2ND EDITION

Introduction to
Communication Studies
Student Workbook - Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Conceptualising communication:
theory and method
Match the column
Match the descriptions in column A by inserting the correct component in
column B. Components that should be used are: Recipient, Context, Feedback,
Communicator, Encoding and decoding, Noise, Meaning, Message, Medium.

Components of the process of communication

Column A
Description
1. The person who initiates the communication
process and who formulates the message. The
communication could be verbal or nonverbal.
2. Aspects that are shared between the
communicator and recipient (culture, background,
frame of reference, values, beliefs, attitude and
value attached to social hierarchies, religion and
time; the environment, the situation, setting, place
and social conditions.
3. How messages are put into code (formulated) and
deciphered (interpreted).
4. Responding to a message: Both participants
(communicator and recipient) are actively involved.
Participants exchange roles or are taking turns
being the communicator and being the recipient.
5. Negotiated outcome of communication created
in the interaction between the communicating
participants. Mutual understanding or shared
meaning.
6. Voice, electronic devices, language, visual aspects
and so forth.
7. What has been communicated (content) either
verbal or nonverbal, intentional or unintended,
oral or written, formal or informal.
8. Any distraction or interference that prevents the
message to be successfully transmitted.

Column B
Component

CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

True & False

What is communication?
1. A synonym for perspective is a point of view.
a. True
b. False

A structuralist-based view of communication

2. The subject communication can be categorised with the groups of subjects called social
sciences and humanities.
a. True
b. False

Structuralism
3. Structuralists assume all phenomena do not have an underlying structure.
a. True
b. False
4. From a structuralist perspective, it is assumed that the underlying structure of the process
of communication involves different components.
a. True
b. False
5. The process-based explanation of how communication takes place is not structuralist.
a. True
b. False
6. Process-based models of communication analyse the workings of the different
components of communication (communicator, message, recipient, medium, feedback,
noise, context, encoding, decoding and meaning).
a. True
b. False
7. Two sets of process-based communication models can be distinguished, namely
communication as information transmission and communication as a transaction between
communicative participants.
a. True
b. False

Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

Communication as linear transmission of information

8. The oldest models of communication are based on conceiving of communication as linear
transmission of information.
a. True
b. False
9. The first known model explaining how communication works was created in 1948 by
Harold Lasswell, an American political scientist interested in propaganda.
a. True
b. False
10. Shannon and Weavers communication model asks the following: who says what, to
whom, with what effect?
a. True
b. False
11. Lasswells communication model depicts a one-directional (linear or sequential) process.
a. True
b. False
12. In Lasswells communication model the recipient is active.
a. True
b. False
13. In a process-based model of communication, the communicator is the person who initiates
the communication process.
a. True
b. False
14. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the recipient receives the
communication message.
a. True
b. False
15. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the message is what has
been said.
a. True
b. False
16. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the medium is the human
voice only.
a. True
b. False

CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

17. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, noise refers only to sounds that
affect hearing.
a. True
b. False
18. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, different kinds of noise can be
experienced.
a. True
b. False
19. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, encoding refers to the process of
deciphering computer codes.
a. True
b. False
20. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, decoding refers to a
DSTV decoder.
a. True
b. False
21. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the context refers to: culture,
background, frame of reference, values, beliefs, attitude and value attached to social
hierarchies, religion and time.
a. True
b. False
22. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, feedback refers to a feeding
process taking place behind ones back.
a. True
b. False
23. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, feedback refers to all of the
following:
i. providing feedback in response to a message,
ii. both participants (communicator and recipient) are actively involved in the
communication process, and
iii. participants exchange roles or are taking turns being the communicator and being
the recipient.
a. True
b. False

Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

24. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the meaning of the message is
what the communicator intended the message to mean.
a. True
b. False
25. In a structuralist process-based model of communication, the meaning of the message
refers to the outcome of a negotiation process between the communicator and the
recipient. This is also referred to as mutual understanding or shared meaning.
a. True
b. False
26. Shannon and Weaver worked for the Bell Telephone Laboratory in the United States
of America leading them to be primarily interested in finding engineering solutions to
problems of telephone signal transmission.
a. True
b. False
27. Shannon and Weaver were interested in how the channels of communication could be
used most efficiently in the communication process.
a. True
b. False
28. Due to their technical background, Shannon and Weaver concentrated on which kind of
communication channel carries the maximum amount of signals or sounds, how much
of the signal is lost through noise (for instance the static electricity of a telephone line)
before it reaches its destination, and how to eliminate distortion caused by such noise.
a. True
b. False
29. Shannon and Weaver developed a transmission or technical model of communication.
a. True
b. False
30. Due to their linear or sequential view of communication the Shannon and Weaver model
is useful to describe mass communication.
a. True
b. False
31. Both the models of Lasswell and of Shannon and Weaver are based on a linear process of
communication and they do not investigate the interaction between the communicator
and recipient in detail.
a. True
b. False

CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

Communication as a circular process of exchanging information (transaction)

32. Wilbur Schramm was the scholar who first described communication as a transaction or
exchange (of information) between the communicator and the recipient.
a. True
b. False
33. Wilbur Schramm depicted communication as a circular process that includes feedback.
a. True
b. False
34. Schramm thought that both communication participants will avoid quite a bit of noise if
they have a shared background, a common culture, circumstances or frame of reference.
a. True
b. False
35. In the Schramm model, feedback furthermore allows the communicator to adjust the
message or to provide additional information should the recipient not be clear about the
intended meaning.
a. True
b. False
36. Schramms model moves away from the technical view as he focuses on the content of
messages and the meaning that is exchanged between the participants.
a. True
b. False
37. Unlike Shannon and Weaver, Schramm thought that there is more than one correct
interpretation of a message. The meaning is determined by the person who is
interpreting it, or actually the meaning is created between the two communicating
parties in the process of communication.
a. True
b. False
38. In the Schramm communication model both the communicator and the recipient are not
active in the process of communication.
a. True
b. False
39. The repeated back-and-forth sending of messages is explained in a transactional model.
a. True
b. False

Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

40. The transactional model differs from the Schramms circular model of communication in
three ways: Firstly, it adds the repetitive nature of the process. Secondly, communication
is seen within the context of a relationship between two communicative participants who
are simultaneously involved in the negotiation of meaning. Thirdly, that the creation of
meaning is negotiated between the communicating parties.
a. True
b. False

Why humans communicate: a structuralist view

41. If we apply Maslows hierarchy of needs to communication, it can be said that we
communicate to satisfy survival needs (food and water), safety needs (shelter), social
needs (friendship and social acceptance), self-esteem needs (I am okay or I am great)
and self-actualisation needs (I am the best me that I can be).
a. True
b. False

A constructivist-based view of communication

42. Constructivism is linked to a meaning centred view of communication.
a. True
b. False
43. Constructivists do not use the terminology created by structuralists to describe the
communication process.
a. True
b. False

Constructivism
44. Constructivists argue that our reality, knowledge and our view of the world are not given,
predetermined, already existing and out there (as structuralists believe).
a. True
b. False
45. Constructivists argue that our reality is constantly constructed, and so is our view of the
world, our view of ourselves and others perceptions of us.
a. True
b. False
46. Constructivists argue that human thought is thus not neutral, but everything we think is
constructed from a particular point of view whether we realise it or not.
a. True
b. False

CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

47. Constructivists argue that we can divorce ones thoughts form ones age, spirituality,
gender, country/region of birth, history, a socio-economic birth family, a group and so
forth.
a. True
b. False
48. Structuralists argued that reality is not out there, but our reality is created when we
engage with others.
a. True
b. False

Communication as constructing meaning (making/creating meaning)

49. Based on the constructivist assumption, it can be said that when we communicate, we
do not receive the meaning we attach to a communication message but meaning is
constructed in conversation.
a. True
b. False
50. Based on the structuralist assumption, it can be said that communication is not a fixed,
static or technical process, but it is rather a dynamic, never ending and ever-changing
process. It does not follow a fixed sequence of events (as early structuralists attempted to
point out).
a. True
b. False
51. Constructionists argue that communication changes us, in actual fact; communication is
the constitutive force of human interaction and being human.
a. True
b. False
52. Reciprocality is linked to returning a favour: the gift of sharing oneself with others, as
they share themselves with us through communication.
a. True
b. False
53. With the linguistic turn it was realised that the words and language that we use to
express ourselves are problematic. To use words to express abstract thoughts and feelings
often mean we cant say exactly what we mean (it sounds so great in our minds, but when
we say/write it, it comes out wrong).
a. True
b. False

Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

54. Critical theorists say that it would be nave to think that in a real world communicative
situations are not devoid of (hidden and overt) power play and conflict.
a. True
b. False
55. Critical theorists say that all communication is a negotiation, a site of struggle your
views versus my views.
a. True
b. False
56. The outflow of the meaning making view of communication is that we assume that
communication is a process of reciprocal participation, where meanings to communication
instances are negotiated, and where fulfilling communicative actions take place when
communicating parties mutually create meanings that are shared.
a. True
b. False
57. From a meaning-centred view of communication, communication is regarded as
repeated instances of exchanging individual expressions up to the point when the two
communicating parties reach shared meaning (or mutual understanding). In fact, the
longer the communicative contact the more likely it is that the chances of increased
meaningful interaction is enhanced, and the more the two communicating parties share
(the context) from the onset, the more it is likely that they will understand the other
person sooner.
a. True
b. False
58. The implication of meaning making communication is that if we do not participate in
communication, we do not get the chance of making meaning.
a. True
b. False

Why humans communicate: a constructionist view

59. One of the reasons why humans communicate is that it is a way of helping themselves to
realise who they think they are (shaping their identity).
a. True
b. False
60. One of the reasons why humans communicate is to establish their place in the world (or a
community in which they can function and belong to).
a. True
b. False

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CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

61. One of the reasons why humans communicate is self-actualisation.
a. True
b. False
62. One of the reasons why humans communicate is to exert power.
a. True
b. False
63. One of the reasons why humans communicate is exchange information.
a. True
b. False
64. Constructivists believe that all the communication on social media is narcissistic, because it
is about talking about oneself.
a. True
b. False
65. Some of the reasons why people use the internet and social media are to have fun, for
entertainment purposes and to pass time.
a. True
b. False
66. Some of the reasons why people use the internet and social media are to keep in touch,
the sheer pleasure of having contact with another person and to enjoy the novelty of the
new media.
a. True
b. False
67. Some scholars believe that some of the interactive opportunities created by the internet
help people to establish virtual communities, and that is linked to creating ones identity
online and to find a group that one feels one can belong to.
a. True
b. False
68. Some scholars (such as David Gauntlett) believe that being creative online (such as
creating ones online identity) is meaningful to us. He calls this making is creating and
creating is meaningful.
a. True
b. False

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Introduction to Communication Studies for Southern African Students

69. In todays globalised world with its focus on the market and economic activity many
people feel the need to express themselves and in the process acquire social or cultural
significance. This is an explanation of why participatory communication is so pervasive
nowadays.
a. True
b. False

Perspectives and methods to study communication phenomena

70. The structuralist perspective of what communication entails is outdated and not at all
used today. In fact, we discarded the terminology that structuralists used because we
created new terms for old concepts.
a. True
b. False
71. The systems theory explains how a mathematical system works in the natural sciences. It
cannot be used in the field of communication.
a. True
b. False
72. The systems theory explains how units/components of a system work together to establish
stability in the system.
a. True
b. False
73. The systems theory argues that the units/components of a system are interdependent on
each other to ensure stability and ultimately the survival of the system.
a. True
b. False
74. A semiotic analysis entails analysing how of signs, symbols and codes are used in
communication.
a. True
b. False
75. The practical art of discourse and how that is used is the focus of a rhetorical analysis.
a. True
b. False
76. Critical theorists are only negative because they critique. We can thus not learn from
them how power relations play out in the real world.
a. True
b. False

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CHAPTER 2: Conceptualising communication: theory and method

77. Feminist thought stems from critical theory.
a. True
b. False
78. Feminist communication scholars investigate how communication is used to establish and
maintain power relationships that influence women negatively.
a. True
b. False
79. Postcolonial communication theorists investigate how communication plays out in
postcolonial contexts, especially aspects of power relations.
a. True
b. False
80. A critical political perspective is useful to investigate how various powerful entities
(especially media ownership) influence media content.
a. True
b. False
81. Two types of research that focuses on the nature of human experiences are hermeneutics
and phenomenology.
a. True
b. False

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