Dossier on the proposed importation of the natural enemy Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), for the control of the exotic invasive eucalyptus pest; the
red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) in
Zimbabwe

Shepard Ndlela

On behalf of
Sustainable Afforestation Association (SAA)
Tobacco Research Board (TRB)
Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe

February 2016

Table of contents

Executive summary....
Introduction
Section One.
The red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae)
Taxonomy, origin and current distribution...
Life cycle..
Pest status.
Management and control of G. brimblecombei..
Monitoring using sticky yellow traps...
Cultural control.
Planting resistant eucalyptus varieties..
Chemical/pesticide control....
Biological control.
Biological control with parasitoids...
Section two..
Control of Glycaspis brimblecombei using the co-evolved parasitoid wasp
Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)..
Origin, Taxonomy and current distribution..
Life cycle..
Previous success stories of G. brimblecombei attributed to the use of P. bliteus.
Host range and specificity
Section three..
Assessment of potential risks...
To humans, animals and non-target hosts
To those handling the parasitoids.
Contaminants to be avoided.
Procedures for eliminating contaminants.
Hyperparasitoids of P. bliteus
Getting rid of pathogens and different pest biotypes
Challenges in P. bliteus establishment.
Dispersal
Section Four
Research objectives after acquiring import permit from DR & SS and conclusion.
Conclusion
References...
Annex 1: Confirmation of identification of the pest Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore
(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)..
Annex 2: Confirmation of availability of the natural enemy Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) at FABI in South Africa...

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Executive summary

1. An invasive pest of Australian origin; the red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis
brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) was detected for the first time in
Zimbabwe in April 2014 and has since spread to various parts of the country causing
extensive defoliation, stunting and even death of susceptible Eucalyptus species
2. Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are fast-growing, tough species that
form the backbone of the countrys initiative to produce a sustainable source of wood
fuel for rural domestic use and especially for curing tobacco. Most small scale
tobacco farmers are currently sourcing wood for curing tobacco from indigenous
woodlands, leading to large-scale deforestation. The scale of harvesting indigenous
woodlands is not sustainable, and the lack of a sustainable alternative directly
threatens the future of the tobacco industry. Both E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis
have been subject to a multi-generational selective breeding programme to improve
form and yield, and supply poles as well as firewood.
3. Since the pest is exotic, it therefore lacks resident co-evolved natural enemies that
normally would keep it under control in its native home. Indigenous natural enemies
are seemingly unable to adequately control this fast spreading pest. Chemical control
is inadequate (especially on mature trees), economically impracticable on plantation
forestry and poses challenges with regard to human and environmental health.
4. The only viable control strategy lies in importing the natural enemy Psyllaephagus
bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), which has been used elsewhere in the world
for example California, Brazil, Mexico, Italy, Chile and South Africa, with substantial
success.
5. Psyllaephagus bliteus is specific to attacking psyllids, efficient and poses no risk to
non-target organisms, humans and the environment.
6. The importation, quarantine, pre-release testing, release and post release evaluation of
P. bliteus will be done in accordance with guidelines for the export, shipment, import
and release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms (FAO, 2006),
code of conduct for the import and release of biological control agents (FAO, 1996)
and recommendations laid down by the Department of Research and Specialist
Services (DR&SS) in Zimbabwe.

