International School of Asia and the Pacific 1

Subject: Forensic Ballistics

Review Notes in

2.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
I. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
The term ballistics evolved from two ancient
words: ballista and ballein. Ballista was the description
of a huge catapult (an ancient military weapon) used by
the Romans to hurl large stones at a particular distance to
kill animals or to fight their enemies. Ballistics basically
means an activity that involves throwing.

Legally speaking, firearms or arms

include rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers, and other deadly weapons from which
bullets, balls, shots, shells, or other missiles
maybe discharged by means of gunpowder or
other explosives. This term also includes air rifles
except those of small caliber and of limited range
that are used as toys. The barrel of any firearm is
considered a complete firearm for all purposes
under the law.

In a technical sense, ballistics is the science of

the motion of projectiles from the moment of firing until
impact at the target. It covers the scientific study of the
propulsion (driving force), flight, and impact (destructive
action) of projectiles.
A. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1.

2.

3.

4.

Internal ballistics, also called initial ballistics deals

with the motion of a projectile while it is still inside
the gun. It is the study focused on what happens
inside the gun during firing.
Transitional ballistics, also known as intermediate
ballistics, is the study of a projectile's behavior from
the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure
behind the projectile is equalized. Therefore, it lies
between internal ballistics and external ballistics.
External ballistics deals with the motion of the
projectile from the time it escapes from the gun
muzzle until it reaches the target. It is the study of
what happens during the bullet's flight.
Terminal ballistics deals with the effect of the
projectile on the target. It is the study of what
happens when the projectile strikes the target.

Another significant area of ballistics is wound

ballistics. Closely associated with terminal ballistics,
wound ballistics is however primarily concerned with the
nature and medical implications of physical injury and
shock caused by bullets and explosively driven fragments.
Forensic ballistics is the more important area of this
science in relation to police works. It is the application of
ballistics principles to legal matters. Forensic ballistics
embodies the principles of internal, transitional, external,
and terminal ballistics.
B. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
1.

PROJECTILE - an object that can be fired or

launched, such as bullet, artillery shell, or rocket;
could be a metallic or non-metallic object propelled
from a firearm

aries gallandez_12

FIREARM - basically termed as a gun; a portable

weapon such as pistol or rifle that discharges
ammunition; technically, it is a weapon consisting
essentially of a metal tube that fires a projectile by
using the force of an explosive propellant; a
firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of the expansive force of
gases coming from burning gunpowder

3.

AMMUNITION - general term applied to metallic

cartridges and shot shells used in firearms; any
unfired assembly of primer, powder and ball which
might be used in a firearm
Legally speaking, ammunition refers to
any loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers, and pistols, from which a
bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile may be
fired by means of gunpowder or other explosive.
The term also includes ammunition for air rifles,
except those that are loaded in toy rifles that have
small caliber and limited range.

4.

PROPELLANT - an explosive charge that projects

a bullet from a gun; the gunpowder loaded in a
cartridge or shotgun shell which, when ignited by
the primer flash, is converted to gas under high
pressure and launches a projectile through the
barrel and on to the target

5.

RIFLING - spiral lands and grooves found at the

bore of the gun barrel

C. INTERNAL BALLISTICS
Since internal ballisticians are interested on what is
happening inside the gun during firing, their analysis
is directed on the following phenomena:
1.
2.
3.

How the firing pin hits the primer

Ignition of the priming mixture
Combustion of the gunpowder/propellant

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 2

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Expansion of heated gases

Development of pressure generation of
energy
Recoil
Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
Engraving of the bullets surface

1.

Terminal penetration - the depth of bullet

penetration on the target
Terminal energy - the striking power/force of
the projectile when its strikes the target.
Terminal velocity - the speed of the projectile
when it strikes the target
Terminal accuracy - the size of the bullet group
on the target

2.
3.
4.

D. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
Trajectory, velocity and range of projectiles are the
more important ballistics phenomena studied by exterior
ballisticians. More significant factors that affect these
external ballistics phenomena are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Interior ballistics data such as: shape of

projectile, caliber of the projectile, projectile
weight, and rotation of bullet
Initial velocity (IV) which also called muzzle
velocity
Air resistance also called drag
Drift
Projectile stability
Gravitational pull

When a projectile hits its target, terminal ballistics

phenomenon that occurs may be one or a
combination of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Indentation
Penetration
Perforation
Ricochet
Fragmentation
Detonation
and
other
related
phenomena
Combustion and incendiary effects

blast

II. FIREARMS
A. HISTORY

TRAJECTORY refers to the curved path of

projectile from the moment it leaves the gun muzzle until it
hits the target. Galileo claimed that trajectory of projectile
is like a parabola however this is true only in a vacuum.

The first firearms that were developed were small

arms in the form of miniature artillery weapons and were
at first called hand cannons. These are classified as
follows.

DRIFT significantly affects the normal trajectory of

projectiles. It refers to the lateral deviation of the bullets
trajectory from the vertical plane through the axis of the
bore caused by the rotation of the projectile.

1. FIRELOCK - a simple, smooth-bore tube of iron,

closed at the breech end except for an opening
called a touchhole. It was set into a rounded
piece of wood for holding under the arm

RANGE simply refers to the linear distance

between the gun muzzle and the target. In exterior
ballistics, the two types of range discussed are:
1.

Accurate range - also called maximum effective

range; the distance within which the shooter has
control of his shots such that he can place his bullets
at the desired specific spots.

2. Maximum range - also called absolute

maximum range; the farthest distance that a
projectile can be propelled from a firearm
AIR RESISTANCE (drag) is the force that
opposes the forward motion of projectiles.

E. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

2. MATCHLOCK - essentially the same as the firelock,

except that the slow match was clamped in the
top of a device called serpentine - an S-shaped
piece of metal pivoted in the center
3. WHEEL-LOCK - has improved firing mechanism
compared to firelock and matchlock; the firing
mechanism consisted of a spring-driven wheel
4. FLINTLOCK - the final development of the flintignition firearm. It resembled the snaphance,
except that the striker plate was L-shaped. The
bottom limb of the L was used as a cover for the
priming pan, to protect the powder from moisture
until the upper limb was struck by the flint of the
hammer.

Terminal ballisticians are involved in studying these

phenomena:

aries gallandez_12

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 3

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
In 1807, the Scottish clergyman named
Alexander John Forsyth invented the percussionignition system that led to the development of the first
effective breech-loading firearms.
Breech-loading
firearms are those loaded through the rear of the
barrel rather than through the muzzle. The first 19thcentury breech-loading guns used cartridge
containing only black powder and a ball. Such
weapons was usually equipped with a nipple holding
a percussion cap that was fired by the impact of the
hammer (or striker) when released by the trigger.
During the early 20th century, before World
War I, rifles were invented that used the forces of
recoil or the pressure of the propellant gases to
operate the reloading mechanism. Some of these
improved weapons fed with continuous belts of
cartridges were called machine guns. The first known
true machinegun was the Maxim gun developed by an
American inventor named Hiram Stevens Maxim.
The earlier versions of automatic rifles are
called semiautomatic because they reload and recock automatically after each shot, and require
release and another pull of the trigger to fire each
succeeding shot.
One of the more popular
semiautomatic rifles that were used during the 2 nd
World War was the caliber 30 M1 Garand rifle
developed by John C. Garand. This rifle was officially
adopted by the US military in January 9, 1936 as the
first automatic rifle to be the standard infantry arm of a
major army.
It was during the 2nd World War that military
troops such as artillerymen, engineers, and signalmen
were armed with the M1 Carbine. The first known
carbine was developed by David Williams a.k.a
Carbine. M1 Carbine was considerably lighter and
has shorter range compared to rifle thus it is more
suited to occasional use for defense.
In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted by the
US Army to replace the M1 carbine. The M16 rifle,
which permits full- or semi-automatic fire, was
introduced in 1966, during the Vietnam War.

2.

