Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2054-6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
c
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
d
Department of Mathematics and Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 1984 Mathematics Road, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z2
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 10 August 2011
Received in revised form 11 October 2011
Accepted 11 October 2011
Available online 21 October 2011
Keywords:
Yield stress uids
Static residual layers
UDV
Displacement ow
Buoyancy
Carbopol
a b s t r a c t
We present results of a primarily experimental study of buoyant miscible displacement ows of a yield
stress uid by a higher density Newtonian uid along a long pipe, inclined at angles close to horizontal.
We focus on the industrially interesting case where the yield stress is signicantly larger than a typical
viscous stress in the displacing uid, but where buoyancy forces may be signicant. We identify two distinct ow regimes: a central-type displacement regime and a slump-type regime for higher density
ratios. In the central-type displacement ows, we nd non-uniform static residual layers all around
the pipe wall with long-wave variation along the pipe. In the slump-type displacement we generally
detect two propagating displacement fronts. A fast front propagates in a thin layer near the bottom of
the pipe. A much slower second front follows, displacing a thicker layer of the pipe but sometimes stopping altogether when buoyancy effects are reduced by spreading of the front. In the thin lower layer the
ow rate is focused which results in large effective Reynolds numbers, moving into transitional regimes.
These ows are frequently unsteady and the displacing uid can channel through the yield stress uid in
an erratic fashion. We show that the two regimes are delineated by the value of the Archimedes numbers
(equivalently, the Reynolds number divided by the densimetric Froude number), a parameter which is
independent of the imposed ow rate. We present the phenomenology of the two ow regimes. In simplied congurations, we compare computational and analytical predictions of the ow behaviour (e.g.
static layer thickness, axial velocity) with our experimental observations.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
There are many industrial processes in which it is necessary to
remove a gelled material or soft-solid from a duct. Examples include bio-medical applications (mucus [27,34], biolms [7,52]),
cleaning of equipment and food processing [6,8], oil well cementing and waxy crude oil pipeline restarts. A wide range of material
models are used to describe residual deposits in these situations.
Some of these ows are turbulent, but equally often process limitations dictate that the ows be laminar. It is this case that we
study here. Our industrial motivation comes from the oil industry,
and we consider that the uid to be removed is either a drilling
mud or a pipeline full of waxy crude oil, and that these uids have
a yield stress. We study downward displacement ows along pipes
that are inclined at angles close to horizontal (but not horizontal),
as for Newtonian uid ows we can see signicant differences
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 604 822 3043; fax: +1 604 822 6074.
E-mail address: frigaard@math.ubc.ca (I.A. Frigaard).
0377-0257/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jnnfm.2011.10.004
when fully horizontal. We have recently studied in detail such displacement ows, in the Newtonian uid setting, in [4447].
The main feature of a yield stress uid is that the uid does not
deform until a critical shear stress is exceeded locally. Therefore,
when these uids ll ducts and are displaced by other uids, there
is a tendency for the yield stress uid to remain stuck to the duct
walls and in particular in parts of the duct where there are constrictions or corners. This type of feature was rst recognised in
the context of oil well cementing by McLean et al. [33], who identied potential bridging of a static plug of mud on the narrow side
of an eccentric annulus. Avoidance of this feature has since been an
ingredient of industrial design rules for oileld cementing
[10,29,40], and latterly also simulation based design models
[3,41]. Further features of oileld cementing are discussed in
[36], but here our geometry is simpler.
In waxy crude oil pipeline restarts (see [5,12,42,49]) a large pressure is applied at one end of the pipe, to break the gel of the waxy oil.
The waxy state has formed due to a drop in temperature below the
wax appearance temperature, often related to stopping the pipeline
for maintenance or other issues. Temperature is not particularly
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
l^ Vb 0 = Db s^v s^Y :
Tank
^
V0
UDV probe
Dyed light fluid
BN 1;
s^Y Db
BN
:
l^ Vb 0
Drain
2
q^ Vb 20 s^t / s^Y :
^t > s
^Y , then we enter a regime in which inertial stresNote that if s
ses alone might be sufcient to yield and fully displace the viscoplastic uid; hence the inequality above, which is equivalent to
Re/BN / 1.
