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Cooling Towers

Getting Your
Not all cooling tower fills will meet your applications
performance and environmental requirements, so choose
carefully. Heres a primer to help you out.
By Jim Wallis and Rich Aull, Brentwood Industries Inc.

hanges in cooling tower components have been at a pace that

can only be considered glacial
when you realize that the first
evaporative cooling systems date as far back
as 2000 B.C. and the first thermal designs for
industrial systems date to the late 1800s.
However, in the last 10 years, there have
been significant increases in cooling tower fill
and drift-eliminator designs driven by the
power, refining, chemical, petrochemical and
food processing industries. This renaissance
was motivated by a need for improved performance, improvements in material and
manufacturing techniques, and attention to
environmental and OSHA concerns.
There are two broad categories of fills:
splash and film. Splash fills typically are
used where water quality is poor and
where fill fouling can occur (table 1).
Splash fills work by breaking up the hot
circulating water into small droplets that
create an increased surface area, which
allows for both convective and evaporative
cooling. Typical splash fills have about half
the thermal performance of film fills. The
lower thermal performance is due to the
splash fills inability to equal the surface
area of film fills coupled with the higher
pressure drop of splash fills.
Splash fills may be considered the original

Figure 1. Splash fill designs can be

grouped into two categories: profile
designs and grid packs. Profile designs
include extruded V bars, flat bars, convex profiles and net shapes.

fill, and their design types are numerous (figure 1). The designs can be grouped into two
categories. The first is splash-fill profile
designs that include extruded V bars, flat

bars, convex profiles and net shapes. The

second category is grid packs, which usually
offer somewhat higher performance but still
function mostly as splash fills because they
break up the hot water into smaller droplets.
The most commonly used cooling tower
fills are film fills. They form a thin layer of
water over the fill surface and drive cooling
performance by having a large surface area of
water film in contact with the cooling tower
air combined with lower pressure drop (airside pressure drop). The KaV/L (a measure of
the rate of evaporative and convective cooling reported as a nondimensional number)
and pressure drop combine to create the relative thermal performance of the fill.
The measurements are critical in evaluating film fills. Similarly designed fills do not
equate to similar performance. Variations in
surface structure (microstructure), materials
of manufacture, leading-edge squareness,
quality of manufacturing and quality of final
assembly of the fill pack play a major role
in overall thermal performance. It is important to have a fill that has documented thermal data on a well-designed test cell.
An example of thermal data that does
not reflect the fills actual performance was

Fill Selection Based on Water Quality

19 mm
Cross-Fluted

21 mm
19 mm
38 mm
19 mm
Vertical-Offset Vertical-Flow Vertical-Flow Crossflow Standoff

Total Suspended Solids (ppm)

<100

<200

<500

No Limit

<1,000

Total Suspended Solids (ppm)

with Biofilms

<25

<50

<200

<1,000

<500

Biofilm and Scale Control

Good

Good

Good

Poor

Poor

Oil and Grease (ppm)

None

<1

<5

<25

<10

Fibers

None

None

None

None

Some

Table 1. There are two broad categories of fills: splash and film. Splash fills typically are
used where water quality is poor and where fill fouling can occur.

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Cooling Towers

Vertical Offset

Figure 2. Film fills are classified into four

categories. Similarly designed fills do not
equate to similar performance. Variations in
surface structure (microstructure), materials of manufacture, leading-edge squareness, quality of manufacturing and quality
of final assembly of the fill pack play a
major role in overall thermal performance.

documented on an inexpertly manufactured cross-fluted 30-mm spaced fill. It had

a reported KaV/L rating similar to a design
having 12-mm spacing and about 2.2 times
greater surface area. The reason for the
very high KaV/L was realized when the
test cell was visited. The cell included a
6.6' (2 m) high spray zone with many highpressure spray nozzles and a 32.8' (10 m)
high rain zone. The reported high KaV/L
was achieved not due to any significant
contribution by the fill but by the major
contribution to the cooling process from
the spray and rain zone. While it is important to have accurate thermal data, it is
equally important to minimize the sprayand rain-zone effects in the test cell.
Film fills are classified into four categories (figure 2):
t Cross-fluted fills for counterflow or
crossflow towers.
t Vertical-offset fills for counterflow towers.
t Vertical-flow fills for counterflow towers.
t Crossflow standoff fills for crossflow towers.
Cross-fluted designs provide high thermal performance and have alternating fill
sheets at 60 angles to one other, creating
redistribution of water at each sheet interface. They also offer improved water distribution in the direction of the fill pack. For
optimum water distribution, many experts
in the area of fill recommend that the fill
installation be done in alternating layers,
each at a 90 angle to the adjacent layer.

