-divide
& he finished
meat
(When he finished
the meat
dividing
20. a na-x8p aipinx
& he went &(sp) lay
(he vient to lie
ri pyonggi.
in hammock.
down in a hammock. )
a na-ja
& he said
(and said
anin:
mother:
to his
19 - mobul.
I'll
catch-him.
mother: 1111 catch
mother)
him. )
Kjaul:
23. A anin
mobnul
we?
You'll
& mother said-him:
catch-with-him
what?
(His mother said to him: How will you catch him? )
,
Lipanl
24. A napax jaul:
Wait!
& child said-her:
(The child
said
to her:
Wait!
An
25- Uyek
a napax jej
umgnx
plele
that & child took lemon
Burning the-said
(Straight
away the child took a lemon)
paay
sour
26. a na-jej
umbanj a na,-Rlna.
& he out-with.
& he took knife
(and cut it with a knife. )
*
27.
A na-repa
bga pya
& he follow
way to-go
(Then he followed
the
to give him his meat.
i
ri nasien na - laangul
uyamax.
to chief
who denied-him
-,.
vho meat.
way to go to the chief
who had refused
)
274
t-t.
laj
28. A n8
plele
a
no
rant:
& he(cp) licked lemon & he(cp) sucked: t - t.
(and he set about licking
the lemon and sucking
it:
t. )
down. )
31- A ba - r6ul
a na-baand.
& he came.
& they called-him
(They called him and he came. )
Xendin
ko
32. A nasien jaul:
Give-me thing
& chief
said-him:
(The chief said to'him:
Give me
Inji
ka 33. A napax jaul:
ri
I
& child said-him:
not shall
(The child said to him: I shall
Wulin!
34- A nasien jaul:
Give-mel
& chief
said-him:
(The chief said to him: Give it
Ma-mobu
35. A napax jaul:
k- re w6nkl
wi
which you eat which-thus I
the thing you are eatingl)
wulu.
give-you.
not give it
to you. )
to mel)
xari.
I
today.
& child
caught-you
said-him:
)
(The child
him:
to
I
said
caught you now.
laangin
36.1.1 - ro
uyamax. Inji
I
You did refuse-me
meat.
(You refused
to give me meat.
ka - wulu.
ri
not shall
give-you.
)
I won't
it
to
give
you.
ka - wulu.
Pleleinji.
37. jvj - laang
uyamax. Inji
ri
I
Lemon-py.
You refused
meat.
not shall
give-you.
(You refused
to give me meat. I shall
not give it to you.
The lemon is mine. )
M- r1iri
000
You desire-for-here
& child said-him:
ha-ha.
(The child said to him: You want to have it,
do you? )
Kat6tan
uu.
ni
unel
hyena and fly.
Story
(A story
about a hyena
and a fly).
2.
Ungil a ui
pjan
p6n
hunting
Hyena & it(sp)
went-out
(Hyena went hunting
and caught
3-
4.
5.
6.
7.
A unel
ja
uu:
a ui
- mob
& it(sp)
caught
a gazelle .
x6nk
wul.
found it.
and found it.
M- ri
maatir
k-
ubacha.
gazelle.
& it
ran till
stopped
he ran and stopped,
the
fly
fly
(ot)
win wul.
see it.
)
it.
would not see
baand.
come.
)
would come.
ko,
xi
uu maatir.
fly be-present.
where thing
)
where you eat something.
8.
Uu,
xko
m- me,
Fly, you know, place
(Fly,
you know, will
xi
m- rena
where you eat-in
be at the place
9.
Mon,
Well
(Well,
Uu U- ron
maatir.
ufly
it
be-present.
always it
like
the fly always to takepart.
nga'lax
ungil
hyena like-not
Hyena did not
tuk te
nLx,
au& it
stopped
ran till
the
he ran and stopped,
10.
ja
AuIt
when it
(Every time
11.
tuk, a ui - niaj
Aux1on xko.
& it
& it(sp)entered
one
ran
place.
)
(He ran and entered
a certain
place.
12.
A ui
niaj
xi
ulion
& it(sp)
entered
where lion
(He entered
theplace
where
13.
uu
fly
fly
ka - baand.
(ct)
come.
)
would come.
bok
Xi.
gave-birth
where.
had his young
a lion
)
ones.
A ulion
ja
m- bi
won pro
xi?
wul: We
& lion
said him What you came what to-do here?
(The lion
said to him: What have you come to do here? )
276
)'
14. A undl
l6nk
au&- Hyena frightened & it
(Hyena became fi-ightened
ja
wul:
said him:
)
to
him:
and said
15. Aninji
ninx, man-te
m- b6k2
Mother-my man
I
heard you had-youn one,
Oy uncle, I heaxd you had a young one,
16. a m-bi
a mobariu
pvrinu
& caught-for-here-you
&I came to-see-you
(so I came to see you and here I brought
)
I
had
for
caught
which
you.
ubacha.
gazelle.
you a gazelle
ba.
17. A ulion yAnkna
ivul ubacha, aure, autook-from him gazelle, & he ate & he finished.
& lion
(The lion took the gazelle out of his hand and ate till
it all. )
he finished
18. Aure,
& he ate,
(He ate it
a suaxax,
au& satisfied-not,,
& it
and was not satisfied.
mob
unel
a fing.
caught Hyena & killed.
He caught Hyena and killed
kat6tan kam&nx
ki,
19. Jaka - te
pax
m- me,
the-said
this,
because you know,
Tle-shall. hear story
(We shall understand this story,
because you see, )
20. undl
uyamax
a- chi xi katukand
hyena it
was in running-away-with
meat
(Hyena was running away with the meat)
baand pchax wul. Ganhirex
koulon.
21. auX&nkna
& he found-with
came death his. Gained-not something.
(and came to meet with his death. He did not gain anything.
it.
C. HYD-NAAND HARE.
Unel
p6nar
pxong
ni
umaal.
a ui
travelling
Hyena & it(sp)
went-out
and Hare.
(Hyena and Hare went out on a journey.
)
2.
ka
A gai
&- thoy(sp)(ot)
(a last
they
)
compound.
3.
4.
A umaal ja:
Katimji
ka - jaaka
Ptibi
Mam-paabna
(ct)
&' Iaxe
Name-my
be-oalled
Matchet
I
said:
clear-with
(Haxe said:
)
TAy name is Matchet-I-clear-forest.
8M?
how?
xi
in
breng.
forest.
A unel
ja:
Katim, kan a -chi katim. nauyak.
Ila-yLk
kul.
&
Name that it is
big-man.
said:
I
took
name
it.
-Eyena
(Hyena
said: That name is a name of an important
I have
person.
taken that one. )
6.
7.
A nasien p6nandi
a na-wul
ptibi
unel
& chief
brought-out
matchet & he gave Itrens,
(The chief brought out a matchet and gave it to Hyena)
a na-ja
ri breng.
wul: X6pan ri kapaab
& he said him: Go
in clearing
in forest.
(and said to him: Go and do the clearing
in the forest. )
8.
bux kaliron,
also kettle
out also a kettle)
10. a na-wul
umaal, a u- j6ngna
pre xi ufugon.
& he cooked-with
food in kitchen
& he gave Hare
(and gave it to Hare, and he cooked food in it in the kitchen.
9.
Idbon, a na-p8nandi
Well, & he brought-out
(Well, then he brought
bi
kam
11. lAbonp a unel
ri kapaab
ri breng
Well
& Hyena (sp) fought in clearing
in forest
(Well, afterviards
Hyena struggled
the forest,
in clearing
ri breng.
in forest.
)
tuk, au
16. A ung-11 pea
ni
ubon,
au& hyena overcome with hunger & he ran & he
(Hyena was overcome with hunger, and therefore
the forest, )
breng,
niaj
entered forest,
he ran and went into
17. te
un8 pi
a kaxe
ya mex.
xari
day like today*& no-more go house.
till
(and has not come home until
this day. )
18. Onk ri
g- me An
Thus how vie knovi how
(By this vie see)
tukar
19. jaka
koulon
jakai
niam
xi wul.
be-losers
in it.
vie, shall ran-for
something we-shall(sp)
(vie often strive
for something which results
in our loss. )
D
D. MOSQUITOAND SAND-PLY.
1.
2.11
ubaarum a- me,
You know, mosquito he
(As you know, mosquito
3.
Upit
Sand-fly
(Sand-fly
4.
Upit
Sand-fly
(Sand-fly
5-
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
nhikex pxim.
is-thin
leg.
has thin legs. )
a- pe
wul kar6mb
PXim.
leg.
she surpasses him thickness
)
legs.
surpasses him in the thickness
her
of
a- chi xi kaji
ubaarum kuma a- nhikex
pxim.
in laughing Mosquito that he is-thin
leg.
she is
was laughing at the mosquito for his thin le'gs. )
)
ja:
a upit
& Sand-fly
said:
the sand-fly
spring,
wul.
his.
on his
)
said:
)
head.
own
279
E
15. Auba
a kaxe
yilan
priangg pul.
& he finished
& no-more be-able lift
it.
(When he finished
he was no longer able to lift
it. )
16. Au-A
ri pxim, a pxim cheta.
& he put on leg
& leg
broken.
(He put it on his leg and his leg broke. )
17. A upit
ji.
A ubaarum ja
wul:
fi8li
laughed. & mosquito said her:
sand-fly
And Sand-fly
laughed and-Mosq4o said to her:
8n
18.
knauyak, inji
ni
Ji
-a
Girl
big
I
laugh the one ?
who you'll
(Big girl,
am I the one whom you are laughing at? )*
19. A upit
xO - ya psinx ben rin,
a ba-cheta a yer.
(op) go shake head only
& Sand-fly
& it broken& fell.
(Sand-fly was going to shake her head and it broke and fell.
20. Upit
a- chi xi pji
ubaarum,
Sand-fly
she was in laughing mosquito,
(Sand-fly
)
laughing
the
was
at
mosquito,
ben wul, au21. a- axaraan
ben.
cheta
head her, & she was-broken head.
she trusted-made
(she was trusting
in herself
and broke her head. )
E. HARE AND VULTURE; HARE AND BUSH-POVIL
'
Ya-ngAl
I
want
(I viant
plenx
to-tell
to tell
kalon kat6tan
one
story
a story
about
2.
Umaal a- penax
Hare he went-out
(Hare went visiting
3.
A ga - yandaar te
till
& they walked
(They vialked until
4.
uleka umaal ni
ujuchich.
about Hare
and Vulture.
)
Hare and Vulture.
pxong
ni
to-visit
with
with Vulture.
ujuchich.
Vulture.
)
ka
baand
gai
ri mlon mlik.
they(sp)(ot)
arrive
at one water.
they were about to arrive at a certain water-hole.