A third consideration for our study is that we wish to observe
buoyancy effects. The appropriate scale for buoyant stresses transb sin b, where Dq
^b Dq
^ g^ D
^ is the absolute denverse to the pipe is s
sity difference between uids (axial buoyancy stresses are much
smaller than this since b 90). If we hope to observe signicant
effects of buoyancy on the type of displacement ow, we would expect that the buoyancy stress contributes to yielding at the front.
Thus, we have selected uid parameters such that:
b sin b s
^Y :
^b s
^ g^ D
Dq
^b s
^Y it is likely that there would be no effect of buoyIf instead s
ancy. The three conditions (2)(4) frame the parameter space of our
experiments.
2.1. Experimental description
Our experimental study was performed in a 4 m long, 19.05 mm
diameter, transparent pipe with a gate valve located 80 cm from
one end; see Fig. 1. The pipe was mounted on a frame which could
be tilted to any angle. Initially, the lower part of the pipe is lled
with a less dense uid (uid 2) coloured1 with a small amount of
ink. The upper part of the pipe, above the gate valve, is lled by
the denser uid 1. To avoid pump disturbances, the displacing
upper uid was fed by gravity from a large elevated tank. The ow
rate was controlled by a valve and measured by both a rotameter
and a magnetic owmeter, located downstream of the pipe. At
the start of the experiment the gate valve is opened. Images of
the displacing uid are recorded using two cameras, and subsequently analyzed to characterize different aspects of the ow.
Velocity is also measured through the central plane of the pipe at
a position downstream of the gate valve, using an Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimeter (UDV). These methods are described below in Section 2.1.2.
1
For interpretation of colour in Figs. 24 and 1019, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.
Transparent
heavy fluid
At
q^ 1 q^ 2
:
q^ 1 q^ 2
b 0 6 72 mm:s1 ;
06V
Re
b
b0
V
q^ 1 Vb 0 D
; Fr
b 1=2
l^ 1
Atg^ D
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
Table 1
Composition and properties of the displaced uid used in our experiments.
Carbopol solution
Carbopol %
(wt/wt)
NaOH %
(wt/wt)
s^Y (Pa)
j^ Pa sn
A
B
C
D
0.1125
0.12
0.15
0.14
0.0322
0.0343
0.0429
0.040
1.17
3.05
6.51
3.12
0.45
0.60
0.39
0.26
4.49
8.24
4.63
20.44
cone tip. The cone and plate were roughened with a thin layer of
sand paper (400 grit roughness), to avoid slip. Identical loading
procedures were followed in all tests. Temperature was controlled
to match that in the experimental room. Supplementary experiments were carried out with Carbopol solution D, nearly
18 months after the original experiments with AC. Rheological
measurements were carried out using the same procedure but
now with a parallel plate geometry and a different rheometer
(HR Nano from Malvern). A rheological model that ts well the
shear behaviour of Carbopol behavior is the HerschelBulkley
model:
s^ s^Y j^ c^_n :
This includes the simpler Bingham, power law and Newtonian mod^, a
els and is dened by three parameters: a uid consistency index j
^Y , and a power law index n. From our rheometer data,
yield stress s
we determined the yield stress value through the shear stress value
at the global maximum of the viscosity. Afterwards, we subtracted
the yield stress value from the remaining shear stress data and then
we found the best t to a power law curve. The error in determining
the yield stress value of the Carbopol solution in this way is esti^
mated to be in the range 527%. The errors in the consistency j
and the power law index (n) were below 7% and 12% respectively.
In fact the Carbopol rheology plays little apparent role in our
experiments, as we target the range BN 1 where much of the displaced uid will be unyielded, i.e. it is important to have a large
yield stress, but the rheology after yielding is probably irrelevant
for our particular experiments. Determined values of the rheological constants for each of the four Carbopol solutions that we have
used are shown in Table 1. An example owcurve from the rheometer compared with the tted HerschelBulkley model data is
shown in Fig. 2.