Introduction

In April 2014, an exotic sap sucking insect pest causing white dome like structures on the
leaves of eucalyptus trees, secretion of large amounts of honeydew which promoted growth
of sooty moulds and subsequent leaf drop and dying of shoots was reported in the southern
part of Zimbabwe for the first time. The damage caused by this pest was similar to what had
been observed across the border in South Africa, in 2012 when the pest causing such damage
was identified as the Red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore
(Hemiptera:Psyllidae). Entomologists have since positively identified the pest in Zimbabwe
as the same insect in South Africa: Glycaspis brimblecombei (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) (see
annex 1). The red gum lerp psyllid has rapidly spread to various parts of Zimbabwe causing
exclusive widespread damage to eucalyptus tree species especially Eucalyptus tereticornis,
and E. camaldulensis and to a lesser extent E. grandis No indigenous natural enemy is
available to control this pest. Pesticide control using contact sprays offers poor control as the
developing stages of the pest are enclosed and protected in the dome like structures (lerps). In
addition, even though neonicotinoid insecticides such as imidacloprid and acetamiprid have
shown some form of control, their use is not viable because of the costs involved especially
in forestry plantation systems. Their widespread use might lead to insecticide resistance and
irreversible environmental and human health pollution.
In Zimbabwe E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are key components of the Forestry
Commissions exotic plantations for poles, wood and other purposes. Eucalyptus has been
identified as highly adaptable, fast growing exotic plantation trees that could be grown for
firewood harvesting to ease the catastrophic loss of forests through tobacco curing activities
among other reasons. The most readily available source of heat for curing tobacco in the
country is wood, harvested from the vast indigenous forests which are slowly disappearing as
a result of cutting trees without replacing them. The government of Zimbabwe through the
Tobacco Wood Energy Programme (TWEP) spearheaded training to encourage tobacco
farmers to plant wood lots to cater for their fuel requirements and minimise the indiscriminate
cutting down of indigenous trees. In addition, the Zimbabwe tobacco merchants launched the
Sustainable Afforestation Association (SAA), an initiative meant to reduce deforestation
related to tobacco curing activities, through planting millions of eucalypts around the country.
It is evident that G. brimblecombei is fast spreading, has no indigenous natural enemies, that
pesticide applications are not viable, especially on large trees, and that eucalyptus plantations
are highly important to Zimbabwe; thus we propose to import the host specific natural enemy
Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from the Forestry and Agricultural
Biotechnology Institute (FABI) in South Africa for release in Zimbabwe to manage the pest
(See Annex 2).

Section One
The red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae)

Taxonomy, origin and current distribution

The psyllids or jumping plant-lice are economically important pests in agriculture and
forestry and are also vectors of serious plant diseases worldwide (Burckhardt & Ouvrard,
2012). They comprise in excess of 2500 described species which include Glycaspis
brimblecombei (Fig 1) which was described by Moore (1964) in Australia and named after
Dr. A. R. Brimblecombe who collected the type specimen. The genus Glycaspis comprises of
137 species which are closely associated with eucalyptus (Hollis, 2004). The pest G.
brimblecombei was initially described in the family Spondyliaspidae but has since been
placed in the family Psyllidae (Burckhardt & Ouvrard, 2012). Glycaspis is commonly known
as the red gum lerp psyllid, in reference to its preference for E. camaldulensis, commonly
called the River Red Gum in its native Australia, with the lerp part referring to the native
term for the cone-shaped covering that encloses the developing nymphal stage. The lerp is
composed of honeydew as well as other structural components excreted by the nymph. The
native home of the red gum lerp Psyllid is Australia (Moore, 1964) but it has since spread to
regions beyond the borders of Australia (Fig 2) for example America, Europe and Africa
(Paine et al., 2006; Laudonia & Garonna, 2010; Hurley, 2012; Attia & Rapisarda, 2014).

Fig 1: Glycaspis brimblecombei adult and eggs Clark, J.K. 2010

Fig 2: World distribution of Glycaspis brimblecombei (shown in orange) as of the 23rd of

November 2015 (Excluding the Zimbabwean record). Courtesy of EPPO Global Database,
https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/GLYSBR/distribution
The pest is aggressively invading Africa and was recently recorded in South Africa in 2012
(Hurley, 2012), Tunisia in 2013 (Attia & Rapisarda, 2014) and Zimbabwe in 2014 (Forestry
Commission of Zimbabwe pers. comm.). There are fears that it is still invading new
territories, with high probability in Africa and South America (Fig 3). In Zimbabwe, G.
brimblecombei has become a serious pest of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis which form
extensive current and yet to be established woodlots for SAA and the Forestry commission
around the country (Fig 4) and seem to be spreading at alarming rates (Fig 5).

Key: colours indicate the probability (%) of occurrence.

Fig 3: Potential distribution of G. brimblecombei based on occurrence in the native home of
the pest (Australia) (Queiroz et al., 2013).
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Fig 4: Areas suitable for E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis establishment in Zimbabwe (

Forestry Commission, 2016)

Fig 5: Current distribution of Glycaspis brimblecombei in Zimbabwe ( Sustainable

Afforestation Association, 2016)

