SJEM 2213/SJES 2216 ALGEBRA I

Chapter 8 Ring of Polynomials

Let F be a commutative ring with identity 1. ( F Z , Q, R, C or Z n )
8.1 Definition. A polynomial f over F is defined as follows:
f an t n ... a1t a0

where
(i) n Z , n 0 ;
(ii) ai F , i 0, 1,..., n ;
(iii) t is an indeterminate.

ai , i 0, 1,..., n , is called the i-th coefficient of f .

a n is called the leading coefficient of f .
a0 is called the constant term of f .

F [t ] is the set of all polynomials over F.

F [t ] is called the ring of polynomials over F.
f
f
f
f

0, i.e., f 0t n ... 0t 0 is called the zero polynomial.

1, i.e., f 0t n ... 0t 1 is called the identity polynomial.
a, i.e., f 0t n ... 0t a is called a constant polynomial.
t n ... a1t a0 , i.e., an 1, is called a monic polynomial.

We also write f (t ) an t n ... a1t a0 .

8.2 Definition. Let f an t n ... a1t a0 , g bmt m ... b1t b0 F[t ], n m .
Then
(i) f g if and only if n m, and. ai bi , i 0, 1,..., n ;
(ii) f g cn t n ... c1t c0 where ci ai bi , i 0, 1,..., n and
bi 0, i m 1, m 2,..., n ;
(iii) fg d mn t mn ... d1t d 0 where d i

a b , i 0, 1,..., m n .

j k i

j k

Example. Let f 3t 5 4t 2 , g t 2 3t Z 5 [t ] .
Then f g by Definition 8.2.
But f (0) 0 g (0) , f (1) 4 g (1) , f (2) 0 g (2) , f (3) 3 g (3) , f (4) 3 g (4) .
So f (c) g (c) for all c Z 5 . (Note that Z 5 is a field.)

8.3 Theorem. Let F be an integral domain or field. Then F [t ] is an integral

domain.
Proof. Clearly F [t ] is a commutative ring with identity f 1 .
To show that F [t ] has no zero divisors.
Let f , g F[t ], f 0, g 0
Let f an t n ... a1t a0 , a0 0 and g bmt m ... b1t b0 F[t ], b0 0 .
Then fg ambmt mn ... a0b0 where a0b0 0 . (since F is an integral domain)
This implies that fg 0 .
Therefore F [t ] has no zero divisors.
Hence F [t ] is an integral domain.
Example. Z 6 [t ] is not an integral domain.
Proof. Let f 2t 4, g 3t 3 Z 6 [t ] .
Then f 0, g 0 in Z 6 [t ] .
But fg (2t 4)(3t 3) 6t 218t 12 0 in Z 6 [t ] .
So f 2t 4, g 3t 3 Z 6 [t ] are zero divisors in Z 6 [t ] .
Hence Z 6 [t ] is not an integral domain.
Does this example contradict Theorem 8.3? Why?
8.4 Definition. Let f , g F[t ], g 0 . Then g divides f f if and only if there exists
h F[t ], h 0 such that f gh .

g and h are called the factors or divisors of f .

Notation g f .
8.5 Definition. Let f F[t ] . Then
(i) deg f n if f an t n ... a1t a0 , an 0 ;
(ii) deg f 0 if f a0 , a0 0 ;
(iii) deg f is undefined if f 0 .
deg f is called the degree of f .

8.6 Theorem. Let f , g F[t ], f 0, g 0 . Then

(i) deg( f g ) max (deg f , deg g ) ;
(ii) deg( fg ) deg f deg g .
Proof.
Let f an t n ... a1t a0 g bmt m ... b1t b0 F[t ], n m .
(i) Then f g cn t n ... c1t c0 where ci ai bi , i 0, 1, ,..., n and
bi 0, i m 1, m 2,..., n ;
Hence deg f g n max (deg f , deg g ) .
(ii) Then fg d mn t mn ... d1t d 0 where d i

a b , i 0, 1,..., m n .

j k i

j k

Hence deg fg n m deg f deg g .

8.7 Definition. Let f an t n ... a1t a0 and c F . Then
(i) f (c) an c n ... a1c a0 ;
(ii) c F is called a root or zero of f if and only if f (c) 0 if and only if

an c n ... a1c a0 0 .
8.8 Theorem. Let F be a field and f F[t ] . If deg f 1 , then f has one root.
Proof. Since deg f 1 , then f a1t a0 , a1 0 .
So f (a11a0 ) a1 (a11a0 ) a0 0 .
Hence f has one root a11a0 .

(since F is a field)

8.9 Theorem. (The Division Algorithm)

Let F be a field and f , g F[t ], g 0 . Then there exist two polynomials q, r F[t ]
such that
f qg r
where r 0 or deg r deg g .
q is called the quotient when f is divided by g ;
r is called the remainder when f is divided by g .