2.1.2. Image processing and local velocity measurement
In order to help the visualization of the two uids, the pipe was
illuminated from behind by a light box containing uorescent light
tubes ltered through a diffusive paper to give a homogeneous
light. Light absorption calibration was carried out for both cameras.
During the experiment (after opening the gate valve), images were
Fig. 2. Example owcurve for Carbopol B. The solid line shows the curve t with
parameters shown in Table 1.
obtained at regular time intervals, which enabled us to create spatiotemporal diagrams of the averaged concentration proles along
the length of the pipe. The fronts were marked on these diagrams
by a sharp boundary between the different relative concentrations
of the uids. The front velocities were obtained from the slope of
this boundary.
We also measured the velocity prole at 80 cm below the gate
valve, using an Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimeter DOP2000 (model
2125, Signal Processing SA) with 8 MHz, 5 mm (TR0805LS) transducers (with a duration of 0.5 l s). This velocimetry technique
suits our experimental needs well since it does not require transparent uids and is completely non-intrusive. The measuring volume has a cylindrical shape and its the axial resolution in our
uids is around 0.375 mm and the lateral resolution is equal to
the transducer diameter (5 mm) slightly varying with depth. The
slightly diverging ultrasonic beam enters the uids by passing
through a 3.175 mm-thick plexiglass pipe wall. This technique is
based on the pulse-echo technique and allows measurement of
the ow velocity projection on the ultrasound beam, in real time
[25]. For the tracer, we used polyamid seeding particles with a
mean particle diameter of 50 lm, with volumetric concentration
of 0.2 g l1 in both uids. Following [4], there is a trade off between
a good signal to noise ratio and small ultrasonic signal reections,
achieved by mounting the probe at an angle in the range 6872
relative to the axis of the pipe.
3. Results
Two qualitatively distinct ows were observed in our experiments. In some ows the displacing uid propagated approximately centrally along pipe, leaving behind residual layers on all
walls. We call this a central type displacement and describe its
characteristics below in Section 3.2. In other displacements the
heavier uid appeared to slump to the lower part of the pipe and
propagate along the lower wall. As far as could be observed, the
interface was approximately horizontal as measured in a transverse plane and the ow stratied progressively in the length-wise
direction. We call this a slump type displacement and describe its
characteristics below in Section 3.4.
3.1. The transition between central and slump displacements
It was not surprising that the slump displacements appeared to
occur for larger density differences. However, we sought a more
quantitative description for their occurrence. All our experiments
were purposefully designed to satisfy (2)(4), meaning a large yield
stress. This suggested that the yield stress itself would not play a
signicant role in determining ow type. Equally, since all ows
had signicant residual layers it appeared that the Carbopol must
be yielded only close to the front and far ahead of the displacement
front in thin wall layers (i.e. Poiseuille ow). Thus, it also seemed
unlikely that the sheared rheology of the Carbopol would be particularly relevant to our experiments.
With the above considerations, we were led to consider only
those dimensionless parameters relevant to the Newtonian displacing uid: the Atwood number, At, the Reynolds number Re
and the densimetric Froude number Fr. In buoyant displacement
ows, At independently inuences only the inertial terms in the
momentum balance. For density differences of less than 10% this
effect can be largely ignored between the uids, and our At falls
in this range. Neglecting At, buoyancy still has a signicant inuence through the densimetric Froude number Fr. On analyzing
our data we discovered that the transition between regimes was
governed by the ratio Re/Fr and was largely independent of all
other dimensionless groups we considered. A selection of plots,
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
b3
^1 q
^ 2 q
^1 q
^ 2 g^ D
q
Ar
;
2
^1
2l
r
Ar
1 OAt
b 3 1=2
^1 q
^ 2 g^ D
^ 1 q
Re q
1=2
Fr
^1
^1 q
^2 l
q
8
One could also include a sin b term with the gravitational constant
above, but for simplicity this is neglected. The Archimedes number
occurs commonly in ows where both forced and natural convective forces are involved: large Ar indicates dominance of the buoyancy forces, as indicated here by the stratied slumping.
