Viscosity - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

5/21/2016
ViscosityWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Viscosity
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Theviscosityofafluidisameasureofitsresistance
togradualdeformationbyshearstressortensile
stress.[1]Forliquids,itcorrespondstotheinformal
conceptof"thickness".Forexample,honeyhasa
muchhigherviscositythanwater.[2]
Viscosity
Viscosityisapropertyarisingfromcollisionsbetween
neighboringparticlesinafluidthataremovingat
differentvelocities.Whenthefluidisforcedthrougha
tube,theparticleswhichcomposethefluidgenerally
movemorequicklynearthetube'saxisandmore
slowlynearitswalls:thereforesomestress,(suchasa
pressuredifferencebetweenthetwoendsofthetube),
isneededtoovercomethefrictionbetweenparticle
layerstokeepthefluidmoving.Forthesamevelocity
pattern,thestressrequiredisproportionaltothefluid's
viscosity.
Afluidthathasnoresistancetoshearstressisknown
asanidealorinviscidfluid.Zeroviscosityisobserved
onlyatverylowtemperaturesinsuperfluids.
Otherwise,allfluidshavepositiveviscosity,andare
technicallysaidtobeviscousorviscid.Incommon
parlancehowever,aliquidissaidtobeviscousifits
viscosityissubstantiallygreaterthanthatofwater
andmaybedescribedasmobileiftheviscosityis
noticeablylessthanwater.Afluidwitharelatively
highviscosity,forexample,pitch,mayappeartobea
solid.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Definition
2.1 Dynamic(shear)viscosity
2.2 Kinematicviscosity
2.3 Bulkviscosity
2.4 Viscositytensor
3 NewtonianandnonNewtonianfluids
4 Viscosityinsolids
5 Viscositymeasurement
6 Units
6.1 Dynamicviscosity
6.2 Kinematicviscosity
6.3 Fluidity
6.4 Nonstandardunits
7 Molecularorigins
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity
Asimulationofsubstanceswithdifferent
viscosities.Thesubstanceabovehaslowerviscosity
thanthesubstancebelow
Commonsymbols
SIunit
Pas=kg/(sm)
Derivationsfrom
otherquantities
=Gt
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7 Molecularorigins
7.1 Gases
7.1.1 Relationtomeanfreepath
ofdiffusingparticles
7.1.2 Effectoftemperatureon
theviscosityofagas
7.1.3 Viscosityofadilutegas
7.2 Liquids
7.2.1 Viscosityofblendsof
liquids
8 Viscosityofselectedsubstances
8.1 Air
8.2 Water
8.3 Othersubstances
9 Viscosityofslurry
10 Viscosityofamorphousmaterials
11 Eddyviscosity
12 Seealso
13 References
14 Furtherreading
15 Externallinks
Etymology
Theword"viscosity"isderivedfromtheLatin"viscum",meaningmistletoeandalsoaviscousglue
madefrommistletoeberries.[3]
Definition
Dynamic(shear)viscosity
Thedynamic(shear)viscosityofafluid
expressesitsresistancetoshearingflows,where
adjacentlayersmoveparalleltoeachotherwith
differentspeeds.Itcanbedefinedthroughthe
idealizedsituationknownasaCouetteflow,
wherealayeroffluidistrappedbetweentwo
horizontalplates,onefixedandonemoving
horizontallyatconstantspeed .Thisfluidhasto
behomogeneousinthelayerandatdifferent
shearstresses.(Theplatesareassumedtobevery
large,sothatoneneednotconsiderwhathappens
neartheiredges.)
Ifthespeedofthetopplateissmallenough,the
fluidparticleswillmoveparalleltoit,andtheir
speedwillvarylinearlyfromzeroatthebottom
to atthetop.Eachlayeroffluidwillmove
fasterthantheonejustbelowit,andfriction
betweenthemwillgiverisetoaforceresisting
Laminarshearoffluidbetweentwoplates.Friction
betweenthefluidandthemovingboundariescausesthe
fluidtoshear.Theforcerequiredforthisactionisa
measureofthefluid'sviscosity.
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theirrelativemotion.Inparticular,thefluidwill
applyonthetopplateaforceinthedirection
oppositetoitsmotion,andanequalbutopposite
onetothebottomplate.Anexternalforceis
thereforerequiredinordertokeepthetopplate
movingatconstantspeed.
Themagnitude ofthisforceisfoundtobe
proportionaltothespeed andthearea of
eachplate,andinverselyproportionaltotheir
separation :
Theproportionalityfactorinthisformulaisthe
viscosity(specifically,thedynamicviscosity)of
thefluid.
Inageneralparallelflow(suchascouldoccurina
Theratio
iscalledtherateofshear
straightpipe),theshearstressisproportionaltothe
deformationorshearvelocity,andisthe
gradientofthevelocity
derivativeofthefluidspeedinthedirection
perpendiculartotheplates.IsaacNewton
expressedtheviscousforcesbythedifferentialequation
where
and
isthelocalshearvelocity.Thisformulaassumesthattheflowismoving
alongparallellinesandthe axis,perpendiculartotheflow,pointsinthedirectionofmaximumshear
velocity.Thisequationcanbeusedwherethevelocitydoesnotvarylinearlywith ,suchasinfluid
