Introduction
The purpose of this manual is to offer a standard approach and set of
calculations to be used in the design of water features, purely from an
engineering standpoint. The engineer’s input to the operation of a
water feature may be considered in two parts: maintenance of an
acceptable quality of water, and provision of an acceptable head of
water to operate water features. Water quality considerations in these
applications are firstly the health and safety issues such as avoidance
of transmission of disease, secondly aesthetic factors of clarity and
absence of odour, and thirdly the corrosive and other qualities that
impact on the vessels, pipework and so on used to produce the
feature. Provision of an acceptable head of water and prediction of the
behavior of water under differing conditions is dealt with by means of
hydraulic calculations.
1.1.1 Pipework
As a general rule, flow velocities for Gravity, Suction, and Delivery lines
of 1.0, 1.5, and 3 m.s-1 should not be exceeded at this stage. As a
general rule, velocities should tend to be lower than these given for
pipework runs over 50 metres, and/or containing many fittings or
valves.
1.1.2 Tankage
1.1.3 Channels
Setting flow velocity at less than or equal to 1.5 m.s-1 at this depth
should result in reasonable losses down the channel.
1.1.4 Weirs
These flows gave depths of the order of 10 -15 mm over the weir. The
recommendations contained in Appendix III are to be followed
wherever possible.
1.1.5 Nozzles
Experiments with PEM and OESA nozzles have shown that variability
between literature and actual values and between batches of nozzles
can be considerable.
It may be assumed that all supplies from potable sources are suitable
in these respects.
1.2.2 Clarity
The most important parameter with respect to the visual impact on the
feature is the clarity of the water. Unlike industrial applications,
however, no performance standards are stated, and the clarity of the
water is an aesthetic rather than a scientific measurement.
The filters will remove only gross suspended solids. Any fine or
colloidal solids will require additional treatment, as will any of the
above undesirable contaminants.
There is a number of other filter types which are used for this
application, Rapid Sand Filters and pre-coat filters being the most
common alternatives. These have the disadvantage of increased space
requirements, and more troublesome operation respectively. Note that
(confusingly) Rapid Sand Filters are not as rapid as high-rate filters,
and are sometimes known in this industry as standard rate filters.
There are a couple of other minor techniques for disinfection that have
come from developments to answer the requirements of the US and
USSR space programmes for water recycling. The US programme
devised a technique where disinfectant metal ions are introduced into
the water by electrolysis of the water using precious metal electrodes.
Use of this technique is practically limited to small domestic pools, as
the effective agent is precious metal ions. The Russians apparently
developed electrolysis of salt through a semi-permeable membrane.
This system is sold as “Enigma” in the UK. The mode of action of this
system is production of hypochlorous acid. There may be trace levels
of other oxidised compounds, but these are insignificant with respect
to the disinfecting effect of the system. There is no proof whatever of
any effects over and above that explainable by the action of
hypochlorous acid (the effective agent in standard chlorine
disinfection). The system is more expensive than all other chlorine
dosing systems.
2.0 Contract Stage Design
2.1 Detailed Hydraulic Design
2.1.1 Pipework
2.1.2 Channels
2.1.3 Weirs
A knife-edge or thin weir will have a flow rate at a given depth over the
weir according to the following formula, if approach velocity is less
than 0.6 m.s-1:
The flow at a given weir breadth and head may be calculated from:
Q = C x b x H1.5
2.1.4 Nozzles
2.2.2 Clarity
Since the client requirements for water quality are aesthetic rather
than scientific, we recommend that filtration equipment should be
purchased from manufacturers with a guarantee of 95% removal of
particles > 5 um. While this will not guarantee overall water clarity, it
is a common specification for filters producing drinking water.
Given the preceding specification for filters, the clarity of the feature
water is mostly dependent on the turnover, assuming all turbidity is
caused by solid particles > 5um.
Turnovers per 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
day
% Turbidity 58 16 5 2 1 0.5 0.08 0.02 0.01
remaining at
equilibrium
In the event that the turbidity is not filterable, advice should be sought
from a water treatment expert on how to render the turbid
components removable.
The pH and Alkalinity of the water to be used both affect the need to
have pH correction equipment. Both chlorine and bromine disinfectants
give best results at pH 7.2 to 7.8. Water that enters the system at a pH
far from this range may be unsuitable for disinfection without pH
correction. In addition to the loss of desirable disinfectant effect, there
are a number of undesirable chemical reactions that are promoted by
pH values far from optimal values. Tablet brominators of the type
commonly used for water features use chemicals that have very little
effect on pH. Use of gaseous chlorine, and sodium hypochlorite move
pH into acid and alkaline ranges respectively. If these chemicals are
used, the advice of an expert should be sought in order to determine
the pH that results from their addition. If it is desired to correct pH, the
alkalinity of the water must be taken into account in deciding which
chemicals to use. Water with less than 50 ppm of Alkalinity will have a
very variable, and hard to control pH value