A umaal ja
Xko
ja
jak
lamv
ujuchich:
xi
aPlace this anyone when we-shall swim2
& Hare said Vulture:
(And Hare said to Vulture:
In this place, when we, or for that matter
)
anyone, shall swim,
kxaan.
m- ri
you not will drink.
(you must not drink. )
6.
7.
8.
E,
ulof
11m, thirst
(Hm, thirst
ba gal
bi
abi
re
byaas.
ga - penar
it
hurt(P)
them when they went-out
when journey.
(While
Hare
was
syri=ing,
he
dived
and
280
would
then
set
about
drinking.
t8ban
Uraana auau& he
Drinking & he quenched-his-thirst
(And having drunk, he quenched his thirst
katai.
surfaced-here.
and came to the surface. )
lal pwambar
A ujuchich
fear to-shoo-from-himself
& Vulture
(Vulture
to shoo the
was afraid
16.
a gtievr
& blow-flies
370
(cp)
re
eat
shooing
them
not be well
gtiew
blow-flies
)
blow flies
away,
wul
him:
started
to bite
him. )
17. A umaal ja
uu jOt wul u- ja:
& Hare when fly sat him he said:
(',ihen a fly sat on the Hare, he said: )
ka - kgr
ka - ker
18. D, mSh -baand use
xi.
namp6linji,
xi
I'll
Hm, I'll
smear here.
smear here I'll
come house girl-my
(Well, when I come to my girl-friend's
house, I shall smear oil
)
here.
here
and
on
19.
kaax
A ujuchich
had-not
& Vulture
(Vulture
couldn't
bi
a gtiew
ro bi,
uhow he do how & blow-flies
do anything
and the blow-flies
1.0
re
wul.
( op) bite
him.
began to bite
him. )
ja
A ga - xep, a go
ujuchich:
a
umaal
okan,
& Hare
& they went & they(cp)near
said Vulture;
(They went on and as they were coming near, Hare said to Vulture:
)
6nk
bi
Ka
ja:
Da - mobil
21. E,
bte
aa!
m- ya mHm youwhenyou hear they
You catch-he=el
come thus hurrahl
say He'll
(Iffell,
Catch and bring
her
when you heax them say: He is coming, hurrah!
tuk.
kja
22. kU-ruka
fingja.
boka
ngAl,
mme
like
run.
you'll
1t
lmaei
they
kill-us.
you
when
You'll
come
-will
)
it,
like
run.
(you will
us. If you feel
know they want to kill
281
20.
E
baand
arrive
u- fal
ujuchich.
he deceive Vulture.
them. That is why he
32.
=ina
u - ja
kuma d8
said: He'll
come thus hurrah I Catch-herd
He is coming, hurrahlCatchtbring
her
fing
wund,
au-
tuk,
a xis.
ja
bux
kaka
G35. -A umaal x6p,
ujgku:
a ui
ya pxong.
& Hare went
& he(sp) again said also
Let-us go visiting.
Bush-fowl:
(Hare-went and afterwards
he said the same thing to the Bush-fowl:
)
Let us go to visit
somebody.
36. A ga - x8p
te
ga
37.
baand ri
plam.
A umaal ja
uj&ku:
Xko
lam
ja
kxi
am- xi
Place this
one when you swim you not
(In this
place,
when you, or for that
)
drink.
you must not
282
kxaan.
drink.
you
anyone,
matter
shall
swim,.
E
38. Uj&ku
w6n
plan.
plam. Umaal yil
yilax
)
to-swim.
Hare
the-one
Bush-fowl not-able
able
swim.
(Bush-fowl
)
Hare
the
was
one who could swim.
could not swim.
39.1.1bon, a umaal ja u- mij
ui
raan ri uxia,
-A
he(sp) (op)
drink in below,
& Hare when he dived
Well
(Well, when Rare dived under water, he began to drink there, )
k40. Uj8ku
raan bux ri ruax.
Bush-ffowl (ct) drink also in above.
)
(Bush-fowl was drinking
top.
on
Enton, m- naam kjaul:
kAtai
41. Auauzaan.
(ct)
drink.
& he surfaced & he said-him: Well
you seem
(He surfaced and said to him: Well, you appear to be drinking. )
ka - ja
42. Ujgku
wul: Ma-nhaw pr6maj.
Bush-fovil
(Bush-fowl
43.
(ct)
wash beak.
said him: I
)
I
beak.
him:
to
was washing my
says
A ga - x8p, to
au& he
& they went till
(And they went on until
him. )
deceive
ka uri
winu-: ron
(ot)
he
sawha3ater
not
he saw that he was not
yilan
pfal
wul.
be-able
deceive
him.
be able to
going to
a- ka gtiew.
44. A umaal ja
xi
wul: Ila xko
has blow-flies.
&. Hare said him: But place this it
(Hare said to him: There are blow-flies
in this place. )
11 - wambar, k'
k45.21a
par chax wambar
a- ja
--chax.
You shoo
die.
But one when you'll
shoo-from-yourself.
you'll
passdon't
(But when one passes, one must not shoo them away. If you do2you'll
die.,
Aj8t, umaal auja:
46. A uja
utiew
(cp)
blow-flies
& when
sit, Hare & he said:
(When the blow-f2ies
began to descend, Hare said: )
ka - kgr
ka - kgr
xi,
47. Mim - baand use
namp9linji,
here
I'll
I'll
here.
house
I-shall
smear
smear
girl-my
come
(17hen I come to the house of my girl-friend,
I shall smear here andhere)[
Ix.
ka
ka
Rin
naxa
48gtiew
(ct)
(ct)
flew.
blow-flies
Immediately
rose
)
(And the blow-flies
kept flying
immediately.
away
49. A uj 6kU
& Bush-fowl
(Bush-fowl
ka -ja
(ct)
also
fong
ya ka
(ct) -
mourn
dance, )
uxaan,
companion,
ka -lichlichander
uliaf. Ujgku
50- g- lichlichan
(ct)shook-shook-himself,
body.
Bush-fowl
ve shake-shake-cause-to
(vie make our bodies shake and shake. Bush-fowl shook and shook himself)
x.
A
ka
ka
te
ga
n&xa
x6p
51- a gtiew
a g6
okan.
(ct)
(ct)
flew. &. they went till
& th6y(cp)_ near.
& blow-flies
rose
(and the blow-flies
kept rising
and flying
away. They went on and
)
for
the
they
bound.
place
which
were
were coming near
ba ba
52. A umaal-ja
wul: E, jaka. - baand, m- te
Ja:
(P)they
hear
Hm,
& Hare said him
come you
we-shall
say.,
(Hare said to him: Hm, when we arrive,
should you hear them say.283
E
8nk aal
Da - mobi Ik53. Ka - bi
me boka - fingja.
You catch-herel
know they-vill
ct) come thus hu=ahl
kill-us.
you'll
He is coming, hu=ahl Catoh and bring here! You. Ill know they want to
kill us. )
54. A ga - x6p a g8
okan, a ba - ja
ri use
ninx. & they went& they(op) near & they said in hobse man:
(They went on and when they were
getting near, they said in the
)
house:
mm's
8nk aal
55. Ka - bi
Da - mobil
et)
come thus hu=ah! You catch-herel
He is coming, hurrah! Catch and bring herel)
Ix
56. A ujgku
aux8p aiwela
ri kakul uniew.
& Bish-fovil
flew & he went &(sp) descended in eaves house.
(Bush-fowl flew away and then let himself down
under the eaves of the
house. )
57. A umaal ui
baand
x8p
auaune uj&ku
wejax au -ja
xis.
& Hare he(sp) went & he came & he thought&he thought
Bash-fowl left
(And Hare went on and arrived
thinking
that Bush-fowl returned home. )
ja:
Achinxu.
58. A b6k a- chi x6m?
& they(ct)
said: Companion-your he is
where?
(They said: Where is your companion? )
Da - ya
ja:
59. Au-.
d8
ja:
Ka
bi
I
Da-mobi
I
onk
aa
he said: You when you(cp) said: He'll
thus hurrahl
Catch-herel
come
And he said: When you said: He is coming, hurrah, catch and bring here)
60. auja
tuk a xis.
ne d6 - fing wund, au& he viondered if you kill
& he ran & returned home.
us
(he vjonderedif you would kill
us and he ran back home. )
61. A ujgku
jai
In - xisax;
Inji
iini.
ri pbaambeser:
& Bush-fowl said-hither
in behind-doors: I-not return-not;
I
here.
(Bush-fowl said from behind the door: I did not go home; I
am here. )
62. A ba - fingax
bkul unkambe,. a ba - x6 bkul uyamax ri imaanh,
& they kill-for
them pig
& they put them meat
in bags,
(They killed
a pig for them, and they put some meat into their bags, )
63. a ba - j6ngar
bkul uchinx. A ga - riala,
ba,
a g8
& they cooked-for
them rest
& they ate
& they(op) finished,
(and cooked for them the rest of the meat. They ate it
)
finished,
and
64- a ga
Umaal
lap
p6n
pxis.
w6n
uyamax.
& they went to-return-home.
Hare carry the-one meat.
(and they started
on their way home. Haxe was the one who carried
the meat. )
65.
A Ca - ja
ga - yandaax
& they when they walked
(And as they viere
walking
66.
IThaan ka - r8in.
Ungaaba
a ui-fAl
Person (ot)
& he cut
call-me. Detouring
(Somebody is
Turning
calling
aside
me.
he was leaving
it there. )
te
ri breng,
in forest
till
in the forest,
284
a g6
ron
umaal ka - ja.
& they(cp)
later
Haxe
will
say
then by and by Hare says. -)
uyamax, ka - ruk.
(ot)
leave.
meat
he cut the meat and
,
67. Ujgku
baar
uyamax ri breng, urianggar ruax,
ya win umaal rO
Bush-fowl go see Hare (cp) finish meat
in forest, rising
up,
(When the Bush-fowl saw that Hare was about to finish the meat in
the forest, he flew, )
68. auja:
Aauyer,
& he said: It
& he fell
(and descended and said: It
thing is rotten. )
ay
mak. Uyamax a- ay
mak. Uko
it
sour much. Meat
sour much. Thing
is very sour. The meat is very sour.
Waraax
- bad.
The
Umaal
kaka
jot
baand a r8nander kak
kak.
70. Aupxis.
pfal
wul
to-. return. Haxe again start cheat him more!
& he came & follow
again
(Ile came, following
his way home once again. Hare started to cheat him
)
again.
71, Uj6'ku
yer rina
Bush-fowl fell
straight-away
(Bush-fowl fell
and straight
u- chaxenker.
he died-like.
'
away he began to feign
2. A umaal j ej wul ,aix8 ri kamaanh.
& hare took him &(sp)put in bag.