flowingthroughapipe.
UseoftheGreeklettermu()forthedynamicstressviscosityiscommonamongmechanicaland
chemicalengineers,aswellasphysicists.[4][5][6]However,theGreeklettereta()isalsousedby
chemists,physicists,andtheIUPAC.[7]
Kinematicviscosity
Thekinematicviscosity(alsocalled"momentumdiffusivity")istheratioofthedynamicviscosityto
thedensityofthefluid.ItisusuallydenotedbytheGreekletternu( ).
ItisaconvenientconceptwhenanalyzingtheReynoldsnumber,whichexpressestheratiooftheinertial
forcestotheviscousforces:
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where isatypicallengthscaleinthesystem.
Bulkviscosity
Whenacompressiblefluidiscompressedorexpandedevenly,withoutshear,itmaystillexhibitaform
ofinternalfrictionthatresistsitsflow.Theseforcesarerelatedtotherateofcompressionorexpansion
byafactor,calledthevolumeviscosity,bulkviscosityorsecondviscosity.
Thebulkviscosityisimportantonlywhenthefluidisbeingrapidlycompressedorexpanded,suchasin
soundandshockwaves.Bulkviscosityexplainsthelossofenergyinthosewaves,asdescribedby
Stokes'lawofsoundattenuation.
Viscositytensor
Ingeneral,thestresseswithinaflowcanbeattributedpartlytothedeformationofthematerialfrom
somereststate(elasticstress),andpartlytotherateofchangeofthedeformationovertime(viscous
stress).Inafluid,bydefinition,theelasticstressincludesonlythehydrostaticpressure.
Inverygeneralterms,thefluid'sviscosityistherelationbetweenthestrainrateandtheviscousstress.In
theNewtonianfluidmodel,therelationshipisbydefinitionalinearmap,describedbyaviscositytensor
that,multipliedbythestrainratetensor(whichisthegradientoftheflow'svelocity),givestheviscous
stresstensor.
Theviscositytensorhasnineindependentdegreesoffreedomingeneral.ForisotropicNewtonianfluids,
thesecanbereducedtotwoindependentparameters.Themostusualdecompositionyieldsthestress
viscosityandthebulkviscosity.
NewtonianandnonNewtonianfluids
Newton'slawofviscosityisaconstitutive
equation(likeHooke'slaw,Fick'slaw,Ohm's
law):itisnotafundamentallawofnaturebutan
approximationthatholdsinsomematerialsand
failsinothers.
AfluidthatbehavesaccordingtoNewton'slaw,
withaviscositythatisindependentofthe
stress,issaidtobeNewtonian.Gases,water,and
manycommonliquidscanbeconsidered
Newtonianinordinaryconditionsandcontexts.
TherearemanynonNewtonianfluidsthat
significantlydeviatefromthatlawinsomeway
orother.Forexample:
Shearthickeningliquids,whoseviscosity
increaseswiththerateofshearstrain.
Shearthinningliquids,whoseviscosity
decreaseswiththerateofshearstrain.
Viscosity,theslopeofeachline,variesamong
Thixotropicliquids,thatbecomeless
materials
viscousovertimewhenshaken,agitated,or
otherwisestressed.
Rheopecticliquids,thatbecomemoreviscousovertimewhenshaken,agitated,orotherwise
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stressed.
Binghamplasticsthatbehaveasasolidatlowstressesbutflowasaviscousfluidathighstresses.
Shearthinningliquidsareverycommonly,butmisleadingly,describedasthixotropic.
EvenforaNewtonianfluid,theviscosityusuallydependsonitscompositionandtemperature.Forgases
andothercompressiblefluids,itdependsontemperatureandvariesveryslowlywithpressure.
Theviscosityofsomefluidsmaydependonotherfactors.Amagnetorheologicalfluid,forexample,
becomesthickerwhensubjectedtoamagneticfield,possiblytothepointofbehavinglikeasolid.
Viscosityinsolids
Theviscousforcesthatariseduringfluidflowmustnotbeconfusedwiththeelasticforcesthatariseina
solidinresponsetoshear,compressionorextensionstresses.Whileinthelatterthestressisproportional
totheamountofsheardeformation,inafluiditisproportionaltotherateofdeformationovertime.(For
thisreason,Maxwellusedthetermfugitiveelasticityforfluidviscosity.)
However,manyliquids(includingwater)willbrieflyreactlikeelasticsolidswhensubjectedtosudden
stress.Conversely,many"solids"(evengranite)willflowlikeliquids,albeitveryslowly,evenunder
arbitrarilysmallstress.[8]Suchmaterialsarethereforebestdescribedaspossessingbothelasticity
(reactiontodeformation)andviscosity(reactiontorateofdeformation)thatis,beingviscoelastic.
Indeed,someauthorshaveclaimedthatamorphoussolids,suchasglassandmanypolymers,areactually
liquidswithaveryhighviscosity(e.g.~greaterthan1012Pas).[9]However,otherauthorsdisputethis
hypothesis,claiminginsteadthatthereissomethresholdforthestress,belowwhichmostsolidswillnot
flowatall,[10]andthatallegedinstancesofglassflowinwindowpanesofoldbuildingsareduetothe
crudemanufacturingprocessofoldererasratherthantotheviscosityofglass.[11]