Proof. We prove by induction on the deg f .

If f 0 or deg f deg g , then f 0 g f , i.e., q 0, r f .
Let deg f deg g ) and deg f n .
Suppose the theorem is true for all f F[t ], deg f n .
Let f an t n ... a1t a0 , an 0 and g bmt m ... b1t b0 F[t ], bm 0, n m .
Define f1 (t ) f (t ) an bm1t nm g (t ) .
Then deg f1 deg f n .
From our assumption, there exist two unique polynomials q1 , r1 F[t ] such
that f1 q1 g r1 where r1 0 or deg r1 deg g .
Then f (t ) an bm1t nm g (t ) f1 (t )
an bm1t nm g (t ) q1 (t ) g (t ) r1 (t )
[an bm1t nm q1 (t )]g (t ) r1 (t ) .

Hence q(t ) an bm1t nm q1 (t ), and r (t ) r1 (t ) .

We show that q, r are unique.
Let f1 q1 g r1 q2 g r2 where ri 0 or deg ri deg g , i 1, 2 .
Then (q1 q2 ) g r2 r1
This implies that deg (q1 q2 ) g deg (r2 r1 ) .--------(1)
Suppose q1 q2 , r1 r2 .
Then deg (q1 q2 ) g deg (q1 q2 ) deg g deg g deg r2 deg (r2 r1 ) .
This contradicts (1).
Hence q1 q2 , r1 r2 .
8.10 Corollary. Let F be a field and f , g F[t ], g 0 . Then g f if and only if the
remainder when f is divided by g is the zero polynomial, i.e., r 0 T8.9.

8.11 Theorem. (The Remainder Theorem)

Let F be a field, f F[t ], f 0 and c F . Then the remainder when f is divided by
g t c is f (c) , i.e., r f (c) in Theorem 8.9.
[i.e., f (t ) q(t )(t c) f (c) in Theorem 8.9]
Proof. By the Division Algorithm, there exist q, r F[t ] such that
f (t ) q(t )(t c) r (t )
where r 0 or deg r deg(t c) 1.
So r 0 or deg r deg (t c) 1 .
r (t ) 0 or deg r 0 .
r (t ) a0 F , where a0 0 or a0 0 .
f (t ) q(t )(t c) a0 .

f (c) q(c)(c c) a0 .
f (c) a0 .
r (t ) f (c) .
8.12 Corollary. (The Factor Theorem)
Let F be a field, f F[t ], f 0 and c F . Then c is a root or zero of f if and only if
g t c is a factor for f .
[i.e., f (c) 0 iff f (t ) q(t )(t c) iff (t c) f ]
Proof. Suppose c is a root or zero of f , i.e., f (c) 0 .
By the Remainder Theorem, f (t ) q(t )(t c) f (c) .
Then f (t ) q(t )(t c) .
Suppose f (t ) q(t )(t c), q(t ) F[t ], c F .
Then f (c) q(c)(c c) 0 .
Hence c is a root for f .
8.13 Theorem. Let F be a field, f F[t ], deg f n 0 . Then f has at most n roots
in F .
Proof. We prove by induction on the deg f .
If deg f 0 , then f a, a F , a 0 .
Hence f has no root and the theorem is proved.
Suppose the theorem is true for all f F[t ], deg f n .
Let f F[t ], deg f n .
If f has no root, then the theorem is proved.
Suppose f has at least one root c F .
Then f (t ) q(t )(t c) where q F[t ], deg q n 1 n .
(T8.12, T8.6)
If F and q( ) 0 , then f ( ) q( )( c) 0 .
This implies that each root of q is also a root of f .
By our assumption, q has at most n 1 roots in F .
Hence f has at most 1 n 1 n roots in F .

C[t ] .
8.14 Theorem. (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
Let C be the field of complex numbers, f C[t ], deg f 0 . Then f has at
least one root in C .
Proof. Suppose f has no root in C .
Let g 1/ f .
Then g is holomorphic (analytic) in C since f ( z ) 0, z C .
Furthermore g ( z ) 0 when z since f when z .
This implies that g is bounded in C .
By Liouville's Theorem, g ( z ) c where c C, c 0 .
So f 1/ c , i.e., deg f 0 , a contradiction.
Hence f has at least one root in C .
8.15 Theorem. Let C be the field of complex numbers, f C[t ], deg f n 0 .
Then f has exactly n roots in C .
Proof. We prove by induction on the deg f .
If deg f 0 , then f a, a C, a 0 .
Hence f has no root and the theorem is proved.
Suppose the theorem is true for all f C[t ], deg f n .
Let f C[t ], deg f n .
By Theorem 8.14, f has at least one root c C .
Then f (t ) q(t )(t c) where q C[t ], deg q n 1 n .
(T8.12, T8.6)
If C and q( ) 0 , then f ( ) q( )( c) 0 .
This implies that each root of q is also a root of f .
By our assumption, q has exactly n 1 roots in C .
Hence f has exactly 1 n 1 n roots in C .
Example.
1 and
(i) f t 2 1 C[t ] has exactly 2 roots in C , i.e.,
2
(ii) f t 1 R[t ] has 0 root in R .
(iii) f t 2 1 Q[t ] has 0 root in Q .
(iv) f t 2 1 Z 5 [t ] has 2 roots in Z 5 , i.e., 2 and 3.
(v) f t 2 1 Z 6 [t ] has 0 root in Z 6 .