(Hare took him and then put him in his bag. )
death. )
Ux6p
baand
73- Ubaand
aumex.
u- bi yaax uyamax, ui
p6nani.
he(sp) brought-out. Going & he came house
he (sp) fetch meat
A=iving
(When he-came (to the place where the meat was hidden the second time)
he went to fetch the meat and pulled it out. Then he went . on and
)
home.
came
&ku
E, wunda-ya pxong
A umaal j a:
74
xj
a nai. - chax.
ni
& he(sp) died.
& Hare said: Hm,we
go visiting
with lash-fowl
(Ha=e said: Well, vie went to pay a visit,
lush-fowl
and 1, and he died)
jaka
bielan.
Jaka
75- jejanul,
- ro
- ama n1k uyamax.
We - shall yet leave meat.
Take-him we - shall do
gravy.
(Take him, we shall make a gravy. We shall keep the meat for the time
being. )
76.
A uj6kU
& Bush-fowl
(Bush-fowl
ja:
E,
auuyamaxinji.
nLxa
xmaal, wulin
he said:
Hm, Hare
stood-up&
give-me meat-my
Well,
Hare, give me my meat. I
stood up and said:
M6n -xis.
I111 go.
)
am going.
Wi xj&ku
77.11 - ro ja
M-, wxaax,
ne man-chax. A xmaal ja:
died. & Hare said: You Bush-fowl you good-not.
You had ihcught that I
(You said that I was dead. Hare said: You bad Bush-fowl. )
ja
ink
78- VIi km- fal
nhaan nan-kamandiu,
aa
You will
say thus you deceive person who struggle-make-here-you
until
(This is how you scheme to deceive someone who was toiling
to get you
here. so much)
k79. a k8 - ba
ja m- chaxax.
& you(cp)finish
you'll
sayyoudead-not.
(and when it is all finished
)
that
then you will
dead.
you are not
say
285
80. Umaal a- na
blipal
aunor.
Hare he pride cleverness & he tired.
(Hare showed off his cleverness
till
he grew tired. )
ka
j8k
81. A gai
ni
uj&ku,
a uj&ku
pe
wul.
& they(sp) Yrill meet vrith Bush-fowl & Bush-fowl more him.
(And he meets with Bush-fowl and Bush-fowl was cleverer
than he. )
ka bi u- ro bi. Uom pe
82. A kaxe
bliPal?
won
uchinx
& he-no-more had how he do how. Which more the-one companion cleverness?
(He could no longer do anything.
Which one of them was cleverer
than
his companion? )
P. A DEITONAND A MAN.
1.
2.
fal
Uchaay a- na
a ui
mafalar
nalon ninx.
'
&
he(sp)
Demon he pride cheating
cheat one
man.
(Demon was proud of his cheating and then, he cheated a certain
Au-
Jaka
jaul:
)
man.
fexar.
Vle-shall be-i'xiends.
& he said-him:
(He said to him: Let us be friends. )
Ninx j aul:
Man said-him:
(The man said
5-
7-
fexar.
be-friends.
us be friends.
bai
baand
kajaar.
Uchaay chi ni
ninx te a ba - ja
they said they(sp)
Demon was with man till
arrive ploughing.
(The demon stayed with the man until
they said they would start plougIfInCI
kaay.
ja
Auninx: TAmbanderi, m&n - ruka
I-shall
& he said man Work-hard
remain watching.
)
(He said to the man: Work hard while I keep vigil.
te
Ninx ka - chi xi kajaar
un6 ulon, a uchaay ja
ninx:
day other &demon said man:
11an (ct) be in ploughing till
(The man kept
day, when the demon told
another
on ploughing until
him: )
8.
B, g- jon
g8 - lemp xi,
xi
Hm, vie tarry where we(cp) work where,
(Well, vie have spent much time in this place where we have been
)
together,
working
9.
ma xari
un8 baand nron
but today day came I
by-and-by
(but as from today I shall
gradually
ka
fingu.
kill-you.
shall
)
kill
you.
10.
Nirric. ja
uchaay:
Man said demon:
(The man said to
uleka vie?
about what?
)
kill
you
me?
fingin
Kpar
You'll
kill-me
for
the demon: Why will
11.
Aujaul:
E,
kan
man-ro
& he said-him:
Hm, I
did (ct)
(He said to him: Wellp I
was helping
x8nku
help-you
you in
xi ulemp.
in work.
)
your work.
12. Ninx ja
G- ja
uchaay: M- x6nkaxin.
jain:
g- baand ulemp, kMan said demon: You help-not-me.
We when we came work,
you said-me
(The man said to the demon: You did not help
me. When we came to work,
)
tell
you would
me:
13- TAmbanderil
Work-hard!
(Work hard!
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
te
K8 ay
m- meex
nada.
You(cp) viatch till
you know-not nothing.
You would be keeping vigil,
in fact, you knew nothing at al
Uchaay ruka fieran ninx. Ninx wajax a kaax
bi
n6 - ro bi,
Demon (r/p)haxass
man. Man thought had-not what he(cp) do what,
(The demon kept insisting
but
against the man. The man thought,
)
do
anything,
could not
ja-ro bk6n
uchaay: Mon$ un8 pi xari
a na-ja
ujipan,
& he said demon: Well, day as today we do the-ones talk,
(and he said to the demon: Well, we have done with the talking
today, )
Jaka, - xis
ma a- baand, jaka
ma lipin.
- garander ujipaninja.
but it
take-up
talk-our.
We-shall return but wait-me
came vie-shall
(when te time has come2 we shall take up the matter. We shall go home,
but wait for me, )
baandi
a kao mS_- ya byaas,
m -baandi
=in,
wi
- un6 wi
I'll
day which I return-here
which only
go voyage &I 111(cp)return-here,
(I shall make a jou=ney and shall come back again, and on the same day)
Ba mSn - rukaru
fingin.
kmex, kay
mex,
But I'll
leave-for-you
kill-me.
house you'll
you'll
watch house
(you will kill
me. But I shall leave the house with you, take care of it,
k
ten gbob
gul
xbob
pkaaw, gbob
xbob
pl8nk.
.they not-eat
termites not-eat wall.
see termites
you'll
straw
('see to it that the termites
)
don't eat the straw-roof,
the
nor
wall.
Uchi mex
bualesa,
kbual,
re
us8bal s6bar
pl&nk.
If
house uncovered, youIll
cover, lest rain
rain-wet
wall.
(If the house is
it,
uncoveredpover
so that the rain does not wet
the wall. )
Ma un6 wi
k
fingin.
n- ro
m-baandi
son,
But day which I(
kill-me.
cp) I come-here only
you'll
(But on the same day on which I
)
here,
kill
come
you will
me.
A ninx xep
ubaabu, a na - yili.
& man went abroad
& he
tarried-there.
(The man
went abroad and stayed there
23- Uchaay ja
ka wi
Demon when which will
(Demon used to
go in the
for
a year.
fa
wi
rin auya, kai
rise which only& he went hetll(sp).
morning around the house. )
fayess,
round
mex
house. i,
24- Gbob
kbob pkaaw, ma ri
ka - yilan
praf.
Termites ( ct) eat straw
but not (0t) be-able to-shake-off.
(The termites were eating the straw, but he
)
them
could not shake
off.
287
bi
Kaax
bualesa.
25. Fan
u- =o bi.
u- baand, a mex
Morrow he came & house uncovered. Had-not how he do how.
(He came on the next day, and the house was uncovered. He could not
do anything. )
1
26. A us6bal bi s6bar
ye=.
pl8nk bi
pl6nk te
(sp)
(sp)rain-wet
fall.
till
& rain
wall
wall
(Then rain wet the wall until
fell. )
it eventually
tuk
Aukunggna
ka xko
a xis.
xi.
27. Uchaay kaxe
uxi
Demon no-more had place where he hide -in where. & he ran & returned.
)
(Then the demon had no place to shelter
home.
he
ran
and
baand,
ka
pten
mexul.
a na-p6n pya
28. Ninx chi ri ubaabu. te
nai
& he went to-go to-see hoHM,
he(sp) will
Man was in abroad till
come
(The man was in a foreign
Then eventually-he
country.
was returning
)
his
house.
to
he
see
went
and
A- ruka
ba.
pfien.
a
29. A na-xenk mexul
choka
It
finished.
ruin.
& he found house Us spoiled it
was-left
)
left
It was
(He found his house was completely ruined.
a ruin.
ja:
tuki
auau30. Uchaay winul
Demon saw-him, & he ran-here & he said:
(The demon saw him, he ran to him and said: )
baand. Jaka - xis
bfexarinji
xaXi.
31.0;
Hm, friend-my
came. We-shall return home today.
(Well, my friend has come back. We shall go home today. )
32. Ninx piaxar uchaay kkes, a na-ja
wul:
Man looked demon eyes & he said him:
(The man looked the demon in his eyes and said to him: )
An,
Onk
ja
da
bi
jaks,
Bi
ri
33. Xari
m- ngAl
mam-baandi
- ro.
do. So as you say as,
Today I
came-here. As you like as we-shall
)
the
(I have arrived
This
is
today. We shall do as you wish.
way you say,
lempara
ka
banhaan,
ind
d6
fal
a
34. da - ron
be-worked-for
&
deceive
by-and-by
you
will
people
you(cp)
you
(that
you will
be gradually
lempara
k35. bkon
be-worked-for.
the ones (ct)
(ones for whom others will
but you will
let us fight,
36.
Uchaay n&xand
Demon stand-up-made
(The demon made the
)
kill
him.
would
37.
E,
uchaay yilanex
Hm, demon could-not
(Hm, the demon could
38.
deceiving
people,
and that
you will
be the)
k-fingin
kam.
Uchi ukam jaka
ri
ma
mfight but you not kill-me
If
fight
vie-shall
fight
be
If
is
to
there
a
alone.
work and you
)
kill
me.
not
the
forest)
falinja.
Gja uten, bi m- me b6nk, uchaay aron
uhe deceives
Let us see as you know as demon he when he gradually
us.
(Let us see, as you know, that the demon intends
to deceive
us gradus, 113
288
39- U- ron
Gfexar,
ka
u- jau. x6nku,
He by-and-by he say-you Let-us be-friends &-l-will
help-you
(By and by he says to you:. Let us be friends and I will help
)
you,
lemp, ba rix ulemp. Uchaay ri
40. jaka ka - jaar,
vie-shall work but not to-work Demon not will
plough,
(let us work together,
but he will not work. The demon will not plough, )
ka - ro koulon
ka - bual
41. Ti
ri
mex. Nhaan ka - roar wul mex,
do anything not will
do-for him house
not will
cover house. Person will
(will
not do anything,
will not cover the house. Man will build him a
house, )
Gten bi u- falinja
bink.
42. ka - wul wul. pre.
give him food. Let-us see how he cheat-us how.
will
(and will
)
him
Let
food.
how
he
give
us see
cheats us.
G. CHILDHOOD REMINISCENCES.
koulon
bi
Ma-les
bi
n-ro
n-chi napax.