Viscoelasticsolidsmayexhibitbothshearviscosityandbulkviscosity.Theextensionalviscosityisa
linearcombinationoftheshearandbulkviscositiesthatdescribesthereactionofasolidelasticmaterial
toelongation.Itiswidelyusedforcharacterizingpolymers.
Ingeology,earthmaterialsthatexhibitviscousdeformationatleastthreeordersofmagnitudegreater
thantheirelasticdeformationaresometimescalledrheids.[12]
Viscositymeasurement
Viscosityismeasuredwithvarioustypesofviscometersandrheometers.Arheometerisusedforthose
fluidsthatcannotbedefinedbyasinglevalueofviscosityandthereforerequiremoreparameterstobe
setandmeasuredthanisthecaseforaviscometer.Closetemperaturecontrolofthefluidisessentialto
acquireaccuratemeasurements,particularlyinmaterialslikelubricants,[13]whoseviscositycandouble
withachangeofonly5C.
Forsomefluids,viscosityisaconstantoverawiderangeofshearrates(Newtonianfluids).Thefluids
withoutaconstantviscosity(nonNewtonianfluids)cannotbedescribedbyasinglenumber.Non
Newtonianfluidsexhibitavarietyofdifferentcorrelationsbetweenshearstressandshearrate.
Oneofthemostcommoninstrumentsformeasuringkinematicviscosityistheglasscapillary
viscometer.
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Incoatingindustries,viscositymaybemeasuredwithacupinwhichtheeffluxtimeismeasured.There
areseveralsortsofcupe.g.Zahncup,Fordviscositycupwithusageofeachtypevaryingmainly
accordingtotheindustry.Theeffluxtimecanalsobeconvertedtokinematicviscosities(centistokes,
cSt)throughtheconversionequations.[14]
Alsousedincoatings,aStormerviscometerusesloadbasedrotationinordertodetermineviscosity.The
viscosityisreportedinKrebsunits(KU),whichareuniquetoStormerviscometers.
Vibratingviscometerscanalsobeusedtomeasureviscosity.ThesemodelssuchastheDynatroluse
vibrationratherthanrotationtomeasureviscosity.
Extensionalviscositycanbemeasuredwithvariousrheometersthatapplyextensionalstress.
Volumeviscositycanbemeasuredwithanacousticrheometer.
Apparentviscosityisacalculationderivedfromtestsperformedondrillingfluidusedinoilorgaswell
development.Thesecalculationsandtestshelpengineersdevelopandmaintainthepropertiesofthe
drillingfluidtothespecificationsrequired.
Units
Dynamicviscosity
BoththephysicalunitofdynamicviscosityinSIPoiseuille(Pl)andthecgsunitsPoise(P)comefrom
JeanLonardMariePoiseuille.Thepoiseuille,whichisrarelyused,isequivalenttothepascalsecond
(Pas),or(Ns)/m2,orkg/(ms).Ifafluidisplacedbetweentwoplateswithdistanceonemeter,andone
plateispushedsidewayswithashearstressofonepascal,anditmovesatxmeterpersecond,thenithas
viscosityof1/xPascalsecond.Forexample,waterat20Chasaviscosityof1.002mPas,whilea
typicalmotoroilcouldhaveaviscosityofabout250mPas.[15]Theunitsusedinpracticeareeither
PasanditssubmultiplesorthecgsPoisereferredtobelow,anditssubmultiples.
Thecgsphysicalunitfordynamicviscosity,thepoise[16](P),isalsonamedafterJeanPoiseuille.Itis
morecommonlyexpressed,particularlyinASTMstandards,ascentipoise(cP)sincethelatterisequalto
theSImultiplemilliPascalseconds(mPas).Forexample,waterat20Chasaviscosityof1.002mPas
=1.0020cP.
1Pl=1Pas
1P=0.1Pas=0.1kgm1s1
1cP=1mPas=0.001Pas=0.001Nsm2=0.001kgm1s1.
Kinematicviscosity
TheSIunitofkinematicviscosityism2/s.
Thecgsphysicalunitforkinematicviscosityisthestokes(St),namedafterGeorgeGabrielStokes.Itis
sometimesexpressedintermsofcentistokes(cSt).InU.S.usage,stokeissometimesusedasthesingular
form.
1St=1cm2s1=104m2s1.
1cSt=1mm2s1=106m2s1.
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Waterat20Chasakinematicviscosityofabout1cSt.
Thekinematicviscosityissometimesreferredtoasdiffusivityofmomentum,becauseitisanalogousto
diffusivityofheatanddiffusivityofmass.Itisthereforeusedindimensionlessnumberswhichcompare
theratioofthediffusivities.
Fluidity
Thereciprocalofviscosityisfluidity,usuallysymbolizedby=1/orF=1/,dependingonthe
conventionused,measuredinreciprocalpoise(cmsg1),sometimescalledtherhe.Fluidityisseldom
usedinengineeringpractice.
Theconceptoffluiditycanbeusedtodeterminetheviscosityofanidealsolution.Fortwocomponents
and ,thefluiditywhenaandbaremixedis
,
whichisonlyslightlysimplerthantheequivalentequationintermsofviscosity:
whereaandbisthemolefractionofcomponentaandbrespectively,andaandbarethe
components'pureviscosities.
Nonstandardunits
TheReynisaBritishunitofdynamicviscosity.
Viscosityindexisameasureforthechangeofkinematicviscositywithtemperature.Itisusedto
characteriselubricatingoilintheautomotiveindustry.
AtonetimethepetroleumindustryreliedonmeasuringkinematicviscositybymeansoftheSaybolt