A dependency on Re/Fr was also evident in our studies of Newtonian uid displacements; see [44]. In those experiments, different
ow regimes are delineated in the plane of Fr versus Re cos b/Fr. Here
we have not explored variation with b, using only two pipe inclinations. However, it is worth pointing out that the effects are anyway
markedly different to the Newtonian displacements. Firstly, there is
little apparent effect of the velocity (captured here in Fr). Secondly,
in the Newtonian uid studies, stratied viscous regimes were
63
64
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
b 0 32 mm s1 with Carbopol solution A: (a) images of the displacement at ^t 4; 6; . . . ; 20; 22 s after opening the
Fig. 4. Central displacement for b 83 ; At 3 103 ; V
gate valve; (b) spatiotemporal image of the same displacement. The plot shows a 833 mm long section of the pipe a few centimeters below the gate valve. The rectangular
region marked by the broken line is explained in the text and is used in the following gures.
front, we observe vertical streaks in the spatiotemporal plot, indicating that the residual layers are static. Computation of the mean
concentration at different positions in the region behind the displacement front suggests that 3040% of the Carbopol is not displaced. A similar range is found for the displacement of Fig. 6a.
Concentration-based estimates of the residual layer thickness
can be compared with estimates of the mean layer thickness, made
from the front velocity measurements. For example, in Fig. 6a the
b 0 44 mm s1 whereas the measured
imposed ow velocity is V
b f 64 mm s1 . Assuming the residual layers
front velocity is V
are static, this suggests a mean layer thickness
v3
2
u
b
ub
D
^ 41 t V 0 5 1:63 mm;
h
bf
2
V
with 31% of the Carbopol remaining. In general we have found
that such estimates are self-consistent, but as we can see in both
Figs. 4a and 6a there is variation in layer thickness along the pipe.
To quantify this variation in layer thickness we have analysed
data from the rectangular time-space region indicated by the
broken line in Fig. 4b. First of all we have averaged with respect
to the axial distance ^
x and with respect to time, to give a mean
^ and (b) C^
Fig. 5. Variation of (a) Cy
x in the rectangular region (illustrated by a broken line) in Fig. 4b. The insets in (b) show that the interfacial modes of the mean static
layer apparently have long wavelength variations, of the order of 50100 mm.
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
b 0 44 mm s1 , with Carbopol solution C: (a) images of the displacement at ^t 1; 2; . . . ; 16; 17 s after opening the
Fig. 6. Central displacement for b = 85, At = 4 103 and V
gate valve. The length of pipe shown in (a) is a 990 mm long section of the pipe, starting a few centimeters below the gate valve. (b) contours of velocity proles obtained from
the Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimeter at 80 cm below the gate valve. Assuming a symmetric displacement, velocity values from a simple Poiseuille prole surrounded by static
layers are superimposed onto this plot. The broken lines show the position of the symmetric static layer, estimated from the mean concentration.
Fig. 7. An example of central displacement: sequence of images of increasing the imposed ow showing propagation of interface along a 1386 mm long section of the pipe,
1711 mm below the gate valve. Other parameters are b = 83 and At = 1.2 103 with Carbopol solution D: from top to bottom the images are taken at
b 0 24; 44; 55; 71 mm s1 .
V
b0 1 1
^V
8l
b g^ cos b;
^1 q
^ 2D
s^w
1 ki q
b
D ki 4
s^Y
b0 1
^V
8l
1
b g^ cos b:
^1 q
^ 2D
1 ki;min q
b
k
4
i;min
D
ki;min
2
s3
2
/B 4
8/
1
1 1 B 2 5 ;
/B
4
B 1 /B
N
10
/B
b g^ cos b
^1 q
^ 2D
q
;
^
sY
BN
s^Y Db
:
l^ Vb 0
11
The rst of these is the ratio of axial buoyant stress to the yield
stress of the uid. Since we have designed our experiments so that
(4) is satised, we typically have /B cot b 1. The second parameter BN appears in (2), which states BN 1 for our experimental
design.
Fig. 8 shows contours of 1 ki,min in the /BBN plane. In this gure the shaded area marks the limit where no static wall layers are
possible. We can interpret 1 ki,min as a dimensionless maximal
2
Strictly speaking, some additional assumptions are needed to ensure that the
second term on the right-hand side above is not too large, or we may have a buoyancy
driven ow backwards against the mean ow. These assumptions are anyway met by
our experimental conditions.