Life cycle
Adult red gum lerp psyllids are extremely mobile and readily hop away from foliage when
disturbed. Females lay between 50 and 70 eggs during their lifetime (CABI, 2012). The eggs
are ovoid/spindle shaped, stalked, orange/yellowish/creamish in colour and are laid
perpendicular to the leaf surface (see Fig 6 for life stages). Young-mature and succulent
leaves are usually preferred as egg laying sites (Laudonia & Garonna, 2010). The period from
egg laying to egg hatch varies depending on temperature and other environmental conditions.
Eggs hatch into nymphs which pass through four stages of growth before they become adults.
Their body colour is yellowish orange, with dark-brown coloration on the wing pads, legs,
antennae, last abdominal segments, and in blotches on the dorsal areas of the head and
thorax. The wing pads and other parts of the body have bright white spots associated with
setal positions (Laudonia & Garonna, 2010; CABI, 2012). Nymphs shelter in white conical/
dome shaped lerps which they construct using wax and honeydew secretions. They are
protected in this lerp and only leave it upon reaching adulthood. The adults are yellow or
light green with contrasting dark eyes and sometimes dark brown markings (Laudonia &
Garonna, 2010; CABI, 2012). The original description of G. brimblecombei is published in
Moore (1964) and further descriptions in Halbert et al., (2001).

Fig 6: Life stages of the red gum lerp psyllid include, (left to right) large nymph, row of eggs,
winged adult and small lerp (the protective covering produced by nymphs) (Dahlsten et al.,
2005).
Pest status
As of 2006, the number of psyllids naturally occurring in Australia stood at 354 described
species in 58 genera with an additional 21 awaiting description (Taylor, 2006). Those that are
associated with eucalyptus are constantly kept in check by natural enemies that co-evolved
with them, but assume major pest status once they are accidentally introduced into new
territories where their natural enemies are absent. This has been the case with G.
brimblecombei when it was introduced in territories outside Australia (Hodkinson, 1991; Gill,
1998; Brennan & Gill, 1999; Tsagkarakis et al., 2014; Attia & Rapisarda, 2014). The pest is
capable of defoliating whole trees and is perceived as the most damaging of all eucalyptus
psyllids because of the broad range of eucalyptus trees it infests (Brennan & Gill, 1999).
Nymphs and adults constitute the damaging stage; through their piercing and sucking mouth
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parts which are inserted into the xylem and phloem of eucalyptus plants for the purpose of
absorbing nutrients (de Queiroz et al., 2012). Both nymphs and adults secrete excess fluids
absorbed from the plant as copious amounts of honeydew onto the leaves where unsightly
sooty moulds subsequently develop (CABI, 2012). This leads to leaf discolouration, leaf drop
and twig die back. In heavy infestations, the nymphal lerps cover the whole leaf area, making
it difficult for the leaf to photosynthesise. Outbreaks in South American countries have
caused severe defoliation and death of eucalyptus trees resulting in serious economic losses
(de Queiroz et al., 2012) (see Fig 7 for damage caused by the pest).
A

Fig 7: Lerps, nymphs and sooty mold on eucalyptus leaf (A);

whole plant (B)
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Management and control of G. brimblecombei

Monitoring using sticky yellow traps
In plantations that are still free from the red gum lerp psyllid, it is important to set up yellow
sticky traps (Fig 8) to detect the arrival of infestations. When traps are used, it becomes easier
to monitor for the presence of adults compared to inspecting foliage all the time (Paine et al.,
2006). Traps are also important in established infestations as they give an indication of level
of infestation and seasonal population dynamics. Generally, research has shown a positive
correlation between the number of psyllid nymphs and eggs on leaves and adult female
psyllids caught in yellow sticky traps (Paine et al., 2006).

Fig 8: Yellow sticky trap for monitoring red gum lerp psyllid populations
Cultural control
The ultimate aim of cultural control activities is to make the plantation crop less suitable for
the red gum lerp psyllid. In the native home of the pest, substantial economic damage has
been observed only when plants are physiologically stressed following low rainfall in
eucalypt forests (White, 1969). Drought related stress causes elevated levels of nitrogen in
the soil and subsequently in the leaves, which encourages the build-up of G. brimblecombei
populations (de Queiroz et al., 2012). It is, therefore, encouraged to supplement water
requirements during stressful periods (which might be costly and not feasible for plantation
crops), and to avoid applying any fertilizers at all times. Pruning sometimes lessens
infestations, but soon new growth usually appears which is preferred by psyllids, thus striking
the right balance is often difficult to achieve.