Another way to classify firearms is according to gun

barrel internal construction. Basing on interior
construction of the barrel, the two general types of
firearms are:
1.
2.

aries gallandez_12

simply

simply
rifled

Small arms can be categorized also according to

general use and design. Based on this, small arms
can be classified as handguns, shoulder firearms,
machine guns, and sub-machine guns.
Another basis in classifying small arms is the
mechanical construction of the loading and firing
mechanism. The types of firearms according to
mechanical construction are as follows:

2.

3.
Artillery - firearms that
propel projectiles with diameter of more

(or

Small arms maybe classified according to barrel

length. Small arms could either have long or short
barrels. Long-barreled weapons are designed for
long-range shooting while short-barreled guns are
accurate only at relatively short ranges. All shoulder
firearms and high-caliber machineguns fall under
long-barreled weapons. On the other hand, pistols,
revolvers and submachine guns are classified as
short-barreled weapons.

B. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

1.

Smooth-bore
firearms
smoothbores)
Rifled-bore
guns
(or
guns/firearms)

Smoothbores are those that do not have rifling inside

their barrels. The interior surface of their bore is
smooth from end to end. On the other hand, rifled
guns are those that have spiral lands and grooves at
the bore (interior surface of their barrel). Almost all
modern pistols, revolvers and rifles have rifling while
most muskets and shotguns do not have.

1.

According to the caliber of projectiles propelled, the

two main types of firearms are artillery and small
arms.

than one inch; large-caliber guns such as

mortars,
bazookas
and
howitzers,
including cannons.
Small arms - portable
weapons that developed from artillery and
cannons; this group usually includes rifles,
carbines, muskets, shotguns, revolvers,
pistols, and submachine guns

Single-shot firearms:
These are guns
designed to fire only one shot for every
loading.
Bolt-action type: Firearms of this type are
usually classified also as single-shot types.
Reloading is done by manual manipulation of
the bolt.
Repeating firearms: These are weapons that
are capable of firing several shots in one

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 4

Subject: Forensic Ballistics

4.

5.

6.

loading since they are equipped with semiautomatic firing mechanism.

Automatic-loading type: These are rapid-fire
weapons since they are equipped with fullautomatic firing mechanism. After the first
shot, the chamber is automatically fed with
new cartridge.
Slide-action type: Firearms of this type are
capable of feeding the chamber by the
backward-forward manipulation of the guns
fore-end.
Lever-type: The loading takes place by
applying lever action guns stock. This group
of firearms is also called break-type.

2.

3.

From the very start, handguns were designed as

compact weapons for self-defense. There are two
general groups of handguns:
1.
2.

4.

revolvers
pistols

Pistols refer to small portable firearm that can be held,

aimed, and fired with one hand. They have a short
barrel (not longer than one foot) with a lock-and-load
firing mechanism at the breech area.
One way to classify revolver is according to
mechanical firing action. Based on this, revolvers can
be classified as:
1.
2.

Single-action type - revolvers that need

manual cocking of the hammer before
squeezing the trigger
Double-action type the type that does not
need manual cocking; pressing the trigger
both cocks and releases the hammer
causing a more rapid manner of firing

Functions of the standard parts of common firearms:

Part
Action
Barrel
Breech

Shoulder firearms are those normally fired at shoulder

level using both hands. This group of firearms
includes the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Muskets
Rifles
Carbines
Shotguns

C. PARTS OF FIREARMS

Breechblock

Butt
Chamber

The 4 basic mechanisms of firearm:

1.

BARREL MECHANISM:
This firearm
mechanism is primarily composed of a
metallic tube that initiates the path of the
bullet.
It includes the front sign, flash

aries gallandez_12

suppressor and other attachments. The

interior surface of the barrel may be smooth
or rifled. Revolvers, pistols, rifles, machine
guns and submachine guns have rifled
barrels while common shotguns have
smooth-bore barrels.
CHAMBER: This is a widened hole at the
breech end of the barrel. The chamber
serves to contain the cartridge while it is
properly positioned for firing.
BREECH MECHANISM: This mechanism
closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the
cartridge in the chamber. All modern small
arms have some way by which the breech
can be opened for loading and locked for
safety. Most small arms usually have a
metal cylinder called bolt that is locked when
the gun is fired. This is drawn back to eject
the empty cartridge case and to reload.
FIRING MECHANISM: In most firearms, the
firing mechanism consists mainly of the firing
spin, hammer, sear, and trigger. For
hammerless firearms, a spring drives the
firing pin through the breech bolt against the
primer of the cartridge. The firing pin is
cocked (drawn back) against a hook called
the sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear
releases the firing pin, which in turn strikes
the primer. Some machineguns have firing
mechanism activated by a small amount of
electricity.