I remember something when I (past) when I was child.
(I remember something from the time when I was a child. )
2. Untaang wi m-p6n wi xi
myil, aninji
rukin
ri mex
asinji,
Time
in house father-my
-as I left as from milk
mother-my left-me
(At the time when I was weaned, my mother left me in the house of
)
father,
my
bkul.
A na - ja
3. A na - xis
mex
na - ron
& she said she from-time-to-time
& cie retrned house their.
(and returned to the house of her family.
She said that from time to time:
Ma untaang wi n8 bi
baand wi 8nk ptenin
4- n8 ptenin.
as she(op) came as thus to-see
she(cp) come to-see-me. But time
(she would come to see me. But when she did come to see me, )
ka -ruka xi ufexul
kao 5. a n8 Ydsj
rug
& she(cp) returned I'll
stay in back-her I'll(op)
cry.
(and was going back, I would keep following
her, crying. )
6. Ka - rug te banhaan ka - bi
kai
kawixanda.
pxis
mobin
I111
to bring-back
people will
come will(sp)
cry till
catch-me to-return
(I would cry till
to bring me
people would come to catch me to return,
home. )
1.
b6ka,
they'll
)
say,
ja
say
Ha
10. Inji
in-roox
me ne pchax a- chi; kao is
I'll(cp)
II
did-not know if death it
(Me, I did not know if there
was death, I only
)
mother.
11. Ko
les
umgnx
wi
man-ja
wul, ka. - wejax
Thing the-said
this I
I'll
think
when remember it
(Whenever I remembered this thing, I would think about it, )
12. te
inji
ka - me
bi n-ro
bi n-chi.
ri
till
I
know how I- did how I was.
not will
(till
I did not know what to think of it. )
13. Inkri.,
a n-ruka n-ja
wejax, ka - me
pchax a- chi.
(r/p)I
Novi
&I
I'll
know death it
is.
when think
(When I now come to think about it, T know that death is. )
Ha. AN EPIC ABOUT MPORTA KNINKIN.
3-
4-
5.
6.
7.
Napax ja
na-boka
a na-chi ba - ninx, rin
ng-,fingul.
Child when he was-born & he was (past)man' straight
away he killed-him.
(When a child was born, if it was a male child,
he killed
it immediatel
Ble Kab9mb. Mbon, a nalon ngaax bi
Katimul
ka - jaa
sempa.
(sp)pregnant.
Name-his will be-called
Ble Kab8mb. Well, & one
woman
(His name-'was Ble Kabemb. Well, there was also a certain woman who
became pregnant)
ka plik pi
kAum- me
pi
x8p plik
has well which you know
& it
which you'll
go well
(There was a well, and, you know how it is, you go to the well, )
lik
k6
ba,
k
ki
a
yOnxander,
(sp)
fetch-water
& you'll(cp)
finish
you'll
you'll
put-on-head,
(you go to fetch water and when you have done so, you will be trying
to lift
the water-pot
to your head, )
ka - y6nxanu.
te
nhaan ri
till
put-on-your-head.
person not will
(and there will be nobody to put it on your head. )
A n6
bok.
rina
y8nxander,
na
-
& she(cp)
put-on-head
straightaway
she
(And while
the water-pot
she was lifting
)
birth.
she gave
8.
Anin
Sim, chax
rug, a na-jaul:
& he said-her:
Mother cry
Yes, don't
(The mother cried
and he said to her:
I-am-not-afraid-of-anybody.
Kninkin
-
57.
gave-birth.
to her head,
straight
away
Ha
67. A na-x6p
te
kak.
a ba - laweler
piparler
& he went till
& they distant-from-each-other
to(sp)pass-each-other
again
(He-vient till
they were far from each other in order to pass each other
)
once more.
68. A n8 - vill kaej,
A na-fill
kaxux. Auruka iwaanx.
a na-l6ma.
three.
left
& it
& he(cp)hit
sword & he lay-down& he cut neck.
(And he hit at him with his sword, and he lay down. Then he cut off
his head and there were three left. )
laweler
b69. A ba - kaka parler
kak.
A ba - x6p te
they far-apart
& they. again pass-each-other
again. & they went till
(Then they passed each other again. They went till
they were far apart, )
kapaxler
70. a ba - b8tai
a n8 - w1l kaej, a na-l8ma,
& he(cp) hit sword &-he lay-down
& they turned passing-each-other
(and they turned and passed each other, and he hit at him with his
)
he
lay
down,
and
sword
A ba - kaka paxler,
a ba - lawander,
71. A na-f_l, a ruka kalole.
far-apart
&
they
&
they
& he out & left
again
pass-each-other
one.
(and cut off his head. There was one left.
Then they passed each other
)
fax
apaxt,
again and were
kaej
b8tai
72. a bo
na-nggp
a
a
na-vill
pparler
& he hit sword & he bent
& they(op) turned to-pass-each-other
(and they were turning to pass each other and he hit at him with his
)
he
bent,
sword and
kalole.
ka=
A na-tuam,
73. a na-wI1 k1chul a na-fal.
& he hit sword-his he cut. & he finish
neck one.
(and he hit at him with. his sword and cut him and finished
cutting
off
)
left.
head
the only
bi.
Banul
77. A na-ja
gul: Ma-fing.
head-his
this.
& he said them I killed,
(He said to them. I hilled
him. Here is his head. )
kip
kr
Mbon, kakanda kapl"ch
85- Mon, a ba - jaul:
wund-jau
told-you which,
Well & they say-him: Well
calabash boasting which we
(Well, they said to him: Well, the magic calabash which we told you aboili
kul.
86. k6ki. Y[undka -- wulu,
this. We - shall give-you it.
(is this one here. We shall give it to you. )
90.
291
A- ba.
It
finished.
)
is finished.
Rb
Hb.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7-
8.
9.
10.
11.
Xmaal ni
uj&ku.
Haxe and Bush-fowl
(Hare and Bush-fowl
fexax
te
aja
g6
ron a gai
they were-friends
till
they(cp)
then & they(sp)
said
Then one day they said)
were friends.
ka - ya byaas. Mon, a ga - r6nander
gko
a g6ey(-P) pexan,
Well
& they walked-together
& th
animals will
go trip.
0
chattered
(that they would make a jo urn ey. Well, they
walked together and hey
)
kept chattering,
konta
bfexar
lawan..
gul
n1r mak. A ga - p6n
a g8
because friendship
theirfat
& they(cp) distant.
much. A they left
(because their friendship
their village
was very close. They left
far away. )
and were getting
Xmaal ni
blipal
ja
katim wul ka - jaa Baxon,2
gko
vrul g8n auHare and things cleverness his that & he said name his will be Guests
(Hare with his underhandedness in everything
said that his name would be
)
Guests.
called
ja
A uj eku
kuma k1ch
Babi.
wul ka'- jaa
& Bush-fowl said that
the-one his will
You-who-came.
be-called
(Bush-fowl said that his name would be You-who-came. )
A umaal ja:
Mbon, uchi g- jaa
katimul,
nhaan ni
& Hare said: Well
if
we are-called
person with name-his
(Hare said: Well, now that we each have our own name, )
6n
katim, nhaan bi
ka
r8a
ri pxong
nul
re
pre.
(sp)
he will
name person
called in visiting
eat the-one food.
(if the name of one of us is called in the place where we are going to
)
he
be
the
to
will
one
pay a visit,
eat.
Te
ba - rO" wi
katimu
kun6 wi
ruka. re pre.
Till
day which they call which name-your you-will
stay eat food.
(You will
)
long
they
continue eating,
as
as
call your name.
ba
Ba - rOox
katimu.
kchi ni
=i pxong,
ubon
(past) name-your you-will
They call-not
be with hunger in visiting,
(If they do not call your name you will be hungry while visiting,
)
Albon, a ujgku
te
kkax6p.
xis
ri pxong.
nran
Well
till
& Bush-fowl consented to-go.
you-will
return in visiting.
(until
)
home.
Well,
Bush-fowl
to
agreed
you return
go.
A ga - x6p,
a ga - n&x
a ga - baand pxong
xi blay.
& they stood in yard.
& they vient & they came visiting
(They went on and they came to the place where they were going to
)
the
in
they
yard.
pay a visit,
stood
and
bkul
kuma:
pOn,
a ba - ja
their
that
& they said
that:
the place which they were visiting
12.
A banhaan p8ni
ri kato
& people
came-out of house
(The people came out of the
)
and said:
13.
Baxong, da
ixefi!
A
moban
xmaal yink pxefi,
a xef,
Guests
take
& Hare
took seat
you
seats!
sat,
,&
(Sit
down, guests.
Hare took a stool
and sat down. )
292
pxong
visiting
house at
Hb
Kaax
katimul
k14- te
nbx.
pxefi
par
r6aax.
nZLx
ujgku
Bush-fowl stood (ct) stood Had-not seat
till
since name-his called-not.
(while Bush-fowl kept standing.
He had no seat because his name was not
)
called.
te
15. Yoo, a xjeku
a napax ro
pbi,
nAx
peid
(op)
till
&
Bush-fowl
Yes, &
child
come-out to-come
stood
(Yes, and Bush-fowl stood until
a child came out in order to go)
16.
ujgku
Bushf.
go in,
xi u -nLx
xi.
in he stood in.
andshe saw
M- ri
kja
jampeser. Au17. A ujeku.
xef-a?
ujeku:
?
You
Bush-fowl:
&
she said
& Bush-fowl was-sad.
sit
not will
(Bush fowl was sad. She said to Bush-fowl:
Won't you sit down?)
ME- xef, aa. Par enxazc
jaul:
18. A ujgku
pjaul:
hm. For dare-not to_spy_to_her:
& Bush-fowl said-her: 1111 sit
de
he
did
For
I'll
down.
f
(And Bush-fowl said to her- Ye's
not
sit
Uo
kawa.
itim
say to her:
19. Wund-ro faar
ri bia.
We did divide names in way. Animal was-ashamed.
)
(We
here.
He
' chose our names on our way
was ashamed.
to
21. Uj8ku
uniew.
ri uxaand. A umaal niaj
ruka
in outside. & Hare entered house.
Bush-fowl'stayed
)
(Bush-fowl
Hare
in.
went
while
stayed outside,
bkul
br8a,
ka
kaka
pya
ptaaban
22. Aa
peni
ri
pram
ngaax
them fire,
to-go to-light
Till woman again (ot) come-out from shelter
(Then the woman of the house was coming from the kitchen in her
)
fire
for
them,
to
light
the
to
turn in order
go
Ank
23. a nai
xi
nAx
xi,
uxi
uxaand
ujgku
found Bush-fowl in outside in he stood in
&'she(sp)
(and she found Bush-fowl outside where he was standing. )
24.
8ku
Uj
A na - ja
m- ri
wul:
& she said him: Bush-fowl
you not
(She said to him: Bush-fow12
viontt
25.