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Planting resistant eucalyptus varieties

Choosing the right varieties that show resistance or tolerance to infestations often reduces
economic damage caused by G. brimblecombei (Paine et al., 2006). In Zimbabwe, initial
observations by SAA personnel have shown that E. grandis as well as hybrids of tereticornis
and camaldulensis on grandis maternal origin exhibit some form of resistance or tolerance to
the red gum lerp psyllid damage. Forestry companies in Brazil have spearheaded research
into plant resistance and have already identified some material showing remarkable resistance
to the pest (de Queiroz et al., 2012). The susceptible species E. camaldulensis and E.
tereticornis are, however, the backbone of SAAs firewood programme as well as the
Forestry Commissions extensive plantations.
Chemical/pesticide control
The use of pesticides has been reported as one of the options available for the control of the
red gum lerp psyllid, but has since been shown to be expensive if adopted in plantation
forestry and is regarded as only an option for very young trees. Pesticide use is toxic to the
environment, human health and only provides a temporary solution (Oliveira et al., 2012).
Contact and systemic pesticides have been used albeit with limited success. Foliar sprays (Fig
9) usually kill eggs and newly emerged nymphs but are unable to reach nymphs due to the
protective lerp that covers the nymphs as they develop. Acetamiprid and imidacloprid have
been shown to offer limited contact and systemic control respectively, however their
application is unsustainable. Low hazard insecticides such as mixtures of insecticidal soap
(potassium salts of fatty acids) and horticultural oil (an insecticide labelled narrow-range,
superior, or supreme oil) have been shown to be effective against eggs, nymphs and adults
provided the nymphs are outside the lerp (Paine et al., 2006). Foliar sprays of broadspectrum, persistent insecticides are strongly discouraged because of their impact on natural
enemies (Oliveira et al., 2012). The most suitable and sustainable strategy lies in the adoption
of biological control using natural enemies that co-evolved with the pest in its native home.

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Fig 9: Spraying infested trees in a eucalyptus woodlot

Biological control
Several predators such as spiders, birds, mites, ants, syrphid flies, lizards (Morgan, 1984) as
well as brown and green lacewings, coccinellid beetles and dragonflies (Brennan et al., 1999;
CABI, 2012) are known predators of psyllids albeit with very limited control. In Zimbabwe,
none of these have been shown to impact meaningful control ever since the red gum lerp
psyllid was reported. This ineffectiveness of predators has led researchers to place more
emphasis on biological control using parasitoids.
Biological control with parasitoids
Biological control using parasitoids has been the main strategy adopted for psyllid pest
management in many territories in which psyllids were accidentally introduced (de Queiroz et
al., 2012). The parasitoid Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) has been used in
several countries to control G. brimblecombei after quarantine studies showed that it posed no
risk to other species and the environment. It was deliberately released in California (Dahlsten
et al., 2005) and in Chile (Huerta et al., 2011); where it impacted on populations of the red
gum lerp psyllid with substantial success. In countries such as Spain, Brazil, Morocco, New
Zealand, Italy and Sicily; the parasitoid was accidentally introduced together with the pest
(Caleca et al., 2011; Bella & Rapisarda, 2013). Closer to home the parasitoid was recorded in
South Africa where entomologists at FABI initiated a rearing, multiplication and release
programme for the control of the invasive pest G. brimblecombei. The first releases were
done in August 2015 and the programme is still ongoing (FABI, 2015). The importation and
release of exotic parasitoids to control invasive pests is tried and tested, and has resulted in
outstanding results in most parts of the world. Given the rate at which the red gum lerp
psyllid is spreading, there is need to coordinate efforts in the region and complement the
initiative by South Africans by importing the natural enemy for releases in Zimbabwe.
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Section two
Control of Glycaspis brimblecombei using the co-evolved parasitoid wasp Psyllaephagus
bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Origin, Taxonomy and current distribution

Psyllaephagus bliteus (Fig 6) is an endoparsitoid of Australian origin where it is known as a
natural enemy of the pest G. brimblecombei (Huerta et al., 2011). The Psyllaephagus genus is
particularly rich in Australia with 110 species described from there, out of 230 worldwide
(Noyes & Hansen 1996; Noyes 2000). The genus constitutes important primary parasites of
psyllids thus have been widely used as agents of classical biological control in many parts of
the world where Australian psyllids have been accidentally introduced (Berry, 2007).
Psyllaephagus bliteus was first described in Australia (Riek, 1962), (Psyllaephagus bliteus
Riek, Holotype; female, Australia, Australian National Insect Collection, ANIC) and is
currently known to occur in North America (Paine et al., 2000); New Zealand (Withers,
2001; Berry, 2007; South America, (Berti-Filho et al., 2003; Morocco (Bami, 2011); Spain
(Perez-Otero et al., 2011); and also South Africa (FABI, 2015) among other countries
(Caleca et al., 2011). Adult wasps are metallic green in colour with darker antennae and more
pubescent than the male (Bella & Rapisarda, 2013). For a brief description of P. bliteus, see
the original description by Riek (1962).