Choke

Cylinder

Description/Purpose
- the main operating mechanism of a
firearm that loads, fires, and ejects the
cartridge
- gives direction to the bullet; the part of
the gun that initiates the path of the
bullet
- the part of the barrel at the opposite end
of the muzzle
- also known as the bolt, it is the steel
block that closes the breech against the
force of the charge during firing; the
face of this block which comes in
contact with the base of the cartridge is
the breech-face
- the part of the stock which is held against
the shoulder to stabilize the gun during
firing (for rifles and shotguns)
- the part of the bore into which a cartridge
is placed; the enlarged space at the
breech of the barrel where the cartridge
is fed
- the constriction in smoothbore barrels
designed to cause the shot to leave the
bore in a more dense pattern and retain
this pattern for longer range
- the part of the revolver that serves as the

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 5

Subject: Forensic Ballistics

Ejector
Extractor
Forearm

Frame

Grip

Hammer

Magazine
Main
spring
Muzzle
Front
sight
Rear sight
Recoil
spring
Trigger
Trigger
Guard
Safety

Sear

magazine as well as chamber for

cartridges
- the mechanism that throws the empty
shell (cartridge case) from the firearm
- the mechanism that pulls the empty shell
from the chamber
- also called for-end; the part of the stock
under the barrel held by one hand of the
shooter to maintain proper balance of
the gun while firing
- also called receiver, the part of the gun
that houses the internal parts; the body
of a firearm to which the barrel, stock,
pistol grip, sights, etc. are fixed and
within which lies the firing and breech
mechanism
- the smaller part of the stock behind the
trigger guard (for rifles and shotguns);
the part of the gun firmly held the
shooter thus stabilizing the aim while
squeezing the trigger;
- the part of the firing mechanism in
revolvers and some pistol that is
released by the sear or the main spring
once the trigger is pressed; it strikes the
firing pin causing the pin to move
forward and hit the primer
- a device for storing cartridges in a
repeating firearm for loading into the
chamber
- the spring in a pistol or revolver which
propels the hammer
- the end of the front end of the barrel
where the bullet or pellet exits
- the fixed sight on top of the barrel near
the muzzle used to aim the gun at the
target
- the sight found at the top of the breech
area; this sight can be moved to change
where the bullet will hit
- the spring in automatic or self-loading
weapons which returns the bolt or
breech block after recoil; sometimes
known as the return spring
- the part of the gun that initiates the
action when the shooter is ready to fire
his weapon
- the safety device designed to protect the
trigger from accidental bumping or
pressing that may result to accidental
firing
- the gun mechanism that prevents the
firearm from firing; it may be a button,
moveable pin, lever, thumb hammer or
sliding plate
Note: A hard blow or dropping the firearm
could still cause it to fire. Always have
your safety on until ready to shoot.
- the part of the firing mechanism, linked to
the trigger, which engages with the
hammer or striker against spring
pressure and, when pulled clear by

aries gallandez_12

trigger action, allows firing

- the wooden, plastic, or metal frame that
holds the barrel and action; used to get
and keep the aim of the shooter; it helps
in absorbing the recoil when firing
- alternative term for the firing pin when
that firing pin is axially mounted and
spring propelled inside the bolt

Stock

Striker

III. AMMUNITION
Technically, the term cartridge is used to describe
a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case,
propellant (gun powder), and primer. Ammunition for large
caliber guns (such as artillery) is called shell, ammunition
for rifles and handguns is usually called cartridge.

Parts of Standard Ammunition for Small Arms:

1.

