EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

EVOLUTION
- descent with modification
- complex process by which the characteristics of living organisms change over many generations as
traits are passed from one generation to the next.
- occurs only when there is a change in gene frequency within a population over time. These genetic
differences are heritable and can be passed on to the next generation, which is what really matters in
evolution: long term change.
A. Phylogeny
- family tree, branching of evolutionary relationships
- a hypothesis illustrating the relationships of all species on
earth.
- Tree-like not ladder-like therefore does not show
hierarchy
- Uses
o Testing hypotheses about evolution
o Learning about the characteristics of extinct
species and ancestral lineages
o Classifying organisms
Source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu)

B. Genetic Variation in Populations

1. Gene flow
- when individuals move between one population and another, new genes may be
introduced to populations
2. Mutation
- a random change in a gene or chromosome resulting in a new trait or characteristic
that can be inherited.
- can be a source of beneficial genetic variation, or it can be neutral or harmful in effect
- For evolution to occur, the forces of natural selection must distribute an advantageous
trait (caused by mutation) to other members of a population.
- Types
o Somatic - Mutations occurring in cells that do not form gametes, mutations that
do not end up being carried by eggs or sperm. For example, mutations in your
skin, muscle, or liver tissue are somatic mutations.
o Germ line - Mutation that occurs in reproductive cells and ends up being carried
by gametes (e.g., eggs and sperm).
C. Natural Selection in Populations
- sorts out the useful changes in the gene pool. Beneficial new genes quickly spread through a
population because members who carry them have a greater reproductive success, or evolutionary
fitness, and consequently pass the beneficial genes to more offspring.
1. Directional - an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the
allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype.

2. Stabilizing the intermediate version of a characteristic is favored instead of one of

two extremes
3. Disruptive - two extremes are fabvored, causing alleles for intermediate forms of a
trait to become less common in the gene pool
4. Sexual - some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are
better at securing mates
D. Artificial Selection
- instead of natural choice of reproducing, only certain plants and animals with

desirable characteristics are allowed to reproduce

E. Co-evolution
- when two species affect each others evolution.
- can occur through a predator/prey or host/ parasite relationship, competition between
species, or between mutualistic species
Through these mechanisms of change, millions and billions of different species have been born,
some have gone extinct while others still evolve as time goes by. This results in the biodiversity
of the planet.

BIODIVERSITY
-the variability among living organisms from all sources including, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems.
A. Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
- variation in the genes within a species
- increases the likelihood that individuals will be able to survive major disturbances due
to inheritance of disease-resistance and other useful traits for survival
- reduces the incidence of unfavorable inherited traits caused by inbreeding
2. Species diversity
- a measure of the diversity of a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring called specieswithin an ecological community
- promotes ecosystem efficiency because each species has a role in the ecosystem
3. Ecosystem diversity
- variety of habitats, living communities and ecological processescalled ecosystems
in the living world
- Complex ecosystems with a wide variety of plants and animals tend to be more stable
B. Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity goes beyond simply a literal list of species; it also encompasses the
interactions between the species, how they survive, what they do, and the living conditions in
which they exist.

1. Ecosystem services
a. Protection of water resources
b. Soils formation and protection
a. Nutrient storage and recycling
b. Pollution breakdown and absorption
c. Contribution to climate stability
d. Maintenance of ecosystems
e. Recovery from unpredictable events
2. Biological resources
a. Food
b. Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
c. Wood products
d. Ornamental plants
e. Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
f. Future resources
g. Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
3. Social benefits
a. Research, education and monitoring
b. Recreation and tourism
c. Cultural values
C. Threats to Biodiversity
1. Climate Change Temperature shifts are making it difficult or even impossible for many
species to survive because they diminish polar habitats, increase sea levels, change flow of
currents and disrupt food chains.
2. Habitat destruction - This occurs when a particular area is converted from a usable to an
unusable habitat. Industrial activities, agriculture, aquaculture, mining, deforestation, and
water extraction are all central causes of habitat loss.
3. Introduced/invasive animals - New species can parasitize or predate upon residents,
hybridize with them, compete with them for food, bring unfamiliar diseases, modify habitats,
or disrupt important interactions.
4. Pollution - The discharge of toxic synthetic chemicals and heavy metals into the environment
has a huge impact on species abundance, and can lead to extinctions.
5. Over-harvesting - This includes targeted hunting, gathering or fishing for a particular species
as well as incidental harvesting.
D. Ways to Protect Biodiversity
1. Habitat protection - developing and implementing conservation plans that will preserve
environmentally important areas long into the future and shaping smart conservation
policies for managing national wildlife refuges, national forests, and other public lands
2. Prevention of Pollution includes the efficient use of raw materials, water, energy and other
resources, use of less harmful substances than hazardous ones, elimination of toxic
substances in production processes
3. Controlling invasive species - employing manual, mechanical, chemical, biological and
cultural components in prevention and control measures of invasive species

4. Dealing with Climate Change global efforts must be exerted to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and halt deforestation

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND ISSUES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY

A. Biotechnology techniques in Biodiversity Conservation
1. Seed and tissue culture - methods for collecting and storing genes
2. Use of gene banks - facilities where plant genes are stored; also detection and elimination
of diseases in such
i. Seed bank preservation of dried seeds by storing them at a very low temperature.
ii. Tissue bank - buds, protocorm and meristematic cells are conserved through
particular light and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium.
iii. Cryobank - seeds or embryos are preserved at very low temperatures
iv. Pollen bank storage of pollen grains.
v. Field gene bank - plant genetic resources are kept as live plants
3. Use of germplasm refers to living tissues from which new plants can form; can be a whole
plant, or part of a plant such as leaf, stem, pollen, or even just a number of cells; also its safe
and more efficient distribution to users
4. Genomics evaluation of genetic diversity by using molecular markers and DNA and protein
profiling
5. Creation of improved genetic variations of crops use of conventional and modern
biotechnology techniques such as hybridization
6. Bioremediation
B. Recent Developments
1. Streetlights into Tree lights (2014)- replacement of electricity-draining conventional
streetlights, lit-up road signs and interior lighting with bioluminescence by splicing genes
from bioluminescent firefly and marine bacteria into trees
2. The Nagoya Protocol (2010) - provides benefits to the biotechnology industry by creating a
legal framework to regulate access to genetic resources and provide fair and equitable
sharing of benefits.
C. Issues
1. Genetic Erosion - Commercial biotechnology may unleash a new era of genetic erosion. A
commercial venture in Chile, for example, can propagate up to 10 million eucalyptus
seedlings, all identical clones, in automated nurseries.
2. Biosafety - Ecological risks arise from introducing genetically engineered plants into centers
of diversity. Transgenic varieties, a good number of them resistant to herbicides, have been
produced in more than 40 crop plants. Gene flow to weeds from resistant plants could have
far-reaching consequences.
3. Ethical aspects - biotechnology is seen by some to interfere with the workings of nature
and creation