1 . (T8.15)
(T8.13)
(T8.13)
(T8.13)

Greatest Common Divisor (gcd)

8.16 Definition. Let f , g F[t ], not both f 0, g 0 . Then the greatest common divisor
of f and g is a polynomial h F[t ], h 0 such that
(i) h is monic;
(ii) h f and h g ;
(iii) if k F[t ] and k f and k g , then k h .
Notation. h gcd ( f , g ) .
8.17 Theorem. Let F be a field and f , g F[t ], not both f 0, g 0 . Then gcd ( f , g )
exists, is unique and there exist two polynomials c, d F[t ] such that
gcd ( f , g ) cf dg .
Proof.
If f 0, g 0 , then gcd ( f , g ) 1 f 0 g f .
If f 0, g 0 , then gcd ( f , g ) 0 f 1g g .
Suppose f 0, g 0 .
Let P {af bg : a, b F[t ]} , i.e., P is a subset in F [t ] .
Then f 1 f 0 g P , i.e., P .
Let h be a polynomial of smallest degree in P .
Then h cf dg , c, d F[t ] .
To show that h gcd ( f , g ) .
(i) We can assume that h is monic.
If not, let h an t n ... a1t a0 , an 0 .
We can then take h ' an1h .
Then h ' P , h ' ' is monic and deg h ' deg h .
(ii) To show that h f and h g .
By the Division Algorithm, there exist q, r F[t ] such that f qh r where r 0 or
deg r deg h .
Then r f qh f q(cf dg ) (1 qc) f (qd ) g P .
But h is a polynomial of smallest degree in P .
This implies that r 0 , i.e., f qh , i.e., h f .
Similarly h g .

(iii) To show that if k F[t ] and k f and k g , then k h .

Suppose if k f and k g where k F[t ] .
Then k cf and k dg , c, d F[t ] .
So k (cf dg ) , i.e., k h .
Hence h gcd ( f , g ) and h cf dg , c, d F[t ] .
(iv) To show that the gcd ( f , g ) is unique.
Let h, k be two gcd ( f , g ) .
Then h f , h g and k f and k g .
So h k and k h .
Therefore h ak , a F .
Since h, k are monic, a 1 .
We have h k .
Hence the gcd ( f , g ) is unique.

(T8.16)

Example.
Let f t 2 4, g t 2 t 3 Q[t ] . Find the gcd ( f , g ) .
Answer.
Now f t 2 4 (t 2) 2 and g t 2 t 3 (t 2)(t 1) .
Then the gcd ( f , g ) t 2 .

8.18 Theorem. (The Euclidean Algorithm)

Let F be a field and f , g F[t ], f 0, g 0, deg f deg g , Then there exist
q1 , q2 ,..., qk 1 , r1 , r2 ,..., rk F[t ], k 1 ,such that

f q1 g r1 ,
g q2 r1 r2 ,
r1 q3 r2 r3 ,
.
.
rk 2 qk rk 1 rk ,
rk 1 qk 1rk

deg r1 deg g
deg r2 deg r1
deg r3 deg r2

(1)
(2)
(3)

deg rk deg rk 1

(k)
(k+1)

If r1 0, then gcd ( f , g ) rk .
Proof.
If r1 0, then f q1 g .
Then gcd ( f , g ) g .
Suppose r1 0, r2 0,..., rk 0 but rk 1 0 .
To show that gcd ( f , g ) rk .
(i) To show that rk f and rk g .
Note that
rk rk 1

[from (k+1)]

rk rk 2
.
.
rk g

[from (k)]

rk f

[from (1)]

[from (2)]

Hence rk f and rk g .
(ii) To show that if k F[t ] and k f and k g , then k rk .
Suppose k f and k g , k F[t ]
From equations (1) - (k) above, we obtain,
r1 f q1 g ,
deg r1 deg g
r2 g q2 r1 ,
deg r2 deg r1
r3 r2 q3 r2 ,
deg r3 deg r2
.
.
rk rk 2 qk rk 1 , deg rk deg rk 1
Hence

(1)
(2)
(3)