Bullet - also called slug; the projectile propelled

from a firearm by means of the expansive force
of gases coming from burning gunpowder

2.

Cartridge Case - also called shell; is the tubular

metallic container for the gunpowder

3.

Propellant - the powder charge intended to be

burned thus generating an energy that will launch
the bullet

4.

Primer - also called percussion; composed of the

metal cup and priming mixture which is highly
sensitive

The other specific parts of a cased center-fire

cartridge are as follows:
1.

Head stamp

2.

Primer cup

3.

Priming mixture

4.

Anvil

5.

Flash hole vent

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 6

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
6.

Rim

7.

Extractor groove true only to pistol and rifle

cartridges

8.

Brass case

1.

Pin-fire cartridge

9.

Shoulder true only to rifle cartridges

2.

Rim-fire cartridge

3.

Center-fire cartridge - This is the type of cartridge

mostly used today. The primer cup is centrally
placed at the base of the cartridge. The priming
mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing on
the primer cup which is supported by the anvil.

10. Neck true only to rifle cartridges

Classification of cartridges according to location of

primer:

11. Crimp
12. Cannelure lubricant grooves
13. Metal jacket
14. Lead core
15. Nose / tip

Some books mention two other early types of

cartridges under this category: the tit-fire cartridge
and tail-fire cartridge. Just like needle-fire cartridge,
these are no longer manufactured today.

Classification of Cartridges according to Rim:

General Types of Ammunition:

1.

Dummy - a carefully made replica of a cartridge,

usually made of steel and discreetly dimensioned
to be used by weapons instructors, inspectors

1.

Rimmed cartridge

2.

Semi-rimmed cartridge

3.

Rimless cartridge

4.

Rebated cartridge

5.

Belted cartridge

and repairmen when checking if weapons are

functional
2.

Drill ammo - completely inert and without an

explosive propellant; used in military training to

Classification of Cartridges according to Power:

practice loading and manipulation of firearms

3.

Blank ammo - a cartridge without a bullet; may

contain gunpowder and priming mixture thus

1.

Low-power cartridge - fires a projectile with a

muzzle velocity of less than 1,850 fps

2.

High-power cartridge - fires a projectile with a

muzzle velocity betn 1,925 & 2,500 fps

3.

High-intensity cartridge - has muzzle velocity of

more than 2,500 fps

designed to produce gunshot to indicate firing;

used for theatrical performance and military
training
4.

Live ammo - the real ammunition since it is

composed of a complete unit of unfired cartridge

aries gallandez_12

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 7

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
Types of Primer:
CARTRIDGE CASE for small arms ammunition is also
called shell and casing. The cartridge case of centerfire ammunition has three important functions, which are
as follows:
1.

to hold the bullet, gunpowder and primer thus

assembling them as one unit;
to serve as waterproof container for the
gunpowder; and
to act as gas seal at the breech end of the
barrel during firing.

2.
3.

Standard cartridges of center-fire ammunitions have a

shell that is usually made of brass - 70% copper and
30% zinc. Some other special cartridges are coated
with of plastic varnish, zinc, copper or tungsten. Some
are made of plastic and hard paper, such as the tubes
for shotgun shell.
Types of Cartridge Case according to Shape:
1.

Straight case - true to pistol and revolver

ammunition; the casing of all rimmedcartridges for revolvers and all center-fire pistol
ammo that are now manufactured
Bottleneck case - always true to rifle
ammunition; the casing of most modern centerfire rifle ammo; the type of shell that provides
the greatest power capacity commensurate
with over-all case length
Tapered case - an obsolete type; very rare but
presently being used in magnum jet cartridge
of caliber .22 firearms

2.

3.

PRIMER of center-fire cartridges refers to a small

metallic ignition cup at the center of the cartridge
base. The primer is designed in such manner that
once the priming mixture is compressed, it undergoes
rapid combustion thus producing flame or sparks to
ignite the propellant loaded in the cartridge case.
Parts of the primer are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Primer cup - the container of the priming

mixture; composed of brass and copper or
any other gilding metal
Anvil - a thin but rigid metal strip where the
priming mixture is crushed once the firing pin
strikes the primer cup
Primer pocket - the space at the center
bottom of the shell where the primer cup,
priming mixture and anvil occupy
Disc - small piece of paper or disc of tin foil
which is pressed over the priming mixture
Priming mixture - the chemical component of
the primer

aries gallandez_12

1.