A ujeku
raaxul
& Bush-fowl
not-reply-her
(But Bush-fowl
did not
)
the fire,
Aa
=ek.
Till
only.
say anything.
kniaj-a?
enter?
will
)
in?
you go
taaban br8a,
aingaax niaj
&(sp) lit
fire,
woman entered
At last
the woman went in and lit
A, Bsent
ja ayenul
26. a na - p8ni
naxong ni,
aithis,
& she came-out &(sp)say husband-her: Hm,Vincent,
guest
(and came out and said to her husband: Hm, Vincent,
about this
27. nako
kaax
totul
kanhan,
mtum -a? X6pan, ki
hand
person has-not mouth ? Go
you'll(sp)
pull-him
(hasn't he got any mouth? Go and pull him in by his hand, )
293
)
guest,
Hb
Man-ja
28. ng
jaankmaax.
niaj
ank
uniew.
nhaakanaanul
a
nor
he-will
when speak-to-him. & tired replied-not.
enter thus house. I
(so that he may go inside.
I kept talking
to him and talking
to him,
but he did not say anything. )
A ga - x6p
29. A xmaal bux au- yer ri bkaab auchi xi pji.
& Hare also & he fell on bed & he was in laughing. & they went
(To add insult
Hare fell
to injury,
on the bed and was laughing.
They went on,
Is
A
br6m.
30- te
a bai
uf8ri
u- chi
& dinner dished-up & fiaished-here
it
till
was night.
)
(till
brought
dished-up
dinner
Then
the
and
out,
was all
nightfall.
Baxong,
31. a paf
Ja:
uniew, aiuyamax unkambe, a na -niajand
Guests,
&(sp)
house
&
brought
& put-on meat
said:
she
pig
(pork added to it, and then she brought it inside the house and said:
Guests, )
A xmaal ji
32. da - nkcan d- re pre.
a xef.
un&x
&
Hare
laughed
food.
&
sat.
standing-up
eat
get-up
you
you
(get up and eat. Hare laughed, and sat up. )
33. Auauxenk nai - suax, au- r8ar pkaarria.
re uyam x unkambe, te
& he call gourd.
till
& he found he(sp)full
& he ate meat
pig
)and
he
(He was eatingthe
hunger
his
till
he
felt
called
satisfied,
pork
for the calabash to be taken away, )
ko.
br6m. Reex
34. A bai - ynk. Uj&ku
a f6r
pinx
& they(sp) took. Bush-fowl lay-down & slept night,
ate-not thing..
(and they took it away. Bush-fowl lay down and spent the night without
)
eating anything.
kawet
Ittai
fan,
ja
uniew,
niaj
35. Aur05
namp6li
uk.
un8,
u- chi
,
(cp)
house
it
enter
sweep
& it
rising
sun girl
was morning
when
(When it was morning, at sunrise,
the girl
came in to sweep the house ,
ba
TO riala
j8kanda xmaal xijar
36. aum- me uko
ni
uxaand,
& she was-met Hare have-for with outside
you know animal had eaten(p)l
(and she found Hare going outside to the toilet,
since, as you know,
)
he had eaten to satisfaction,
i=ig
Auau37. auruk
uxaancl
xep
suax.
& he went outside open-space & he left
& he was-satisfied.
(and was full.
in the open space and left...
He went to the toilet
38.
kor
uigk. u
wul ri
Bush-fowl
him in
alone
(Bush-fowl
in the house
)
Bush-fowl,
:
uniew. A napax jaul
house. & child
said-him
And the child
by himself.
A,
xj&kuj
Hm2 Bush-fowl,
said to him:
M- bi
juabaxer ink we?
39. ampxong
rina k& you are-sad
thus what? You came visiting
now you'll
(why are you sad in this way? You came to visit
us, and
like this? )
.
Aukor
jaul:
40. Xmaal, kchapan ink
wul.
Hare he'll
thus alone him. & he said-her:
chatter
(Hare himself keeps chattering
in this way. And he said
294
Well,
juabaxer
ink?
be-sad
thus?
now you are sad
to her: )
Hb
lenx we?
Ba a- ja
41. A, napax, md m- chi xi bfexar ni
xmaal,
I-shall
Hm, child,
say what? But one when you are in friend with Hare,
(Hm, child,
)
I
has
When
Hare
for
his
friend,
say?
one
what shall
br6a. Wunda-p6ni
42. kkuma
a wund-chi
yer
ri bga, a xmaal ja
We
fall
fire.
were in way, & Hare said that
went-out & we
you'll
(you. will
into fire.
As we left
fall
our place to come here and were orL
our way, Hare said that)
ka - jas,
itim.
Katimul
Baxong bki,
43. wundka, - faar
Name-his will be-called
Guests these,
we- shall dividenames.
(we shall each take a name. That his name will be Guests, )
Babi
bki.
44. a inji
a n-A
n-jaa
(cp)
You-who-came these.
I be-called
&I&I
(and me, I sould be called You-who-came. )
bkul.
45. A, ba katim, Babi
chix
xi mtum, a- chi Baxong kor
Guest alone
in mouth, it
is
Hm, but name You-who-came i6-not
they.
(Hm, but nobody ever calls the name You-who-came; it is only Guests all
the time. )
in-kaax
bi
kul
bi2
Pdeony-him
a n-ruka niran,
n-A
(r/p)accept
I have-not what I (0p)
&I
what,
)
I have accepted it2 I have no way of getting
it.
out of
ba
katim.
47. ba nako
a -chakes ba a jok
(p) & grabbed (p) name.
but person. he first
)
( but he jumped in first
took
for
the
himself.
and
name
46. A uja
& it-when
(Novi that
48.
da - ja
do - ja
baxong bki
Mbon, wul ka w8n ink
rin,
it
has that thus you when you
Well
say guests these only,
(Well,
that is just why when you say the word guests, )
49.
6n.
D6
ja
baxong
bki,
da
ka
kaan
nul
- moban pxefi,
these you
the-one.
You-will
take
he will
say guests
seat,
cry
(he will
You say, guests,
take a seat, )
be the one to reply.
DO ja -baxong bki
da - niajan
50. nul ka - xef On.
he will
say guests these you enter
sit the-one. You-will
(he is the one who sits down. You say, guests, go inside, )
51.
Da - roox
totin
knul ka - niaj
On.
(ct)pull-me
You
had-not
the-one.
he will
enter
(he is the one who goes inside.
If you had not
)
I would have spent the night
ouside.
52.11bon,
Well
(Well,
ka
a dai
x8nganLuf6ri
& you(sp)(ct)bring
dinner
in the
and then you bring
uniew,
house,
ja
baxong
bki.
a dai
& you(sp)
say guests these.
dinner
and you say Iguests'.
53.
A na-chi
kangander
bkaab, par ubon
xi pji,
a m-pinx
& he is
in laughing
&I
lay
bed
for hunger
cry-wet
(He keeps laughing
at me and I lie making my bed wet with
I am hungry. )
54.
A na-re
& he eat
(He eats
Aarind
pre
a na-xgnk
nai
pkaanda.
food & he find
he(sp)
call-you
calabash.
the food,
and then he yet calls
you to take
295
the
ka - rein.
eat-me.
will
tears because
calabash
away. )
Hb
Da - nL-, m
dy&nk uf8ri.
You get-up you Ill take dinner.
dad! Get up and have your dinner.
Hb
jej
69. a k1ret
Aute.
ri kanaanh xjgku.
mmaaj kao - sual
in bag
Bush-fowl.
& he took maize he(op) stuffed
& gnavied till,
(and gnawed at it till
he was satisfied.
Then he took the -maize and went
)
Bush-fowl.
the
bag
it
into
on stuffing
of
kao - sual
ri kamaanh xjgku
Bush-fowl
in bag
he(ep) stuffed
into Bush-fowl Is bag)
leaves and stuffir)gthem
i6nk
ii
A
ifetar
baar
iul.
me
mmmaaj,
u- xenknai
them. & husks maize as you Imovi as-thuE
finish
he found-with-here
The maize husks, which as you know)
them-all.
he found he finished
itambaul,
70. Kao - jej
He(op) took outer-leaves
(Then he kept taldng outer
71- te
till
(till
72.
ifetax
ka - kiret
uko
(ot)
gnaw husks
animal
(the animal gnaws husks
i6^ - buax ni
WU1 3?i MtUM q
they fill
with him in mouth,
)
fill
his
they
till
mouth,
bfal
kawet
bi
baand
kBi
blay
uniew
73. kaO napax
uniew.
yer xi
(cp)
fall on floor house. When child (ct) came when sweep houseu
(fell then on the floor of the house. In the morningt when thechild was
)
house,
the
to
sweep
coming
ja
ifetar
74. a na - wini
mmaaj, a na - tuk ai& she saw-there husks maize & she ran &(sp) said
(and savi there the maize-husks,
she ran and said to
ba
75- A, Paapu, baxong bki
reinja
mmaaj uchapi
&
those
they
Hm, dad,
seed
eat-us
maize
guests
(Hm, dad, those guests have eaten our maize-seed all
asinul
father-her
her father:
kuma:
that:
)
ba.
finish.
)
up.
kuma:
u- ja
he said that:
)
away:
ka
kai
n&xa
rill
get-up %,
will(sp)
(shall
I then get up
You-who-came
did it?
bki.
Babi
Mja
k1ret
rix
mmaaj.
these.
You-who-came
You
not say
gnaw maize.
to gnaw at the maize. Why don't
you say that
)
kangg6ngg
te
A
umaal,
79. A xjgku
na-me
a
nantoy
yengander rek.
Hare,
he
heard
&
knew
&
& Bush-fowl was-silent
cheating
only.
man
(But the Bush-fowl kept silent.
And the man of the house heard it and
knew-Hare's deceit, )
irig,
d8 jaka
jampesain,
Baxongji bki
xep
gul:
them: Guests-my these you-will
forgive-me
go out
vie-shall
to them: My guests, excuse me, please, vie shall go outside, )
ka
tambtambanind
i
81. kai
me
mmaaj.
nhaan
nan-rein
I'll
know person who eat-me who maize.
vrill(sp)deposit-droppings-your
(you will
deposit your droppings there and I shall know who ate my maizj
80. a na-ja
& he said
(and. said
297
tamb
ibex
ikay
au82. A ba - xep irig,
a xjgku jita
& B-fowl squatted& he deposited droppings dry.
& they went out
(They went out and Bush-fowl squatted and deposited dry droppings)
jitai
ni
uyamax. A xmaal k83. par pre pi
u- re pi
(ct)squatted-here
Hare
&
he
for food which
ate which with meat.