viscometer,andexpressingkinematicviscosityinunitsofSayboltUniversalSeconds(SUS).[17]Other
abbreviationssuchasSSU(SayboltSecondsUniversal)orSUV(SayboltUniversalViscosity)are
sometimesused.KinematicviscosityincentistokecanbeconvertedfromSUSaccordingtothe
arithmeticandthereferencetableprovidedinASTMD2161.[18]
Molecularorigins
Theviscosityofasystemisdeterminedbyhowmoleculesconstitutingthesysteminteract.Thereareno
simplebutcorrectexpressionsfortheviscosityofafluid.ThesimplestexactexpressionsaretheGreen
KuborelationsforthelinearshearviscosityortheTransientTimeCorrelationFunctionexpressions
derivedbyEvansandMorrissin1985.[20]Althoughtheseexpressionsareeachexact,inorderto
calculatetheviscosityofadensefluidusingtheserelationscurrentlyrequirestheuseofmolecular
dynamicscomputersimulations.
Gases
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Viscosityingasesarisesprincipallyfromthemoleculardiffusion
thattransportsmomentumbetweenlayersofflow.Thekinetic
theoryofgasesallowsaccuratepredictionofthebehaviorof
gaseousviscosity.
Withintheregimewherethetheoryisapplicable:
Viscosityisindependentofpressureand
Viscosityincreasesastemperatureincreases.[21]
JamesClerkMaxwellpublishedafamouspaperin1866using
thekinetictheoryofgasestostudygaseousviscosity.[22]To
understandwhytheviscosityisindependentofpressure,consider
twoadjacentboundarylayers(AandB)movingwithrespectto
eachother.Theinternalfriction(theviscosity)ofthegasis
determinedbytheprobabilityaparticleoflayerAenterslayerB
withacorrespondingtransferofmomentum.Maxwell's
calculationsshowthattheviscositycoefficientisproportionalto
thedensity,themeanfreepath,andthemeanvelocityofthe
atoms.Ontheotherhand,themeanfreepathisinversely
proportionaltothedensity.Soanincreaseindensityduetoan
increaseinpressuredoesn'tresultinanychangeinviscosity.
Pitchhasaviscosityapproximately
230billion(2.3 1011)timesthatof
water. [19]
Relationtomeanfreepathofdiffusingparticles
Inrelationtodiffusion,thekinematicviscosityprovidesabetterunderstandingofthebehaviorofmass
transportofadilutespecies.Viscosityisrelatedtoshearstressandtherateofshearinafluid,which
illustratesitsdependenceonthemeanfreepath,,ofthediffusingparticles.
Fromfluidmechanics,foraNewtonianfluid,theshearstress,,onaunitareamovingparalleltoitself,
isfoundtobeproportionaltotherateofchangeofvelocitywithdistanceperpendiculartotheunitarea:
foraunitareaparalleltothexzplane,movingalongthexaxis.Wewillderivethisformulaandshow
howisrelatedto.
Interpretingshearstressasthetimerateofchangeofmomentum,p,perunitareaA(rateofmomentum
flux)ofanarbitrarycontrolsurfacegives
where
istheaveragevelocity,alongthexaxis,offluidmoleculeshittingtheunitarea,withrespect
totheunitareaand istherateoffluidmasshittingthesurface.
Bymakingsimplifiedassumptionthatthevelocityofthemoleculesdependslinearlyonthedistance
theyarecomingfrom,themeanvelocitydependslinearlyonthemeandistance:
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.
Furthermanipulationwillshow,[23]
where
isthedensityofthefluid,
istheaveragemolecularspeed(
),
isthedynamicviscosity.
Note,thatthemeanfreepathitselftypicallydepends(inversely)onthedensity.
Effectoftemperatureontheviscosityofagas
Sutherland'sformulacanbeusedtoderivethedynamicviscosityofanidealgasasafunctionofthe
temperature:[24]
Thisinturnisequalto
where
isaconstantforthegas.
inSutherland'sformula:
=dynamicviscosity(PasorPas)atinputtemperatureT,
0=referenceviscosity(inthesameunitsas)atreferencetemperatureT0,
T=inputtemperature(kelvin),
T0=referencetemperature(kelvin),
C=Sutherland'sconstantforthegaseousmaterialinquestion.
Validfortemperaturesbetween0<T<555Kwithanerrorduetopressurelessthan10%below3.45
MPa.
AccordingtoSutherland'sformula,iftheabsolutetemperatureislessthanC,therelativechangein
viscosityforasmallchangeintemperatureisgreaterthantherelativechangeintheabsolute
temperature,butitissmallerwhenTisaboveC.Thekinematicviscositythoughalwaysincreasesfaster
thanthetemperature(thatis,dlog()/dlog(T)isgreaterthan1).
Sutherland'sconstant,referencevaluesandvaluesforsomegases:
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T0
[K]
[K]
[Pas]
[PasK1/2]
air
120
291.15 18.27
1.512041288
nitrogen
111
300.55 17.81
1.406732195
oxygen
127
292.25 20.18
1.693411300
carbondioxide
240
293.15 14.8
1.572085931
carbonmonoxide 118
288.15 17.2
1.428193225
hydrogen
72
293.85 8.76
0.636236562
ammonia
370
293.15 9.82
1.297443379
sulfurdioxide
416
293.65 12.54
1.768466086
helium
79.4[25] 273
Gas
19[26]
1.484381490
Viscosityofadilutegas