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
the Newtonian uid. At the pipe wall, w(z, y) = 0. Both the shear
stress and velocity are continuous at the interface. Finally, since
the ow rate is xed the following ow rate constraint is satised:
Z
X1
Fig. 8. Contours of the maximal static layer thickness (1 ki,min), in the BN/B
plane. The shaded area marks the limit where no static wall layers are possible.
static layer thickness (scaled with the pipe radius). For our range of
experiments (/B 1 and BN 1), we have the approximation:
ki;min
2
/
24/B
1 B
BN
4
BN
12
Thus, the maximal layers in our experimental range are always predicted to be close to 1, i.e. a very thin radial channel down the centre of the pipe. This is very far from what we observe: the actual
layer thicknesses (residual volume fractions) are far less than the
maximal possible. This is not unexpected and has been observed
in other geometries, e.g. [2,21,53]. The cause of the over-prediction
of the residual layer is the ow at the displacement front is threedimensional, so that the above analysis is only valid behind the
front. In this three-dimensional frontal region inertial stresses are
signicant.
3.3. Axial ow computations
To gain insight into the observed phenomena, and in particular
to give evidence at the computational level that residual layers are
indeed static, we compute the ow in a simplied conguration,
assuming the ow to be steady and uniaxial along the pipe. The
cross-section of the pipe is assumed to be divided into two domains: X1 (for the displacing uid) and X2 (for the displaced uid).
b 0,
We scale the axial velocities with the mean imposed velocity V
b and adopt a stress-scale l
b based on the visb 0 = D,
^V
lengths with D
cous shear stress in the Newtonian uid. The scaled velocity
w(z, y) satises the following problem:
@2w @2w
2 ; z; y 2 X1 ;
@z2
@y
@
@
b f sxz sxy ; z; y 2 X2 ;
@z
@y
BN
jrwj; () jsxz ; sxy j > BN ;
sxz ; sxy jjrwjn1
jrwj
f
z; y 2 X2 ;
jrwj 0; () jsxz ; sxy j 6 BN ;
13
16
b n1 =l
b n1 is a dimensionless consistency, f is the
^V
^D
where j j
0
dimensionless modied pressure gradient and b > 0:
b /B BN
wz; ydzdy
X2
p
4
17
14
15
z; y 2 X2 :
b 2 g^ cos b 2At D
b 2 g^ cos b
^1 q
^ 2D
q
;
l^ Vb 0
m^ Vb 0
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
67
q
q
Fig. 9. 2D computational results with the parameters of the experiment shown in Fig. 4 (BN = 550.7, /B = 0.1286): (a) w(z, y); (b) s2xz s2xy ; (c) w(z, y); (d) s2xz s2xy . The
interface has a circular shape and is assumed concentric in a and b, eccentric in c and d (e 0.41 towards the upper wall). The eccentricity e is dened as the distance between
center of the Newtonian uid ow and the center of the pipe, divided by the difference in radii. Broken white lines indicate the interface.
b f with V
b 0 for a sequence of
Fig. 10. Variation of measured front velocity V
experiments with Carbopol solution C at b = 85 and At = 102; leading front,
second front.
inertial forces are relatively weak here and the buoyancy gradients
are weakened as the front elongates, i.e. there is some form of slow
relaxation.
We see that the interface between uids appears to slowly
move upwards, i.e. the residual layer is thinned over time. In
Fig. 11b we show the velocity contours from the UDV system for
the same experiment, superimposing also the interface height
(estimated from the measured mean concentration). We observe
that the thick layer towards the top of the pipe is static. This is
not surprising: the ow and interface are pseudo parallel and since
BN 1 we expect the viscous stresses (transmitted across the
interface) to be insufcient to yield the upper layer.