Vertical Flow

The results of many field applications

indicate that alternating layers do not
always add to fouling potential. Fouling
can occur anywhere in the fill section with
lower potential at the bottom and top.
Many results indicate there is no appreciable difference in fouling potential between
one continuous pack and multi-layer packs
because fouling potential is dictated by fill
design. Besides offering improved distribution, multi-layer fill packs can be inspected
easily. A drawback of using one continuous fill pack is that if fouling occurs, the
weight gain makes fill removal difficult.
For an air-travel height of 6' (1.8 m) in a
counterflow tower, it is recommended to
have three 2' (0.61 m) fill-pack heights with
the immediate layer at 90 to the top and bottom layer. This arrangement increases water
mixing and helps ensure even distribution of
air and water, optimizing tower performance.
Vertical-offset fills are a newer design.
Like cross-fluted fills, there are redistribution
points throughout the fill pack. However, the
majority of the water film travels in a vertical
path, which keeps the water-film velocity
high and reduces potential fouling. The
water-film velocity inhibits the growth of biofilm, a key ingredient to fouling (figure 3).
Combining the larger flute openings and the
higher water-film velocity makes the verticaloffset fills less prone to fouling. Thermal per-

Water Film Velocity (m/s)

Cross-Fluted

6 gpm/ft2
water
loading

19 mm CrossFluted

21 mm Offset

19 mm
Vertical Flow

Figure 3. The type of cooling tower fill

used affects water velocity. Faster moving
water decreases the possibility of fouling.

Crossflow Standoff

formance of a fill is a combination of its

KaV/L and pressure drop. Even though the
vertical offset design typically has slightly
lower KaV/L compared to similar cross-flutWithout Microstructure
35C

With Microstructure
35C
Fill

Fill

Air

Water
Film

Air

Water
Film
33C

31C

28C

Figure 4. Vertical-flow fills employ variations in surface structure (microstructure)

features that allow for greater water mixing and lateral water distribution.

ed fills, the lower KaV/L is offset by its lower

pressure drop, which gives it similar overall
thermal performance to cross-fluted fills.
Vertical-flow fills are designed to
address poor water-quality applications. The
design directs the water in a vertical path,
and microstructure and capillary features
allow for water mixing and lateral water distribution (figure 4). The higher water velocity through the fill reduces fouling potential.
A typical vertical-flow fill has 10 percent to
15 percent lower thermal performance compared to a cross-fluted or vertical-offset fill.
However, combining a vertical-flow fill with
a high performance fill such as cross-fluted
or vertical-offset on the top 1' (0.30 m) will
improve overall performance. Using a high
performance fill as the top layer of a vertical-flow design likely will not create additional fouling. The spray effect on the top
layer keeps the water-film velocity high and
reduces fouling potential in the top layer.
Crossflow standoff fills are used in
crossflow towers with air travels of 3 to 8'
(0.9144 to 2.438 m). These fills are installed by
hanging the sheets, or bottom, supporting the

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Cooling Towers
Cellular

Blade

Figure 5. Drift eliminator performance is

measured by drift tests that express drift
loss as a percent of the recirculation rate.

assembled fill packs. The fill sheets are separated by molded-in standoffs (spacers) and
have a sheet-surface structure designed to distribute the falling water evenly over the surface. Some end users find the hanging sheets
create a maintenance headache due to sheets
breaking off the hangers, which produces
thermal performance and/or replacement
problems. Bottom-supported fills eliminate
this issue. Crossflow standoff fills provide an
opportunity to upgrade splash fill crossflow
towers to achieve potential thermal improvement of 25 percent to 40 percent. Also,
because the standoff fills have clear open
spaces between the sheets, fouling is less of a
concern unless high fiber content or an
unusual process contamination are present.
After selecting the fill design, key elements in specifying the cooling tower fill
include materials of construction, material
thickness, fill rating, glued or non-glued
installation, water temperature and testing.
Materials of Construction. The
Cooling Technology Institute provides a
material standard CTI Standard 136 for rigid
PVC for cooling tower service. This quality
of PVC has been the most accepted cooling
tower fill material because it is durable,
flame resistant, stable in various water conditions and easily formed. Cooling tower
fill is exposed to outdoor elements; therefore, it is recommended that rigid PVC be
compounded with UV inhibitors.
Material Thickness. The most commonly used material thickness is 0.010 (0.25
mm). For applications where there is excessive wear due to maintenance conditions or
unique spray impingement, the material
thickness of 0.015 (0.38 mm) should be
considered. Always specify thickness after
forming. If only a thickness is specified, it
may be interpreted as starting gage, which
would give you significantly thinner material.