TheChapmanEnskogequation[27]maybeusedtoestimateviscosityforadilutegas.Thisequationis
basedonasemitheoreticalassumptionbyChapmanandEnskog.Theequationrequiresthree
empiricallydeterminedparameters:thecollisiondiameter(),themaximumenergyofattractiondivided
bytheBoltzmannconstant(/)andthecollisionintegral((T*)).
with
T*=T/reducedtemperature(dimensionless),
0=viscosityfordilutegas(Pa.s),
M=molecularmass(g/mol),
T=temperature(K),
=thecollisiondiameter(),
/=themaximumenergyofattractiondividedbytheBoltzmannconstant(K),
=thecollisionintegral.
Liquids
Inliquids,theadditionalforcesbetweenmoleculesbecomeimportant.Thisleadstoanadditional
contributiontotheshearstressthoughtheexactmechanicsofthisarestillcontroversial.Thus,inliquids:
Viscosityisindependentofpressure(exceptatveryhighpressure)and
Viscositytendstofallastemperatureincreases(forexample,waterviscositygoesfrom1.79cPto
0.28cPinthetemperaturerangefrom0Cto100C)seetemperaturedependenceofliquid
viscosityformoredetails.
Thedynamicviscositiesofliquidsaretypicallyseveralordersofmagnitudehigherthandynamic
viscositiesofgases.
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Viscosityofblendsofliquids
Theviscosityoftheblendoftwoormoreliquidscanbe
estimatedusingtheRefutasequation.[28]Thecalculationis
carriedoutinthreesteps.
ThefirststepistocalculatetheViscosityBlendingNumber
(VBN)(alsocalledtheViscosityBlendingIndex)ofeach
componentoftheblend:
(1)
whereisthekinematicviscosityincentistokes(cSt).Itis
importantthatthekinematicviscosityofeachcomponentofthe
blendbeobtainedatthesametemperature.
ThenextstepistocalculatetheVBNoftheblend,usingthis
equation:
(2)
Videoshowingthreeliquidswith
differentviscosities
wherexXisthemassfractionofeachcomponentoftheblend.
Oncetheviscosityblendingnumberofablendhasbeencalculatedusingequation(2),thefinalstepisto
determinethekinematicviscosityoftheblendbysolvingequation(1)for:
(3)
whereVBNBlendistheviscosityblendingnumberoftheblend.
Viscosityofselectedsubstances
Air
Theviscosityofairdependsmostlyonthetemperature.At
15C,theviscosityofairis1.81 105kg/(ms),18.1Pa.sor
1.81 105Pa.s.Thekinematicviscosityat15Cis1.48 105
m2/sor14.8cSt.At25C,theviscosityis18.6Pa.sandthe
kinematicviscosity15.7cSt.
Water
Thedynamicviscosityofwateris8.90104Pasor8.90
103dyns/cm2or0.890cPatabout25C.
Waterhasaviscosityof0.0091poiseat25C,or1centipoiseat
Pressuredependenceofthedynamic
viscosityofdryairatthe
temperaturesof300,400and500K
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20C.
AsafunctionoftemperatureT(K):(Pas)=A10B/(TC)
whereA=2.414105PasB=247.8KandC=140K.
Viscosityofliquidwateratdifferenttemperaturesuptothe
normalboilingpointislistedbelow.
Temperature
Viscosity
[C]
[mPas]
10
1.308
20
1.002
30
0.7978
40
0.6531
50
0.5471
60
0.4658
70
0.4044
80
0.3550
90
0.3150
100
0.2822
Dynamicviscosityofwater
Othersubstances
SomedynamicviscositiesofNewtonianfluidsarelistedbelow:
Viscosityofselectedgasesat100kPa,[Pas]
Gas
at0C(273K)
at27C(300K)[29]
air
17.4
18.6
hydrogen
8.4
9.0
helium
20.0
argon
22.9
xenon
21.2
23.2
carbondioxide
15.0
methane
11.2
ethane
9.5
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Viscosityoffluidswithvariablecompositions
Viscosity
Viscosity
Fluid
[Pas]
[cP]
blood(37C)[9]
(34) 103 34
honey
210[30]
2,00010,000
molasses
510
5,00010,000
moltenglass
101,000
10,0001,000,000
chocolatesyrup
1025
10,00025,000
moltenchocolate* 45130[31]
45,000130,000
ketchup*
50100
50,000100,000
lard
100
100,000
peanutbutter*
250
250,000
shortening*
250
250,000
Exampleoftheviscosityofmilkand
water.Liquidswithhigherviscosities
makesmallersplasheswhenpouredat
thesamevelocity.
Honeybeingdrizzled.
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Viscosityofliquids
(at25Cunlessotherwisespecified)
Viscosity
Viscosity
Liquid
[Pas]
[cP=mPas]
acetone[29]
3.06 104 0.306
benzene[29]
6.04 104 0.604
castoroil[29]
0.985
985
cornsyrup[29]
1.3806
1,380.6
ethanol[29]
1.074 103 1.074
ethyleneglycol
1.61 102 16.1
glycerol(at20C)[26]
1.2
1,200
HFO380
2.022
2,022
mercury[29]
1.526 103 1.526
methanol[29]
5.44 104 0.544
motoroilSAE10(20C)[21] 0.065
65
motoroilSAE40(20C)[21] 0.319
319
nitrobenzene[29]
1.863 103 1.863
liquidnitrogen@77K
1.58 104 0.158
propanol[29]
1.945 103 1.945
oliveoil
0.081
81
pitch
2.3 108
2.3 1011
sulfuricacid[29]
2.42 102 24.2
water
8.94 104 0.894
Peanutbutterisasemisolidandcan
thereforeholdpeaks.
Viscosityofsolids
Viscosity
Temperature
Solid
[Pas]
asthenosphere[32] 7 1019
[K]
900C
uppermantle[32] (0.71.0) 1021 13003000C