Fig: 10: Psyllaephagus bliteus foraging on G. brimblecombei lerps Clark, J. K. 2010

Life cycle
Psyllaephagus bliteus shows strong preference to third and fourth instars of G.
brimblecombei (Dahlsten et al., 2005). However, the parasitoid is capable of parasitizing all
nymphal stages, sometimes physically killing nymphs by direct stabbing with the ovipositors
and drinking the liquids exuding from the nymph (Dahlsten et al., 2005). The adult female
wasp uses its long ovipositor to insert one egg into the lerp (though up to four eggs have been
found in a single nymph) (Daane et al., 2005). The larger proportion of eggs is laid during the
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first 22 days of the female wasps life (Daane et al., 2005). The eggs develop inside the
nymph and developmental time depends on weather conditions. The adult parasitoid emerges
from the lerp through a circular exit hole (Fig 7) mates and repeats the cycle. Generally the
entire life cycle is completed in about 16-41 days (Plascencia et al., 2005).

Fig 11: Parasitoid exit holes on lerps Clark, J. K. 2010

Previous success stories of G. brimblecombei attributed to the use of P. bliteus
1. The release of the parasitic wasp P. bliteus in California between the years 2000 and
2003 resulted in widespread establishment and dispersal of the wasp as well as
extensive suppression of the red gum lerp psyllid. Thus, the defoliation and death of
eucalyptus trees was brought under control (Dahlsten et al., 2005).
2. Psyllaephagus bliteus was accidentally introduced into Italy together with its host G.
brimblecombei in September 2001. Immediately after this, assessments and
monitoring programs were initiated. Findings indicated that the wasp had spread to
most parts of the country, imparting acceptable control of the red gum lerp psyllid.
The accidental introduction of P. bliteus into Italy offered hope in managing the
invasive psyllid, taking into account that Italian law does not allow the importation of
any exotic species for biological control programmes (Caleca et al., 2011).
3. The red gum lerp psyllid invaded Chile in 2002, and outstanding results obtained in
the US and Mexico using P. bliteus for the management of the psyllid encouraged
Chileans to introduce the wasp in 2003. The wasp established within two years of
initial release, dispersing distances of up to 500 km and suppressing red gum lerp
psyllid populations by 80% (Huerta et al., 2011).
Host range and specificity
Sometimes bio-control programs have failed to achieve desired results due to poorly known
biology of the natural enemies on target and non-target pest and plant populations (Kareiva,
1994; Erbilgin et al., 2004). Psyllaephagus bliteus is a specific parasitoid of the eucalyptus
pest Glycaspis brimblecombei (Dreistadt et al., 2004; Bella, 2014). Host specificity tests were
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done on important parasitoids of the American agro-industry and were found to be negative
(Dahlsten et al., 2003). This shows that P. bliteus is specific to G. brimblecombei and will
only attack psyllids. However, experience has shown that sometimes exotic species are
capable of forming new associations with native species they encounter in their new home.
Furthermore, it is important to note that intraguild predation, a phenomenon in which
predators reduce the efficacy of the control agent, can negatively impact on the progress of
the bio-control programme. Studies have shown that a bug Anthocoris nemoralis (Fabricius)
(Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) can significantly predate on P. bliteus and mummified G.
brimblecombei, thus reducing the efficacy of the parasitoid (Erbilgin et al., 2004).