(because the food which he had eaten was with meat. Haxe scarcely
)
squatted,
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
bul.
kalon
bmaaj
kor
baf6ka.
ruka
auchi
chuari
au(r/p)was
maize alone it.
it
loose-stool&
& he had-diarrhoea
one
(he passed loose stool which turned all into maize. )
6n.
ka
A,
Mbon, bxmaal, wi
wul:
r6 ja
- niamlen
the-one.
lose
Well, they (op)said him: Hm, Haxe
you will
(Well, they said to him: Hm, Hare, you are the one who, lost. )
da
mexinji,
Ila viundka xi
ma
ivutind
- xisan
leave-you but you go-home from house-my
But vie-shall
)
home,
house
(But we shall let you go, nevertheless
and go
get out of my
Mbon,
jaul
Auwundka - xis.
Inji
mak.
nagebelen
ng1lax
Well,
&
he
returil'
like-not
vie-shall
trouble-maker
I
said-him:
much.
(I don't like trouble makers very much. And he said to him: Well, we
)
home.
shall go
ubos.
nhaan
Da - lipan,
bkul:
A nantoy ja
m6n - xendind
dog.
I-shall
You
them:
person
& man
give-you
wait,
said
(The man said to them: Wait, I shall give you a dog each. )
la
kchax kteb,
A na - x6p
ai&(sp)
& he
twisted
ropes two
vient
(He went, twisted
two ropes,
and tied
the house. )
inside
ka
katim
blay.
Mbon,
Gi
ulon
ub8s
go.
a na-xB
xmaal achi xi
he was in yard. Well
& he put dog one name will
They Hare
(Hare and his companion were in the yard outside.
Well and he
Kanhaay
Mon,
Sombasombo.
jaa
91.. Kanhaay, a na-A
ulon uKanhaay
Well,
& he put one he
Sombasombo.
Kanhaay
called
(Sickly
Sickly)
the
he
Burly.
Well,
said
called
one
, and
92.
Auliaf.
chi usempatel.
achi kon kan - r5mb ki
big
It
it
viho body.
was stocky-built.
vias tInt who
)
(was the one who was big.
It was stocky-built.
93.
Ybon,
Well,
(Well,
Sombasombo won
Sombasombo that
Burly
that
auxas
pchax.
& he seek death.
was on the point
Yilaanx
Not-able
of dying.
ichar,
a na-chilani
ank gul,
a na-gaang
thus them & he brought-out
& he tied
ropes
he put the ropes on their
necks and brought
)
them:
to
ropes out and said
94.
Yhon,
Well
(Well,
95.
Pchar
Rope
(Here
kachxan
Xmaal ni
Sombasombo pi.
Hare
Sombasombo this.
with speeding
is the rope of Burly. Haxe with that
298
pya.
to-go.
He could
jaa
ba-called
on
called
kam6nx k8n
the-Paid
haxdly
walk.
a na-ja
gul:
& he said them:
the ends of the
ja:
mtum wul k6n
aumouth his that & he said:
)
quick mouth of his'said:
Hb
96. Vlulin
pchar Sombasombo. Auwaj
pohax.
Give-me rope Sombasombo. & he grabbed rope.
(Give me the rope of Burly. And he
)
the
grabbed
rope.
97. A xj&ku
tot
ruka ykik pchar Kanhaay. Bi
bi
98
gul
& Bush-fowl (r/p)took
rope Kanhaay. When they(cp) pulled when them
(It was left
to Bush-fowl to take the rope of Sickly.
When they
pulled them)
98. ri
uniew, a g6
p9ni uxaand,
a xmaal ruka win Sombasombo.
from house & they(cp)
& Hare (r/p)see
Sombasombo
came outside
(from the house and they came outside,
Hare came to realize
that
Burly)
99. chi won Kanhaay, par kaax
ja
kuma:
uliaf,
auis
& he -said that:
one Kanhaay for had-not body
(was the one who was sickly,
for he was thin, and he said: )
100. Jelca - x6xan gb8s. A xjgku
A ga - x9p te
pok.
ri bga
Vle-shall swap dogs. & Bush-fowl refused.
& they went till
on way
(Let us exchange our dogs. Bush-fowl refused.
They went till
on the way)
101. a xmaal ja
wul: Yen ron k- ya pxong
a nai
xiji
ub8s.
& Hare said him Who ever (ct)go visiting
& he(sp) lead dog.
(Hare said to him: Who ever goes to pay a visit
and then comes away
leading a dog. )
102. G
fing
A xj6ku
ka
gb6sinja,
gre.
ri
pok a ja
Let-us
kill
dogs-our,
let-us
deny&. sav not will
eat. & Bush-fowl
(Let us kill
our dogs and eat them. But Bush-fowl
said he would
kill
his. )
103. Ka - xiji
ubos wul uHell lead dog his he
(He said he would take
xisand
par uko
bring-home
for animal
his dog home, because
104. A xmaal ja
wal: 1116- fing.
& Haxe
1111 kill.
said him
(Hare said:
I'll
kill
mine.
for
Lipin
Wait-me
Wait for
him. )
l1lan
uliaf.
body.
pretty
he was well built.
mS - fing.
I'll
kill.
me, I will
fing.
kill.
not
Au-.
lip
wul.
& he waited
him.
kill
him. And he waited
105. A u- fing
Aua-chau.
ruk- ben bjenx. Auruk ben rin.
& he killed
& he left head clean. & he left head only.
& roasted.
(He killed
it and roasted it and left
He left
a skull.
only a head. )
106. A ga - pen te
baand
kanxieli
kalon,
g8
a gbacha
p6ni.
& they went till
they(c-o) came plain
& gazelles
one
came-out.
lo
(They went on and
came
a certain
plain and gazelles came out. )
107. A xj6ku
wutan Kanhaay wul, au -ruak
te
ubkha
& Bush-fowl sent Kanhaay his
& he hunted gazelle till
(Bush-fowl sent his Sickly
and he hunted the gazelle till).
108. ux8nknai
Mbon, a xmaal a- pe
a- mob
a fing.
wul ptuk,
he caught & killed.
meeting-with-there
Well, & Haxe he more him run.
meeting with it,. he caught it and killed
it. Well, Hare could run
faster than he, )
299
Hb
Aupokes.
& he denied it.
was the dog of Bush-fowl.
115. Nasien ri
ka - ka
Mbon, bga bi
bi
ub,:cha ri breng.
u- wixna
(ct)
Chief
have gazelle in forest.
Well way which he turn-byiid&j'
not
(Chief has no gazelles in the forest.
Well, the way by which he might
turn)
116. ufex u- ja:
fing On
kaxe
kawa.
a- chi inji
chi. Uko
back he say: it
kill
the-one no-longer was. Animal ashamed.
was I
(back to say: I was the one
it, no longer was open to him.
who killed
He was ashamed. )
117. Xjeku
jej
A ga - x8p a go**'
baand
uyamax a xisand.
Bush-fowl took meat
& carried-home.
& they went & they(cp) came
(Bush-fowl took the meat and
carried it home. They went on and they
arrived
at)
118. mex
xieku
a ga - loj
uyamax. A xjeku
ng&l pwul wul bjelan.
house Bush-fowl & they divided meat.
& Bush-fowl like give him portion
(Bush-fowl's
house when they aivided the meat. Bush-fowl wanted to give
)
him a portion
of meat.
119. A xmaal ja
kuma uko
kiwatan
xii
& Hare
said that
animal has girl-friends
(Hare said that he had five
girl-friends.
kanh&n. U--ja
kako
He said piece_
five.
When each pibce
120. ki
ka - fala
ki
ja
ka - Angan
uuse
uyuatan
(ct)
be-cut
which
take
which he said will
house fathei-of-girl
(was being cut he said he
would take to the house of his
)
father.
girl-friend's
121. A xieku
& Bush-fowl
(Bush-fowl
rukanda
was-left
was left
kon
bjelan
biole.
Mbon, a xmaal jej
only portion
Well
one
& Hare
took
Well,
with only one portion.
Haxe took
300
wul.
his.
uyamax vnxl,
hist
meat
his meat, )
Hb
Bi
122. a xO ri kamaanh, aubi
xisand.
xmaal xisand
&'he
When Hare carried-home when
& put in bag
carried-home.
(putting
it in his bag, and he carried
it home. When he brought it..
bi
ba,
a(3. - pexan uar wul, bi u- fal
aux6p,
how he cheat how
& he went & Sp) talked wife his
finished,
to his wife about how he cheated...
home, he then went talking
...
6ku
A uar wul ja
blipal.
kuma a- pe
124. xjeku,
wul:
xj
123. a u& he
Bush-fowl,
(3ush-fowl,
he
that
and that
more 3ush-fowl
cleverness.
than he.
he is more clever
kwaam.
m- waam,
(ct)
are-glutton.
you axe-glutton
than he. You axe just a big glutton. )
AP
ink
kan
Ma
inji
Inji
126. A u- ja
waamax.
wul:
But I
& he said her: I
am-not-glutton.
shall I go thus
(He said to her: I am not a glutton.
Anyway, I am on my way to go...
125.1-1- peex
wul blipal,
You more-not him clever
(You are not more clever
111.
Uliafinji
bnonx.
Man-rianaanul.
127. use
xjgku
Body-my
did-cheat-him.
house Bush-fowl playing. I
pleasant.
)
(
happy.
I
him.
I
him.
house
to
to Bush-fowl's
am
visit
-cheated
...
kuma ka - ya katen
128. A u- baand rin,
uyamax,
ruka
x8p,
a ujeku
that will
& Bush-fowl(r/p)
& he came only
go to-see meat,
go,
(As soon as he arrived,
Bush-fowl went away saying that he would go
to have a look at the meat, to see... )
jont
129. ne uko a-wara ank. Auqh,t
uyamax au -ruka jau
he jumped
& he pecked meat & it(r/p)when
if thing good if
(if the meat was good. He pecked the meat, and kept jumping up and)
B61a b6la b6la.
ja:
130. rina
auu - yer xi uxia
bla
bla.
to ground & he said:
Bla.
he fell
straight-away
(immediately
to the ground and kept saying: Bla, bla, bla. )
he fell
k.&ti
ka - mob Nvul, au131. Xmaal tukai
au -ja
wul:
prim plole,
(ct) catch him, & he, raise voice one
& he says him:
Hare ran-here
(Hare ran to him and was catching him, and he raised his voice very much
and said to him :)
banene.
132.0,
wan uko x8a
xmaal, uyamaxinji
that, thing was-put poison.
Oh, Hare,
meat-my
(Oh, Hare, that meat of mine was poisonous. )
133. Rina
wul, kuma ka - mint kalon,
pxep mex
umaal m&r ptuk
Immediately Hare tore to-run to-go house his
that
will run one
(Immediately
the Hare started
to run to his house saying he would run
fast, )
baand
134. re
ubok wul bi
naam re uyamax, auchax. Aulest son his (sp) seem eat meat
& he die.