lowermantle
(1.02.0) 1021 30004000C
*ThesematerialsarehighlynonNewtonian.
Note:Higherviscositymeansthickersubstance
Viscosityofslurry
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Thetermslurrydescribesmixturesofaliquidand
solidparticlesthatretainsomefluidity.Theviscosity
ofslurrycanbedescribedasrelativetotheviscosity
oftheliquidphase:
wheresandlarerespectivelythedynamic
viscosityoftheslurryandliquid(Pas),andristhe
relativeviscosity(dimensionless).
Dependingonthesizeandconcentrationofthesolid
particles,severalmodelsexistthatdescribethe
relativeviscosityasafunctionofvolumefraction
ofsolidparticles.
Plotofslurryrelativeviscosityrascalculatedby
empiricalcorrelationsfromEinstein, [33]Guthand
Simha, [34]Thomas, [35]andKitanoetal.. [36]
Inthecaseofextremelylowconcentrationsoffine
particles,Einstein'sequation[33]maybeused:
Inthecaseofhigherconcentrations,amodifiedequationwasproposedbyGuthandSimha,[34]which
takesintoaccountinteractionbetweenthesolidparticles:
FurthermodificationofthisequationwasproposedbyThomas[35]fromthefittingofempiricaldata:
whereA=0.00273andB=16.6.
Inthecaseofhighshearstress(above1kPa),anotherempiricalequationwasproposedbyKitanoetal.
forpolymermelts:[36]
whereA=0.68forsmoothsphericalparticles.
Viscosityofamorphousmaterials
Viscousflowinamorphousmaterials(e.g.inglassesandmelts)[38][39][40]isathermallyactivated
process:
whereQisactivationenergy,Tistemperature,RisthemolargasconstantandAisapproximatelya
constant.
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Theviscousflowinamorphousmaterialsis
characterizedbyadeviationfromtheArrheniustype
behavior:QchangesfromahighvalueQHatlow
temperatures(intheglassystate)toalowvalueQL
athightemperatures(intheliquidstate).Depending
onthischange,amorphousmaterialsareclassifiedas
either
strongwhen:QHQL<QLor
fragilewhen:QHQLQL.
Thefragilityofamorphousmaterialsisnumerically
characterizedbytheDoremusfragilityratio:
Commonglassviscositycurves. [37]
andstrongmaterialhaveRD<2whereasfragilematerialshaveRD2.
Theviscosityofamorphousmaterialsisquiteexactlydescribed
byatwoexponentialequation:
Commonlogofviscosityvs.
temperatureforB2O3,showingtwo
regimes
withconstantsA1,A2,B,CandDrelatedtothermodynamicparametersofjoiningbondsofan
amorphousmaterial.
Notveryfarfromtheglasstransitiontemperature,Tg,thisequationcanbeapproximatedbyaVogel
FulcherTammann(VFT)equation.
Ifthetemperatureissignificantlylowerthantheglasstransitiontemperature,TTg,thenthetwo
exponentialequationsimplifiestoanArrheniustypeequation:
with:
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whereHdistheenthalpyofformationofbrokenbonds(termedconfiguron(http://www.wikidoc.org/inde
x.php/Configuron)s)andHmistheenthalpyoftheirmotion.Whenthetemperatureislessthantheglass
transitiontemperature,T<Tg,theactivationenergyofviscosityishighbecausetheamorphousmaterials
areintheglassystateandmostoftheirjoiningbondsareintact.
Ifthetemperatureishighlyabovetheglasstransitiontemperature,TTg,thetwoexponentialequation
alsosimplifiestoanArrheniustypeequation:
with:
Whenthetemperatureishigherthantheglasstransitiontemperature,T>Tg,theactivationenergyof
viscosityislowbecauseamorphousmaterialsaremeltedandhavemostoftheirjoiningbondsbroken,
whichfacilitatesflow.
Eddyviscosity
Inthestudyofturbulenceinfluids,acommonpracticalstrategyforcalculationistoignorethesmall
scalevortices(oreddies)inthemotionandtocalculatealargescalemotionwithaneddyviscositythat
characterizesthetransportanddissipationofenergyinthesmallerscaleflow(seelargeeddy
simulation).Valuesofeddyviscosityusedinmodelingoceancirculationmaybefrom5104to106Pas