Curious however is that the interface still moves and the upper
layer thins. We can only speculate that this might be due to erosion
from the interface over time. We can see that the initial velocity in
the lower layer is quite high and only relaxes later as the residual
layer thins. The effective Reynolds number in the lower layer is of
order 103 so that we might expect some unsteadiness in the ow,
as is suggested by the UDV. Unsteady interfacial stress uctuations
could weaken the gelled upper layer allowing mixing and dilution
of the Carbopol solution.
b 0 in Fig. 12. We
Two further examples are shown at increased V
show again snapshots of the displacement and also the UDV contours. The most notable difference is that here the second interface moves steadily along at a signicant speed. Although there
is evidence of some residual uid near the top of the pipe, behind
the second front, the displacement is quite effective. In the early
part of the experiment, when only the fast moving lower front
has passed the UDV position, we observe that the upper residual
layer is apparently moving in a plug like fashion with decay in
velocity close to the upper wall. Since all the ow does not pass
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
b 0 26 mm s1 : (a) a sequence of snapshots showing a 990 (mm) long section of the pipe a few centimeters
Fig. 11. Displacement of Carbopol C for b = 85, At = 102 at V
below the gate valve at ^t 30; 60; . . . ; 570; s600 after opening the gate valve; (b) contours of velocity from the UDV at 80 cm below the gate valve: readings taken through the
pipe centreline in a vertical section. The vertical axis shows depth measured from the top of the pipe. Velocity data is averaged time-wise over 25 velocity proles (3 s), but no
spatial averaging/ltering is applied. The broken line illustrates the depth of the interface, as inferred from the normalized concentration across the pipe at the UDV position.
in the lower layer with the rst front, it is necessary that the
upper layer moves, in order to conserve mass. As the second front
passes the upper residual layer is thinned considerably, but now
becomes static. The entire imposed ow rate is now passing below the interface. At the larger ow rate the nal residual layer
is thinned.
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
69
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
Fig. 14. (a) Normalized static layer depth dstatic; (b) Leading front velocity: (b = 85, At = 1.6 102, Carbopol B). The layer depth is averaged over a 37 (mm) section at 2407
(mm) along the pipe, late in the experiment.
q
Fig. 15. 2Dqcomputational
solution with a horizontal interface from the sequence of Fig. 14 (b = 85, At = 1.6 102 with Carbopol solution B): (a) w(z,y); (b) s2xz s2xy ; (c)
1
1
b 0 23 mm s ; BN 2497:2; / 0:1751; dstatic 0:76.
b 0 61mm.s , BN = 960.3, /B = 0.1751, dstatic = 0.57; for gures c and d: V
w(z,y); (d) s2xz s2xy . For gures a and b: V
B
We should note that in the case that the upper uid is static, the
stress eld computed is simply an admissible candidate stress
eld.
By iterating the 2D computational solution we may compute
the maximal depth of the static layer dmax (measured down from
the top of the pipe, scaled with the pipe diameter). We have com-
puted this for three values of /B that span the range of our experiments; see Fig. 16a. To interpret this gure, at xed layer depth d
the layer is static for any BN above the curve, or alternatively for
any xed BN the layer is static for any depth d 6 dmax. We observe
a slight increase in dmax with /B. Note that /B represents a buoyancy force upwards along the pipe, opposing the mean ow and
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
71
Fig. 16. (a) Maximal static layer depth dmax measured from the top of the pipe, computed iteratively from the 2D computational solution: /B = 0.01 h; /B = 0.1 e;
/B = 0.5 . (b) Fraction of total ow rate owing in the lower layer as a function of layer depth d and BN, all computed at xed buoyancy parameter, b = BN/B = 250.
b 0 36 mm s1 with Carbopol solution C. (a) From top to bottom we show images for
Fig. 17. Unsteady slump-like displacement for b 85 ; At 102 ; V
^t 1; 2:5; 4; . . . ; 11:5; 13; 14:5 s after opening the gate vale. The gure shows a 990 mm long section of the pipe a few centimeters below the gate valve. The last image at
the bottom is the colourbar of the concentration values. (b) Spatio-temporal diagram for the same experiment. (c) Velocity contours as measured by the UDV, situated at
80 cm below the gate valve.
thus reduces the shear stress in the upper layer, increasing the
layer thickness. However, for larger values of /B this buoyancy
force would eventually yield the upper layer, moving it backwards
against the mean ow. This also happens in the concentric interface case considered earlier. In Fig. 16b we have numerically computed the ow rate through the displacing uid layer (expressed as
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S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
a fraction of the total ow rate), for large BN and for a range of layer
depths d. For these computations we have xed the buoyancy
parameter, b = BN/B = 250 (roughly an upper bound for our experimental range). We can see that even when the displaced uid
layer does yield, the fraction of ow rate in the upper layer is relatively small (025%).
yielded regions are static even though quite irregular. The UDV signal indicates temporal uctuations in the velocity eld.