Rating. Request both KaV/L and pressure drop data with test cell information.
Non-glued Fill. Consider using nonglued, mechanically assembled fill, which
has two important advantages. First, if the fill
packs are to be assembled at your site, the
environmental and safety issues of gluing
packs may prohibit field assembly. Second,
unglued mechanically assembled systems
address long-term environmental problems.
ISO14001 directs the use of best available
technology to protect the environment.
Temperature. Specify the highest circulating-water temperature to which the fill will
be exposed. CTI Standard 136 specifies a
heat-deflection temperature of 160F (71C)
for PVC, which is adequate for most applications. However, high temperature PVC, PP
and other plastics also may be considered.
Testing. Specify that the fill is tested for
ASTM E84, the standard for flame spread.
The minimum fill rating should be 20 or less.

Drift Eliminators
Drift eliminators are another aspect of cooling tower systems that should be considered.
They are designed to contain the circulating
water in the cooling tower system. Excessive
drift from a cooling tower can cause localized
equipment corrosion, environmental contamination, and health and safety problems such
as the spread of Legionella.
There are two basic designs of drift
eliminators: blade and cellular (figure 5).
Both work by separating droplets from the
airstream through inertial impaction. The
straight-line path of a droplet in the airflow
will impact on the drift eliminator surface,
form a water film and drain back into the
wet section of the cooling tower.
Drift eliminator performance is measured
by drift tests that express drift loss as a percent of the recirculation rate. Initially, a sensitive-paper test was designed for drift loss
measurement, and it is relatively accurate at
high drift rates. However, with the required
lower drift loss rates, CTI has adopted the
new heated bead isokinetic (HBIK) test that
directs the sampling of cooling tower
exhaust air and retains the dissolved minerals leaving the tower. Measuring the dissolved minerals and stoichiometrically comparing the result to the dissolved minerals in
the recirculating water achieves a direct

measurement of drift loss. The selection of a

drift eliminator requires the consideration of
the targeted drift rate needed, combined
with an acceptable pressure drop.
The cellular drift-eliminator design provides lower drift rates because it has more
surface-for-droplet impaction. The current
best technology for the cellular design
offers 0.0005 percent drift loss. The drift
rate depends not only on the drift eliminator but also relates to its proper position in
the tower, which must be above the spray
area so no spray impacts the drift eliminator. A mapping of the airflow should show
a consistent air velocity throughout the
plenum. The air velocity should not
exceed the drift eliminator design maximum. The drift eliminator should be
installed so that there are no openings, or
gaps, through which droplets can bypass.
The fill and drift eliminators should be
regarded as the heart of a cooling tower.
The best approach to improving cooling
tower performance is to contact a manufacturer or experienced rebuilder and
explain your needs. The Cooling Tower
Institute (www.cti.org) is a good source for
PCE
these companies.

Jim Wallis is director of international

business at Brentwood Industries Inc.,
Reading, Pa., and managing director of
Brentwood Asia Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand.
Rich Aull is engineering manager of the
Cooling Products Group at Brentwood
Industries Inc., Reading, Pa. Brentwood
specializes in cooling tower fill.

For more information...

Call (610) 236-1100.
Visit www.brentw.com.
E-Mail jwallis@brentw.com.
Reprinted from Process Cooling &
Equipment July/August 2005
Process Cooling & Equipment,
a supplement to Process Heating

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COOLING TOWER FILM FILL MEDIA

PART NO.

SURFACE
AREA

SHEET
SPACING

FLUTE
ANGLE

SHEETS
PER FT.