(k)

k r1

[from (1')]

k r2
.
.
k rk

[from (2')]

[from (k')]

Hence gcd ( f , g ) rk .
Irreducible polynomials
8.19 Definition. Let f F[t ], f 0, f unit . Then f is called irreducible over F
(irr over F ) if f gh, g , h F[t ] , then g is a unit in F [t ] or h is a unit in F [t ] .
If not, f is called reducible over F.
8.20 Theorem. Let F be a field, f F[t ], f 0 . Then f is a unit in F [t ] if and only if
deg f 0 .
Proof. Let f be a unit in F [t ] .
Then there exists g F[t ], g 0 , such that fg 1 .
Hence deg f deg g deg ( fg ) deg (1) 0 .
(T8.6)
So deg f deg g 0 .
Conversely let deg f 0 .
Then f a, a F[t ], a 0 .
Let g a 1 . ( a 1 exists in F since a 0 and F is a field)
Then g F[t ], g 0 and fg 1 .
Hence f is a unit in F [t ] .
8.21 Corollary. Let F be a field, f , g , h F[t ], f 0, f unit and f gh .
Then
(i) f is irreducible over F iff deg g 0 or deg h 0 ;
(ii) f is reducible over F iff deg g 0 and deg h 0 .
8.22 Corollary. Let F be a field, f F[t ], deg f 1 . Then f is irreducible
over F.
Example
(i) f t 2 1 C[t ] is reducible over C since f (t 1)(t 1) in C[t ] .
(ii) f t 2 1 R[t ] is irreducible over R since f (c) 0, c R .
(iii) f t 2 1 Q[t ] is irreducible over Q since f (c) 0, c Q .
(iv) f t 2 1 Z 5 [t ] is reducible over Z 5 since f (t 2)(t 3) in Z 5 [t ] .
(v) f t 2 1 Z 6 [t ] is irreducible over Z 6 since f (c) 0, c Z 6 .

Factorization of polynomials
8.23 Definition. Let f , p1 , p2 ,..., pn F[t ] , where p1 , p2 ,..., pn are irreducible over F .
Then f p1 p2 pn is called a factorization for f over F .
8.24 Definition. Let f , p1 , p2 ,..., pr , q1 , q2 ,..., qs F[t ] , where p1 , p2 ,..., pr , q1 , q2 ,..., qs
are irreducible over F . Let f p1 p2 pr q1q2 qs be two factorizations for f over
F . Then the two factorizations are said to be the same in F [t ] if and only if r s and
pi ai qi' , ai unit, i 1, 2,..., r and q1' , q2' ,..., qr' is a rearrangement for q1 , q2 ,..., qr .

8.25 Theorem. Let F be a field, f , g , h F[t ], f 0 and f irreducible over F .

If f gh , then f g or f h .
Proof. If f g , the theorem is proved.
Suppose f does not divide g .
Then gcd ( f , g ) 1.
So 1 cf dg , c, d F[t ] .
Hence h cfh dgh

( f irr over F )
(T8.17)

This implies that f h .

8.26 Theorem. (The Unique Factorization Theorem)
Let F be a field. Then every polynomial f F[t ], deg f 0 , can be expressed as a
product of irreducible polynomials over F . This product is unique except from the
arrangement of its factors and multiplication of the factors by units from F .
Proof. We prove by induction on the deg f .
If deg f 1 , then f is irreducible over F and the theorem is proved.
Suppose the theorem is true for all f F[t ], deg f n .
Let f F[t ], deg f n .
If f is irreducible over F , then the theorem is proved.
Suppose f is reducible over F .
Then f gh, g , h F[t ], deg g 0, deg h 0 .
By our assumption, g p1 p2 pr , h q1q2 qs where p1 , p2 ,..., pr , q1 , q2 ,..., qs are
irreducible over F .
So f p1 p2 pr q1q2 qs , i.e., f can be expressed as a product of irreducible
polynomials over F .
To show this expression is unique.
Let f p1 p2 pr q1q2 qs where p1 , p2 ,..., pr , q1 , q2 ,..., qs are irreducible over F .
Then p1 q1q2 qs .
So p1 q j for some j, 1 j s .

(T8.24)

Suppose p1 q1 .
So p1 a1q1 , a1 F , a1 unit .
i.e., p1 p2 pr a1 p1q2 qs .
i.e., p2 pr a1q2 qs .

( q 1 irr over F)
( F [t ] domain)

i.e, p2 pr q2' qs where q2' a1q2 , q 2' irreducible over F .

By repeating the above process, then r s and pi ai qi , ai F , ai unit , i 1, 2,..., r
So the product is unique except from the arrangement of its factors and multiplication of
the factors by units from F .
8.27 Corollary. Let F be a field, f F[t ], deg f 0 . Then all factorizations of f over
F is the same in F [t ] .