2.

Berdan type - the European type invented by

Hiram Berdan; the anvil, which is actually a
part of the cartridge case, is sticking out from
the center of two or three flash holes
Boxer primer - the American type which is
also called separate anvil type.

The GUNPOWDER is a chemical substance of varied

compositions, sizes, shapes, and colors that function
as propellant. Although it burns rapidly upon ignition,
it is classified as low-explosive mixture. There are
two main types of gunpowder: the black powder and
the so-called smokeless powder. Almost all modern
guns use smokeless powder.
Gunpowder serves as the source of energy to propel
a projectile. Once it is burned in a confined place, it
produces large volume of heated gasses that expand
thus generating energy capable of pushing through
the gun barrel and launched it to fly towards a target.
Most historians
alchemists who
sometime in the
The formula for
writings of the
Bacon.

agree that it was the Chinese

first developed the black powder
9th century during the Han Dynasty.
black powder first appeared in the
13th-century English monk Roger

Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the early 14th

century whose real name is Constantin Anklitzen, may
have been the first person to employ gunpowder for
propelling a projectile.
Black powder can be prepared following this optimum
proportion:
1.
2.
3.

11.85% sulfur: This is main fuel component

of the gun powder.
74.64% saltpeter: Scientifically known as
KNO3 (potassium nitrate), saltpeter provides
oxygen to the reaction.
13.51% carbon

In 1886, Paul Vieille in France developed the first

smokeless gunpowder called Poudre B. In 1887,
Alfred Nobel also developed smokeless gunpowder
which he called ballistite. Nobels gun powder is
composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60%
nitrocellulose, a powder easier to handle and more
powerful than Poudre B.
The term smokeless powder is a misnomer for this
propellant is neither a powder nor smokeless. Most
smokeless powder used as propellant appears as

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 8

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
flakes. When they are burned, they produce smoke
but not as many compared to huge cloud of white
smoke produced by black powder.

The following are class characteristics of firearms that can

be determined in fired bullets:

The 4 Main Classes of Propellants:

1.
2.

3.

4.

Single-based propellant: This is composed

of pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with
nitrocellulose.
Double-based propellant:
This type is
composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin
mixed with any or all of the following minor
ingredients: centralite, vaseline phathalate
esters, and inorganic salts.
This type
appears as gray-green to black in color and
the grains are similar in size and shape to
single-based propellant.
Triple-based propellant: This is composed of
three principal ingredients, which are
nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerine,
and
nitroguanidine. This type of propellant was
developed in attempting to compromise the
low-power sing-based propellant and highpower but excessive heat of double base
powders. Triple-based propellant contains
small percentage of nitroglycerin but
sufficient to provide added power
HIT (high-ignition temperature) Propellant:
The main ingredient of this class of
propellant is the RDX (cyclonite) group of
high explosives

The BULLET is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical

projectile propelled from a firearm by means of the
expansive force of gasses coming from burning
gunpowder.
One of the more important developments in the
history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1883, when a
Swiss military major named Eduard Alexander Rubin
invented the small-caliber rifle, one of whose
essential features was the employment of an
elongated compound bullet, with a lead core in a
copper jacket.

IV. FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS

A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

1.

Bore diameter

2.

Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the

firearm

Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm consist

of the following items.

1.

Number of lands and grooves: The lands are the

elevated portions in the bore surface while the
grooves are the canals or depressed areas. The
number of lands present in the bore is always
equal to the number of grooves. The number
may range from 2 to 22 but usually 4 to 6.

2.

Width of lands and grooves: In all kinds of rifling

patterns, the grooves are always wider than the
lands.

3.

Depth of grooves: This depth is equal to the

height of the lands just after the gun is
manufactured but it becomes shallower as the
firearm is used. It is measured in thousands of
an inch or in millimeters.