MEDIA PACK SIZES: Depth (D), Width (W), Length (L) - inches (mm)
MINIMUM

MAXIMUM

STANDARD

CROSS FLUTED FILLS

CF650

CF1200 AT

CF1900

CF1900 MA

CFS3000

119 ft2/ft3
(390 m2/m3)

6.5 mm

69 ft2/ft3
(226 m2/m3)

12 mm

48 ft2/ft3
(157.5 m2/m3)

19 mm

48 ft2/ft3
(157.5 m2/m3)

19 mm

31 ft2/ft3
(102 m2/m3)

30 mm

WATER

30

30

30

30

30

44

26

16

16

10

D: 4 (100)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 12 (305)
W: 12 (305)
L: 8 (2440)

D: 4 (100)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 12 (305)
W: 12 (305)
L: 12 (3660)

D: 6 (153)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 24 (610)
W: 24 (610)
L: 12 (3660)

D: 12 (305)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 24 (610)
W: 24 (610)
L: 10 (3050)

D: 12 (305)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 24 (610)
W: 24 (610)
L: 12 (3660)

D: 11.8 (300)
W: 5 (127)
L: 1 (305)

D: 23.8 (605)
W: 18 (400)
L: 10 (3050)

D: 11.8 (300)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 35.4 (900)
W: 24 (610)
L: 12 (3660)

D: 24 (610)
W: 6 (153)
L: 1 (305)

D: 24 (610)
W: 24 (610)
L: 12 (3660)

AIR

D: 12 (305)
W: 12 (305)

L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), or 8 (2439)

D: 12 (305)
W: 12 (305)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)
D: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
W: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)
D: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
W: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)
D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)

OFFSET VERTICAL FILL

OF21 MA

45 ft2/ft3
(147.8 m2/m3)

21 mm

NA

14.7

D: 11.8 (300) or 23.6 (600)

W: 18 (458)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)

VERTICAL FLOW FILLS

VF19 PLUS

VF3800

47 ft2/ft3
(154 m2/m3)

19 mm

40 ft2/ft3
(131 m2/m3)

38 mm

16

16

D: 23.6 (600)
W: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)
D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305) or 24 (610)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)

CROSS FLOW HERRING BONE FILLS

XF75

XF75 IL

XF75 ID

51 ft2/ft3
(167.4 m2/m3)

19 mm

51 ft2/ft3
(167.4 m2/m3)

19 mm

51 ft2/ft3
(167.4 m2/m3)

19 mm

NA

NA

NA

16

16

16

Standing Height (H) = L x .996

D: 12 (305)
W: 6 (153)
L: 2 (610)

D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)

D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)
L: 10 (3050)

D: 24 (610)
W: 6 (153)
L: 2 (610)

D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)
L: 10 (3050)

D: 24 (610)
W: 6 (153)
L: 2 (610)

D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)
L: 10 (3050)

WATER

L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439),

or 10 (3048)
D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)

H
95

AIR

L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)

D: 24 (610)
W: 12 (305)
L: 4 (1220), 6 (1829), 8 (2439), or 10 (3048)

XF SUPPORT SYSTEM (Base Supports; Fill Support Beams; and Front/Back Retainers) See Brentwood System Supports spec sheet.
Brentwood sheet thicknesses are quoted in final gauge (as measured in field) of .008 (.203 mm), .010 (.254 mm), .015 (.381 mm), or your specific requirement. All Brentwood fill products are available in PVC and are UV stabilized. The PVC compounds used in Brentwood fills have
outstanding resistance to weather exposure and are nearly impervious to chemical degradation by alkali, acids, greases, fats, oils, and biological attack. Brentwood PVC has excellent fire rating due to its self-extinguishing characteristics, and meets or exceeds Cooling Tower Institute
Standard 136. HPVC (high temperatures), PP (polypropylene), and ABS plastics are also available for special applications.

Brentwood Industries 2005

Brentwood Industries, Inc.

P.O. Box 605, 610 Morgantown Road,
Reading, PA 19603, USA
Phone 1-610-236-1100 Fax 1-610-236-1199
Email ctsales@brentw.com
Web www.brentw.com

Brentwood Asia, Ltd.

A3 Floor, Le Concorde Tower
202 Rajchadapisek Road
Huaykwang, Bangkok 10310, Thailand
Phone 662-694-1060-2 Fax 662-694-1063
Email asiasales@brentw.com