& he arrived
(so that his son would not think of eating the meat and dying.
he came, )
135. a ruka yonx uyamax, a guz
ri IrIff
a baax
rul.
& throw in outside & finish
r/p) carry meat
there.
(and, bit by bit,
carried the meat on his headt throwing it
)
he
till
had
left.
outside
none
And
away
He I Hd
lip
kankuel a- kuel.
136. Uieku
aux8p a i- jej
uyamax,
dusked & it
it
Bush-fowl waited dusk
went &(sp)took meat,
(Bush-fowl waited till
dusk, then he went and took the meat, )
A- ba
kank.
137. a xisand
mex wul. Umaal peetir kul.
it.
It
finished
& took-home house his Hare lost
that-so.
(and carried it home. Hare D3st it. It is finished. )
,
Hc.
kob xi uxia.
hit on ground.
him down. )
32. Ubaand
a uar wul ja
wul: A, Patron, m- ro 6m amch5r ri ukam?
Coming
& wife his said him: Hm,Patrono you do how & you quick in fight',
(When he came back, his wife asked him: Hm, Patron, how is it that you
)
back
from
the
fight?
axe
so soon
Hd. TIM HFAD WHICHWAS NOT DEAD.
2.
4-
9.
11.
12.
An uyamax mak?
Om ri m- rl
BIbon, a nhaan jaul:
Well
& person said-him:
How as you want as meat
much?
(Well, and someone asked him: How is it that you want meat so much?)
Sim, amja m- rl
a na-jaul
uyamax, ma uchi uyamax,
& he said-him
Yes, & you say you want meat
but if
meat
(and he said to him: Alright,
)
but
if
do,
you
so you say you want meat,
ba
ra - p9n
ungaay amwin uyamax.
raayan, ki
(p)
& you watch
you go-out
walk
you(sp) see meat.
(if you go for a walk and look well, you will find meat. )
Mbon, m&n - x8p kajaar.
ke5mand.
Rukaan jej
ben b8n ki
Well, I'll
Remain take head this you(sp) prepaxe.
go ploughing
(Well, I am going to plough. Take this head
)
it.
and prepaxe
Lipan, md - nb=a
katopachir
ben parsk
kaO' - baand no - lenxarin
Wait
I'll
head because he(cp)come
he(ctell-off-me
get-up preparing
(Wait, I'll
get up and prepa-re the head, because when he comes home,
he will
tell me off. )
Ariangga,
She lifted
(She lifted
bul ptibi
kapak, a ben
bux
a na - ja
ch&ti
& she
said it
matchet whack, & head jumped-here
also
the matchet
and whacked it hard, and the head jumped up, )
bux.
Mbon, a na
a i-jej
ptibi
a tibul
kaka
nLxa,
&-(p)tDckmatchet & hit-it
Well
& she
also.
again got-up,
(and took the matchet and hit it back. Well,
she got up again, )
302
He
20. A, kai
Hm, Itll(sp)
(Well, there
ka - jau
ruku
rukaan topachir
afer,
leave-you I'll
tell-you
thing,
remain prepare
you are: I leave you and tell you to fix up this thing)
baand
jaka
kemand
21. a kao
aferinja....
& I'll(cp)
come vie - shall Prepare thing-our
(and when I come we shall prepare our thing....
22. Mhon, m-i - yandaar a ux
bul, amles
re bul, km- nimaaxa.
Well, I'll
& xoastAt
& you eat it
go
ied
you'llremember
you unmam?
(Well, I am going to roast it, but if
you eat it, remember, we axe not
)
married.
23. A ngaax jaul
bux:
A, im. - pokax
umgnx
& vioman said-him also:
Hm, I
deny-not
the-said
(And his wife said to him: Well, that's
alright
with
w6n.
that.
)
me.
1.
2.
3.
I.Thon,
Well,
(Well,
dried.
4-
5.
bi
brem
u--ron
ujuchich
ya
auwin
I'Abon,
Well, Vulture
whenhy1hen& he saw as night
(Well, when Vulture saw that it was getting
to rain, )
a ga - wal
& they were-fishing
they were fishing
)
te
,
till
till
6.
xi pwal
in tidal-pool
pmgnx
the-said
p6n.
that.
ja
ten baxi: us6bal ka - bi
auumaal: E, xmaal, tenan k(ct) look sky:
& he said Hare
Hm, Hare,
look
rain
will
come
(he said to Hare: Hm, Hare, look, just look
at the sky: it is going to
rain)
20. A uvrux
ja:
A- chi yen? A xmaal jaul:
A- chi inji.
& leopard
is
is
I.
said: It
who? & Hare said-him: It
(The leopard said: Who is it. Hare
)
It
is
I.
said:
40. A xmaal nkcai
aurukar
wul gxeb, aupen pxis.
& Hare got-up & he left-for
him fish
& he went to-return.
(Hare got up, left
the fish for him to take and went on his way home. )
303
cm
3.
4-
bupul
bi da - ngom bi ni aaru,
ama un8 lingg,
a na - xis,
& she
& sun right
as with wife & you beat-her
return
as you quarrel
(when you quaxrel
to her
with your wife and beat her, and she returns
)
father's
house,
then,
time
'..
at a convenient
*
Kja
bkul.
bkul:
Sim, mam-bi
ri aarinji,
amx6p mex
You-will
& you go house their.
come to wife-my,
say them: Yes II
(you go to their
house. You will
I have come concerning
say: Well,
my wife
B6ka
jau:
D8
vrond - xis.
You-will
They-will
let-us
say-you:
go-home.
(I want her to come home with me. They will
16.11bon,
Well,
(Then
a ninx ka - ruka ja
(X/P)say
& man will
the man will
say to
17.
Inji
mam-bi
on,
(sp)
I
I
the-one
(I am the one who put
18.
in
- ri
kam
-purir
I
not shall can
(I have nothing left
19.
bux
also
them:
Ukeesee,
bkul:
them:
Complaint,
The complaint
is
1&chul
a m-buara,
&I
be-plenty
blamed-her
blame on her, and plenty,
pka
unhaakan
to-have word
to say, )
aarinji.
plach
ma, mam-buar
to-blame
but I
wife-my.
plenty
(except
that I put too much blame
n-A
wi
whichI
22.
wul, a - chi
is
it
it
true. )
ma benten,
but please
but please
(cP)
)
over.
uchar.
true.
da - perdiaaxi
forgive,
you
)
forgive
me,
Wit
nhaakan
which,
speak
)
her.
on
da
Sim,
jaul:
20.111bon, boka
- xisan.
-Yes you
Well
they will
go-home.
say-him:
(Well,
they will
say to him: Yes, take your
let it happen again)
21.
plenx. '
watan
talk
make-fall
say to you: Talk it
Ma utebanxen
But second-time
wife home. But
xnot
don't
xan
xi xari.
that in today.
(as a repetition
bUPu1
ba
1.9- kaka
a na - xisi
(p)
beat-her
&
You again
she return-here
If you beat her again and she returns
of today.
inindkai
vie - shall(sp)
(vie shall
take
be
there will
ka - wul
penandul
give
will
go-out-make-her
her from you and give her
no more)
23. bupa
beaten
(beating.
304
ka
liave
let
here)
Bnim,
ka - kaxe
nalon.
Marriage
no-more
one.
will
to someone else.
In the marriage
CF
1.
b6ka
Uchi nhaan maak,
j6nd
pyaarul
kabol.
If
they- will
begin to-fetch-him
person is-sick
sacrifice
(If a person is seriously
ill,
people will
start preparing a sacrificial
)
him,
for
ceremony
2.
boka
bolax
te
blieng,
te
boka
me ko
wi
till
they- will
till
they -will
know thing which
sacrifice
all
(until
they have sacrificed
all and come to know why)
APand
Uchi nai
boka
kai
na-maak
wi.
chax,
ugok,
he is-sick
he(sp) dies, they-will
take
fowl, will(sp)
which. If
(he got sick. If he then dies, they will
take a fowl, and give it)
3.
wul.
give
4-
kai
ichan
nangguran,
nangguran
ri uchaay, ng - me uchuasul,
divine=,
diviner
divine by demon heIll
know cause-deabhf
will(sp)
(to the diviner
divine with the help of the demon and
who will
)
find
the
death,
will
out
cause of
5.
bkul,
ne pchax a- china
ank xi, use
a ne a- re ank k- re kakux.
(ct)ate
if death it
is -by if
in house their
& if he ate if
"food".
(if the cause of death is to be found in their family,
or if he used toest;
)
witchcraft-food.
6.
Uler uchuas,
boka tiemanul,
boka p9nandiul,
Time , cause-death,
they will
dress-him,
they will bring-out-him,
(At the time of the inquest,
they will
dress the corpse, *bring it out, )
kai - xO ri bkaab pOM,
boka xas banhnnn babaaker,
bed
four
will(sp)puton
seek people
corpse, they will
(will
put it on a bier,
get four people)
boka Nabich
ka - chuas
y8nxul.
xi pbuam.
they
Corpse-dresser
hold-inquest
in
before-door.
will
carry-him.
will
U
(to carry it. The corpse-dresser
enquire about the cause of death
will
in the doorway. )
7.
S.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
305
PR2 CR
ka - enx pl6t
14- Uchi na-90ngg, ri
kall.
If
he lied
dare cross ju-ju.
not
will
(If he had lied,
he will
not dare to cross
Nangguxan ka - jaul:
Diviner
will
say-him:
the ju-ju. )
15.
Wi
kakux.
Xbanhaan.
Da
bkaab.
wunda-me
mre
noran
,
- welani
You Vic
know you ate "food"
Not tire
You put-doyrn bed.
people.
(Listen,
food.
Stop worrying
vie know that you have eaten witch-craft
)
Put
bier
the
down.
everybody.
16.
Boka
welan
They-will
put-doim
(They put the bier
hand him)
17
na
p8m
corpse that-he
(the corpse to
digger climbs
moy
bury
bury
out
bkaab,
bed
on the
ka - wela
baar, bo^ka
najep
- y8arul
digger
they-will
will
go-down hole
pass-him
the digger
the hole,
they
ground,
gets into
I
ri
in
it
of
Naj6p
ka - p6ni.
uchen,
a n6 - ba.
horizontal-holell;
e(cp) finish. Digger. will
get-out
in the horizontal
grave and he does. The gravethe hole, )
ni
with
(to
nhaan,
person
n8 - xasul
he OP) seek-him
yerler
be-friends
pkamanul.
to-fight-him.
against
him. )
1.
ba
kkiay ko...
Kk8 K
utul.
chet,
penarl
take-out gleanings.
You'll
break, you'll
finish
You'll
you'll
wait thing
(I.Whenyou have finished
the harvest,
you take the gleanings away. Then
)
for
a while...
you vrait
10. Boka
ba,
bok
katan
a
chet,
uruka
chi
umaani.
break & they- will
finish
They- will
it
remains be to-bind rice.