dependingupontheresolutionofthenumericalgrid.
Seealso
Dashpot
Deborahnumber
Dilatant
HerschelBulkleyfluid
Hyperviscositysyndrome
Intrinsicviscosity
Inviscidflow
Mortonnumber
Relativeviscosity
Reyn
Reynoldsnumber
Trouton'sratio
Twodimensionalpointvortexgas
Twodimensionalpointvortexgas
Viscoelasticity
Viscoplasticity
Viscosityindex
Jobackmethod(estimationoftheliquid
viscosityfrommolecularstructure)
Microviscosity
Rheology
Superfluidhelium4
Stokesflow
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471457280
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CompendiumofChemicalTerminology.Oxford:BlackwellScientificPublications.doi:10.1351/goldbook.
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NonCrystallineSolids107:14.Bibcode:1988JNCS..107...14S.doi:10.1016/00223093(88)900865.
13.Grossi,MarcoRicc,Bruno(2016)."Aportableelectronicsystemforinsitumeasurementsofoil
concentrationinMetalWorkingfluids".SensorsandActuatorsA:Physical243:714.
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14.Viscosity(http://www.byk.com/fileadmin/BYK/downloads/supportdownloads/instruments/theory/physicalpr
operties/en/Intro_Viscosity.pdf).BYKGardnerGmbH
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ISBN0030059321.
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17.ASTMD2161(2005)"StandardPracticeforConversionofKinematicViscositytoSayboltUniversal
ViscosityortoSayboltFurolViscosity",p.1
18."QuantitiesandUnitsofViscosity".Uniteasy.com.Retrieved20100914.
19.Edgeworth,R.Dalton,B.J.Parnell,T."Thepitchdropexperiment".UniversityofQueensland.Retrieved
20090331..Acopyof:EuropeanJournalofPhysics(1984)pp.198200.
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22.Maxwell,J.C.(1866)."Ontheviscosityorinternalfrictionofairandothergases".Philosophical
TransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon156:249268.doi:10.1098/rstl.1866.0013.
23.Salmon,R.L.(1998).Lecturesongeophysicalfluiddynamics.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN019510808
6.,pp.2326.
24.Smits,AlexanderJ.andDussauge,JeanPaul(2006)Turbulentshearlayersinsupersonicflow(https://books.
google.com/books?id=oRx6U4T8zcIC&pg=PA46),Birkhuser,ISBN0387261400p.46
25.Kim,YounJ.Kim,YouJae&Han,J.G.(1970)."Numericalanalysisofflowcharacteristicsofan
atmosphericplasmatorch".12thInternationalCongressonPlasmaPhysics,2529October2004,Nice
(France).arXiv:physics/0410237.Bibcode:2004physics..10237K.
26.Viscosityofliquidsandgases(http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/Hbase/tables/viscosity.html).
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27.Hirshfelder,J.O.Curtis,C.F.&Bird,R.B.(1964).Moleculartheoryofgasesandliquids(Firsted.).Wiley.
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ISBN0849304865.
30.Yanniotis,S.Skaltsi,S.Karaburnioti,S.(February2006)."Effectofmoisturecontentontheviscosityof
honeyatdifferenttemperatures".JournalofFoodEngineering72(4):372377.
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31."ChocolateProcessing".BrookfieldEngineeringwebsite.Retrieved20071203.
32.Fjeldskaar,W.(1994)."ViscosityandthicknessoftheasthenospheredetectedfromtheFennoscandianuplift".
EarthandPlanetaryScienceLetters126(4):399410.Bibcode:1994E&PSL.126..399F.doi:10.1016/0012
821X(94)901201.
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33.Einstein,A.(1906)."EineneueBestimmungderMolekldimensionen".AnnalenderPhysik19(2):289.
Bibcode:1906AnP...324..289E.doi:10.1002/andp.19063240204.
34.Guth,E.Simha,R.(1936)."UntersuchungenberdieViskosittvonSuspensionenundLsungen.3.ber
dieViskosittvonKugelsuspensionen".KolloidZ.74(3):266.doi:10.1007/BF01428643.