4.

Direction of twist: Rifling either twist to the right

or to the left. The direction initiates the bearing of
the gyroscopic action of the projectile that passes
through the bore.

5.

Pitch of rifling: This is also called degree of rifling

twist. It simply refers to the distance (measured
either in inches or centimeters) traveled by the
lands and grooves to complete a single rotation
(360 degrees).

Firearm class characteristics refer to intentional or

design characteristics that are common to a particular
group or family of firearms. These are characteristics
that can be determined even before the firearm is
manufactured.

aries gallandez_12

#GOBACKTOBASIC

International School of Asia and the Pacific 9

Subject: Forensic Ballistics
Small arms can be identified according to rifling class
characteristics, otherwise called rifling pattern. There are
seven basic types of rifling pattern for small arms. Their
class characteristics are as follows:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Steyr type - 4RG=L (or 4GLRHT) meaning

there are 4 lands and grooves with equal
width that twist to the right direction
Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means there
are 4 lands and grooves that twist to the right
but the grooves are twice wider than the
lands
Smith & Wesson type - 5RG=L (five lands
and grooves with equal width that twist to the
right direction)
Browning type - 6RG2X (six lands and
grooves, right hand twist, grooves twice
wider than lands)
Colt type - 6LG2X (6 lands and grooves twist
to the left direction and that grooves are
twice wider than the lands)
Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands and
grooves twist to the right, groove width is
three times wider than the land)
Webley type - 7RG3X (seven lands and
grooves with right twist, grooves are three
times wider than the lands)

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

Firearm individual characteristics refer to those
characteristics of firearms that can be determined
only after a gun is manufactured. For firearm
examiners, individual characteristics are marks
produced by the random imperfections or
irregularities of tool surfaces. These random
imperfections or irregularities are unique in every
firearm.
Specifically, sources of individual characteristics
of firearms are the following:
1.

Wear and tear of the tools used in

manufacturing the firearm
2. Corrosion or oxidation effect on the metallic
surface of firearm components
3. Wear and tear due to normal use
4. Damage due to improper operation and
handling/caring
C. MAKING THE GUN BARREL

Firearm
examiners must be sufficiently
acquainted with the principal steps in making the
gun barrel. Knowledge on this matter enables
them to explain the source of cause of marks
found on bullets. Manufacturing the gun barrel
involves four stages, which are as follows:
1.

2.

3.

4.

DRILLING: This is the process of making a

hole from one end to another end through
the center of a steel rod. The result of this
stage is a rough hole with almost uniform
diameter from end to end of the barrel.
REAMING: This stage involves the process
of cleaning or uniformly scrapping the interior
surface of the barrel to achieve the desired
bore diameter.
The reaming instrument
removes the metal from the entire surface
because its diameter is slightly larger than
the driller.
RIFLING:
This stage is the process
necessary for making the helical grooves
inside the barrel. This stage produces a
barrel with lands and grooves at the interior
surface. There are four types of rifling
technique being used today:
LAPPING: This is the process of polishing
the inner surface of the gun barrel. It simply
involves rubbing the bore surface using a
polishing compound to remove machining
marks and any tight spots in the rifling thus
making the bores surface dimensionally
uniform from end to end.

No matter how long polish the interior surface of

the gun barrel is polished, minute imperfections
cannot be removed. These macroscopic, and
sometimes microscopic, imperfections are
surface irregularities that impart distinctive
scratches on the bullets bearing surface. Such
marks, usually called by experts as striations, are
the mechanical fingerprints of the gun which are
found in fired bullets. These striations in the form
of linear scratches are used as basis in
identifying the specific weapon where a particular
bullet has been fired.
-------------------------------------------------------------READ: FORENSIC BALLISTIC by Z. Duyogan

Gun barrels are made of solid steel. There are 2

classes of steel currently used in making gun
barrels: chrome molybdenum steel and stainless
steel. Chrome molybdenum steel is mostly used
in hunting rifles and military firearms.

aries gallandez_12

#GOBACKTOBASIC