(When they have finished
the harvest,
it remains to bind the rice. )
12. I-la-fin
ktul wi
ka - chi xi kaay
uler vii
plenx
upax
I forgot to-say time which you'll
sowwhich children
will be in watching
(I forgot to say that at the time of sowing, the
children
will bewabchin
13. pa gkach rix re.
UjOnd
ka wul ka - beba
ay
gchaxa
(ct) be-graining
to birds not eat. Beginning it
will
watch monkeys
(the birds,
so that they don't eat it. When it begins to fill
with grain,
they will watch the monkeys, )
14.
pa gul
xtavi
umaani.
to they not tear rice.
(so that they don't
tear
the
rice.
306
para aninul
for
mother-her
her mother)
cs
2.
A ba - j8k ni
nalon ninx, a n8 - xisi
ulon uchaak.
& they met vrith one
& he(cp)return-here
man
one country.
(They met with a certain man who had just returned
from another country.
A i. - xijul
Kinta, a x6pand
katoul.
4. A na-cha
te
n6
ron
& he took Kinta
house-his&(sp)kept-her
& took
till
he(cp) then
(He took Kinta and brought her to his house. He kept her till
eventually)
buatanul,
kato.
a banhaan kakron a ni - wixai
(ct)
(ct)
& People
then & she returned house.
weaned-her&
(people weaned her and eventually
)
to
her
house.
she returned
Xi uchaak wund, uchi napax b6ka,
a n6 maakenker,
In country-our
if
& he(cp)
is-sick-like,
child is-born
(In our country,
if a child is born, and it is sickly, )
ka - wbt
kam- baandi i ng - mobul,
7. nhaan 'ni
xi uxia,
take-him
throw on ground
person who will
will
come who he'll
(anyone who comes into the house will
take him and throw him on the
ground)
a. n8 - pulpulan,
n8 - lenxazul ne
a- chi ank uko
o ng - jej
he(cp) tell-him
he(cp) drag
if
he is
if
take
animalor he'll
(and drag him about, he will
chide him for being non-human, or take)
txa
9. plombaj kaS
tuchanaanul,
uchi
na-chi
uko
ng
- chx pw:
hetll(cp)
beat-him
if
he is
stick
animal he'll
quick to-return
(a stick and give him a whipping,
so that, if he is a non-human, he
would return speedily)
10. ri bachinx,
nul xnoran
aninul.
to companions, he not-tire
mother-his.
(to his equals, and not worry his mother. )
3.
1.
tibna
2.21-VI You hit-vrith
(If you hit
ba
ute5nic,
(past)squirrelv
a squirrel
with
rin
uhe
straight-away
it,
it ddes straight
.A
yer.
falls.
)
away.
Ma utgrik
k
a- noi: z'
j6p par u-j
ep
pi
urelander
it
tire
But squirrel
to-dig (ct)
dig for
he digs-here safety-exit
(But squirrels
)
axe hard to dig out, because they dig safety-exits,
kUler wi
win urelander.
par m- ri
m- ng.l wi - pmob wul,
for you not you-will
see safe ty-e xit. Time when you like when catch-him,
(because you can't see a safety exit. When you
)
to
it,
want
catch
307'
SG, EH
10. u-
rin
straight-away
through with
tuk.
kai
u- peni,
he comes-out, will(sp)
run.
his head and comes out straight
urelanaer
ubi
he rams-here safety-exit,
(he pushes the safety-exit
)
away, and escapes.
ka - ka
kuler ivi
Para uchi m- ru
ru
wul I ri
(0t)
in
time
have
it
For if
not
will
smoke
you smoke
(Because if you smoke him out, he will not have time to dig. )
vii
&pna
u-j
he cliffFin
I en
kwaanx, kbaaker...
Plole, ktebarl
o, ma-niam
A na-pin:
four
three
two
oh I am-confused
& he counted: One
Oh$ I am confused)
(He counted: one, two, three, four
...
HH. HYENA AND HARE.
1.
10.
11.
12.
25.
bchaagan.
x8p
Ungil ni - umadl
a gai
& they(sp)
went river-dam-fishing.
Hyena and Hare
)
(Hyena and Haxe went to catch fish in a river-dam.
Man-jau
ka - lenxu.
chag
gMbon, man-ro
jaul:
U(ct)
fence
let-us
I
had
I
Well,
say-you
say-you.
He said-him:
let
build
to
I
us
(He said to him: Well,
I was telling
you
said
you.
the fence)
8nk
ko
chix.
VIi
xi
mlik,
chag
kakay.
pok.
amxi
is-not.
thing
in
thus
You
fenced
water,
& you refused.
on dry-land
this
in
like
fence
the
You
(on dry ground,
but you wouldn't.
made
)
it.
in
is
nothing
and there
water,
ikaan.
ka
Xng-11
xi
chi
A
Tenan gx6b xi ptakinji.
ga - xep.
in
be
Hyena
crying.
they
&
will
dam-my.
Look
in
fish
went.
)
Hyena
(Look at the fish
was crying.
in my dam. They went on.
Uchumaal,
ja_
wul:
Xngil
auvral,
x6nki
uya
26.
ja
wi
You when
(You are
take you
m- ron
on
the-one
you always
the one who always
)
away.
Hare,
him:
said
to him: Hare, )
27- M- bi
m-.,, iaap.
You (sp) you sell.
(You axe going to be sold. )
38.
39.
A Y.chmaal
& Hare
(Haxe said:
i
ten
Mon,
da - bili
di
ja:
nan-tana
Well,
who bound-who
you come-here you(spsee
said:
Well,
)
come and see the prisoner.
ka - waapa
i
Nan-tana
on.
v1ho bound vrho will bo-sold the-one.
(The prisoner will be the one who will
308
be sold. )
TO
40. IJ - yilaaiuc
uchi k8 - viaa nhaan, n8 You can-po; if
you'll
soff
rson, he'll
(It is not allowed, if you sJ10 a prisoner.
kaka tanu
kak.
again bind-you again.
for him to sell you again. )
1.
Ab8k najibin
ni
ab6k naamand
Son decoomd-woman and son living-woman
(A child whose mother had died
went with
)
to find kindling.
2.
Ab6k najibin
jaul
ba - ro by8nxeler
Son deceased-L-Tiomansaid-him they do to-lift-on-each-other's-head
(The son of the deceased woman said that they ought to lift
)
head.
onto each other's
3-
Ab8k najibin'
pok.
naamand
a na-k8nggak6ngga
Son deceased- woman & he tried-hard
refused.
surviving-woman
the son of the surviving
The boy whose-mother
woman refused.
died strained hard)
A na-baand, a na-ja
a na-y6nxander.
yayaul:
& he put-on-his-head.
& he came & he saia-milother-his:
(and loaded the kindling
his
on his head. Ile came home and said'ft
)
mother:
A na jaul:
Yaya - o. Wulin
X8pan, ki
jeji
preinji.
ri kalua-C
Mother oh. Give-me food-my. &she caid-him:
Go
you(sp) take in safe.
(Oh, mother. Give me my food. And she said to hims Go and take it from
the food-safe. )
4-
5-
6.
kam8l.
ya
a bai
& they(sP) go to-find-kindling.
a child of a surviving
woman
a
&
the loads
ab8k
son
(but
had
A na-x8p
baand kaluaf,
aia na-jej
pre Ab6k naamand
a re.
& he went & (sp)c=e
& he took food son surviving-woman & ate.
safe
(He went to the food-safe
and took the food of his step-brother
and ate
it. )
7.
Ab8k naamand
bux im8lul,
baand,
a- y8nxi
a n6 Son surviving-woman
he put-on-his-head
& he(op) came,
also kindling,
(His step-brothor
also loaded the kindling
onto his head and came home)
76. Te
ab8k naamand
baaxp
a na-chax
ri baar, a na-tota
ri
Till
& he died
in' hole & he was-pulled
son surviving-woman
from hole,
(UnUl his
died in the hole and when he was being pulled
step-brother
Out Of the hole, )
77.
a na - ruka
(T/P)
& she
(she wan left
toti
p8m ' ruk,
pull-here
corpoo left
with a corpse to pull
78. A- ba.
It
finished.
(The story is finished.
309
a pa-ruka
& it (r/p)
out and it
ijuas
ruk.
left.
coal
came to be all
cazrbonized
BIBLIOGRAPHY
is
to which specific
books and articles
reference
together
in
the
thesis,
the
the
in
with
others
realm
some
of
course
made
helpful
Full
been
in
its
have
linguistics
preparation.
which
of general
This Bibliography
bibliographical
language itself
lists
details
relating
of articles
1.1
Chapter
in
are given
directly
(1963)
A Structure-Function
T.
J.
Bendor-Samuel
Phrases; Canadian Journal of Lingniistics,
(1969)
Holtv
Social Anthropology;
P.
Bohannan
to the Manjako
Description
of Terena
Vol. 8, No. 2 PP- 59 - 70.
Rinehart and Winston.
Inc.
(1968)
World,
Brace
Harcourt,
Languae;
Aspects
and
D.
of
Bolinger
(1955)
Classification;.
Studies in African Linguistic
H.
J.
Greenberg
Compass, Newhaven.
Columbia University,
Indiana
(1963)
Bloomington,
The Languages of Africa;
University.
17,3
(1961)
Grammar;
L10-rd
Theory
the
Categories
of
K.
19. A.
of
Halliday
pp. 241 - 292.
(1964) with McIntosh A. and Strevens P. The Linguistic
Sciences and Language Teaching; London, Longmans2Green.
(1967a)
Notes on transitivity
and theme in English Paxt'2;
3 PP. 199 - 244.
Journal of Linguisticst
(1967b)
Some Aspects of the Thematic Organization
of the
(memorandum
RAND
Corporation
The
English Clause; Santa Monica,
RM-5224-PR)in the
(1969)
Options and functions
clause;
-nglish
No. 8 pp. 81 - 88.
Brno Studies in English,
(1970)
Language Structure
and Language Punctionj;
Lyons J. (Ed. ), PP. 140 - 165,
New Horizons in Linguistics,
R; c-n-Kw; c-r
- -tT: Penguin Books.,
Homburger L. (1941)
Les langues n6gro-africaines
(later
Paris
Parlent;
Payot,
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Hudson R. A. (1971)
Complex Sentences;
English
Grammar; North-Holland.
et les
Introduction
peuples
to
qui
les
Systemic
S. V1. (1854)
Polyglotta
Africana;
Church Missionary
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Reprint,
Fourah Bay College, The University
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( Janua Lingu=lm,
Series Maior 40; The Hague, Mouton)
Linpuistics
pp. 173 - 195.
Introduction
to Theoretical
Linguistics;
Lyons J. (1969)
Cambridge
University
Press.
Koello
Martinet
(1949)
About Cultural