35.Thomas,D.G.(1965)."Transportcharacteristicsofsuspension:VIII.AnoteontheviscosityofNewtonian
suspensionsofuniformsphericalparticles".J.ColloidSci.20(3):267.doi:10.1016/00958522(65)900164.
36.Kitano,T.Kataoka,T.&Shirota,T.(1981)."Anempiricalequationoftherelativeviscosityofpolymer
meltsfilledwithvariousinorganicfillers".RheologicaActa20(2):207.doi:10.1007/BF01513064.
37.Fluegel,Alexander."Viscositycalculationofglasses".Glassproperties.com.Retrieved20100914.
38.Doremus,R.H.(2002)."Viscosityofsilica".J.Appl.Phys.92(12):76197629.
Bibcode:2002JAP....92.7619D.doi:10.1063/1.1515132.
39.Ojovan,M.I.&Lee,W.E.(2004)."ViscosityofnetworkliquidswithinDoremusapproach".J.Appl.Phys.
95(7):38033810.Bibcode:2004JAP....95.3803O.doi:10.1063/1.1647260.
40.Ojovan,M.I.Travis,K.P.&Hand,R.J.(2000)."Thermodynamicparametersofbondsinglassymaterials
fromviscositytemperaturerelationships".J.Phys.:CondensedMatter19(41):415107.
Bibcode:2007JPCM...19O5107O.doi:10.1088/09538984/19/41/415107.
Furtherreading
Hatschek,Emil(1928).TheViscosityofLiquids.NewYork:VanNostrand.OCLC53438464(http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53438464).
Massey,B.S.WardSmith,A.J.(2011).MechanicsofFluids(Ninthed.).LondonNewYork:
SponPress.ISBN9780415602594.OCLC690084654.
Externallinks
Fluidproperties(http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/)
Lookupviscosityin
Highaccuracycalculationofviscosityandotherphysical
Wiktionary,thefree
propertiesoffrequentusedpureliquidsandgases.
dictionary.
Gasviscositycalculatorasfunctionoftemperature(http://
www.enggcyclopedia.com/calculators/physicalproperties/
Wikisourcehasthetextof
gasviscosity/)
TheNewStudent's
Airviscositycalculatorasfunctionoftemperatureand
ReferenceWorkarticle
pressure(http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/calculators/phys
ViscosityofLiquids.
icalproperties/airviscositycalculator/)
FluidCharacteristicsChart(http://www.engineersedge.com/fluid_flow/fluid_data.htm)Atableof
viscositiesandvaporpressuresforvariousfluids
GasDynamicsToolbox(http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~alexeenk/GDT/index.html)Calculate
coefficientofviscosityformixturesofgases
GlassViscosityMeasurement(http://glassproperties.com/viscosity/ViscosityMeasurement.htm)
Viscositymeasurement,viscosityunitsandfixpoints,glassviscositycalculation
KinematicViscosity(http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/k/i/kinematic%20viscosity/sourc
e.html)conversionbetweenkinematicanddynamicviscosity.
PhysicalCharacteristicsofWater(http://www.thermexcel.com/english/tables/eau_atm.htm)A
tableofwaterviscosityasafunctionoftemperature
VogelTammannFulcherEquationParameters(http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/09538984/12/46/
305)
Calculationoftemperaturedependentdynamicviscositiesforsomecommoncomponents(http://d
dbonline.ddbst.de/VogelCalculation/VogelCalculationCGI.exe)
"TestProceduresforTestingHighwayandNonroadEnginesandOmnibusTechnical
Amendments"(http://www.epa.gov/EPAAIR/2005/July/Day13/a11534d.htm).UnitedStates
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
Artificialviscosity(http://www.astro.uu.se/~bf/course/numhd_course/2_5_2Artificial_viscosity.ht
19/20
5/21/2016
ml)
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3.06 104 0.306

6.04 104 0.604

1.074 103 1.074

1.61 102 16.1

1.526 103 1.526

5.44 104 0.544

1.863 103 1.863

1.58 104 0.158

1.945 103 1.945

2.42 102 24.2

8.94 104 0.894

uppermantle[32] (0.71.0) 1021 13003000C

(1.02.0) 1021 30004000C

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