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Section Three
Assessment of potential risks
To humans, animals and non-target hosts
Psyllaephagus bliteus poses no threat to human and animal health since its life cycle is
specific to psyllids (Daane, 2004). The use of this wasp in many parts of the world has not
resulted in the parasitoid becoming adapted to developing on man, livestock, wild animals,
non-target insect species or any plant species. Currently it is being reared, multiplied and
released in South Africa without any adverse effect on Human and environmental health.
To those handling the parasitoids
As mentioned above, P. bliteus presents no risk to human health, thus those handling the
wasp are safe. Generally, some people have developed allergies in instances where insects
and plants are kept in confinement (Cross & Noyes, 1995). Thus high levels of sanitation
should be maintained in the rearing facility.
Contaminants to be avoided
During the importation process, there are risks of bringing the target organism together with
contaminants on the container, accompanying plants or personnel accompanying the
consignment. Such contaminants include pathogens, hyperparasitoids and biotypes of the
organism of interest. Collaboration with FABI at source will ensure that acceptable scientific
packaging standards are adhered to.
Procedures for eliminating contaminants
The importation, quarantine, pre-release testing, release and post release evaluation of P.
bliteus will be done in accordance with guidelines for the export, shipment, import and
release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms (FAO, 2006), code of
conduct for the import and release of biological control agents (FAO, 1996) and
recommendations laid down by the Department of Research and Specialist Services
(DR&SS) in Zimbabwe.
Hyperparasitoids of P. bliteus
Researchers in California determined that the hymenopteran wasp Psyllaephagus Faustus
Riek, is a hyperparasite and will attack mummies of G. brimblecombei as well as mummies
of the blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina eucalypti (Maskell) (Dahlsten et al., 2003). It will be
important to screen for such hyperparasitoids before P. bliteus can be released, as they could
cause unforeseen problems on the fauna and flora of Zimbabwe.

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Getting rid of pathogens and different pest biotypes

The quarantine process will get rid of pathogens and other extraneous material before the
parasitoid is released. Clean plant material, originating in Zimbabwe will be used in the
rearing process. Live G. brimblecombei will be destroyed upon arrival to avoid introducing
new biotypes of the pest. It is most likely that the G. brimblescombei populations in South
Africa are identical to those in Zimbabwe, since the source of invasion is thought to have
been through the common borders of Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Challenges in P. bliteus establishment
Temperature and rainfall patterns are likely to play an integral part in the ultimate
establishment and dispersal of the parasitoid. Adult wasps can sustain oviposition for 22 days
at moderate temperatures and lifespan decreases with increasing temperature (Daane et al.,
2005).
Dispersal
No major challenges are expected regarding dispersal. Once released, the parasitoid is selfperpetuating and disperses rapidly; for example in Chile, within two years of release; the
parasitoid was recovered 500 km away from the point of initial release (Huerta et al., 2011).
Psyllaephagus bliteus is specific to attacking psyllids, efficient and poses no risk to nontarget organisms, humans and the environment.

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Section Four
Research objectives after acquiring import permit from DR & SS and conclusion

1. To quarantine P. bliteus and determine environmental safety prior to release.

2. To multiply the parasitoid, release and monitor for establishment.
3. Evaluate P. bliteus efficacy and determine interactions with indigenous fauna and
flora in nature.
4. Determine practices that potentially disrupt, enhance or conserve P. bliteus activity
and the whole bio-control programme.
5. Evaluate the bio-socio-ecomnomic impact of the P. bliteus bio control programme.
Conclusion
The eucalyptus agro-industry in Zimbabwe is under threat and urgently requires rescue from
the aggressive exotic pest Glycaspis brimblecombei. No natural enemies have been detected
locally thus the pest continues to move into the interior and utmost parts of the country
unchecked. Though foliar spays of acetamiprid and imidacloprid have been touted as possible
control measures, their use is not effective or sustainable due to the fact that the pest hides in
a protective covering called the lerp and chemical sprays are not economical especially in
plantation forestry. The systemic nature of the pesticides is only short-lived thus repeated
applications are required if substantial control is to be achieved. Widespread use of these
pesticides might also result in environmental and human health degradation in the medium to
long term run. Therefore, the only viable, environmentally friendly, cost effective and
sustainable strategy lies in the importation of the hymenopteran wasp P. bliteus, which has
been used in several parts of the world with acceptable success.

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References

ATTIA, S. B., & RAPISARD, A. C. 2014. First record of the red gum lerp psyllid,
Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae), in Tunisia. Phytoparasitica 42: 535539.
BAMI R., 2011 Au secours de leucalyptus. - Le matin, 9Juin 2011: 6
BELLA, S. & RAPISARDA, C. 2013. First record from Greece of the invasive red gum lerp
psyllid Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) and its associated parasitoid
Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Redia, XCVI, 33-35
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psyllid hyperparasitoid Coccidoctonus psyllae Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Australian
Journal of Entomology 46: 99-105.
BERTI-FILHO, E., COSTA, V.A., ZUPARKO, R.L. & LASALLE, J. 2003. Ocorrncia
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Annex1: Confirmation of identification of the pest Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

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Annex 2: Confirmation of availability of the natural enemy Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) at FABI in South Africa

24