What is interesting about this type of ow is that we have observed some of the most unsteady ows at intermediate ow rates.
We are uncertain of the causes of this type of ow, but make the
following comments. Firstly, the apparent bias towards the lower
part of the channel suggests that buoyancy is perhaps important
in these ows, exerting a stabilizing inuence on the orientation
of the channel. Secondly, we suspect that the yield stress uid is
largely passive in determining the direction of the propagating
front. We are in the regime BN 1 for which it is possible for a
Newtonian uid to channel through a pipe in any variety of shaped
channels, leaving the outer uid static. To illustrate this we have
taken the experimental values from Fig. 17 and computed from
the mean concentration a representative area fraction corresponding to the channeling Newtonian uid. In Fig. 18 we show the computed 2D axial velocity for a selection of different channel crosssection shapes. Although the stress eld is different in these different cases, in no case are we close to yielding the outer uid.
Thirdly, although our experiments are conducted at signicant
Re, these Re values are below transition for a single uid pipe ow.
However, this led us to speculate that the effective Reynolds number could be much larger within the narrow channel formed at the
base of the pipe as the rst front propagates. To explore this we
have calculated a relative hydraulic Reynolds number Reh for three
sets of experiments in slump type displacement regime at b = 85.
Fig. 18. Velocity proles, w(z,y), obtained though 2 D computation with parameters of the experiment shown in Fig. 17, (BN = 3405.4, /B = 0.04906). (a) an eccentric circular
interface with e 0.48; (b) a centred square interface; (c) a plane interface. In all plots the area fractions are equal, corresponding approximately to a channel area fraction
based on the mean concentration in Fig. 17. Broken white lines indicate the interface.
S.M. Taghavi et al. / Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 167168 (2012) 5974
Fig. 19. Variation of Reh versus Re for three sets of experiments in slump type
displacement at b = 85. The data correspond to experiments with At = 1.6 102
and Carbopol solution B ( ), At = 1 102 and Carbopol solution C (j) and
At = 1 102 and Carbopol solution B ( ).
4. Summary
We have explored displacement ows of a yield stress uid by a
Newtonian uid, with a laminar imposed ow along a long pipe in-
73
clined close to horizontal. The study has been focused at the regime where the yield stress is far larger than the characteristic
viscous stress and, although laminar, the Reynolds numbers are
signicant. We have observed two distinct ow regimes: a central-type regime where the displacing uid propagates in a nger
along the centre of the pipe, and a slumping conguration, where
the displacing uid moves along the bottom of the pipe. The transition between these two characteristic ow types appears to occur
at a critical ratio of the Reynolds number to the densimetric Froude
number, and has been found largely independent of other dimensionless groups.
In both regimes, due to the large yield stress, we nd residual
layers of displaced uid present at long times. Both our UDV measurements and computations from a simplied axial ow model,
suggest that these residual layers are fully static. In each case we
see slow axial variation in layer thickness along the pipe axis and
it appears that the residual layers are signicantly thinner than
the computed maximal static layers.
At larger displacement ow rates we have generally seen a decrease in the residual layer thickness. For the central displacements the ows became progressively unstable as the ow rate
increases. For the slump like displacements we have observed a
number of different evolutions. Firstly, there are typically two
fronts: a rapidly propagating lower front along the bottom of the
pipe, followed by a slower front that displaces a larger fraction of
the Carbopol. The second front may in some cases stop completely.
The rst front has been observed to destabilise and propagate
erratically along the pipe.
Acknowledgements
This research has been carried out at the University of British
Columbia, supported nancially by NSERC and Schlumberger
through CRD Project 354716-07.
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