5.
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use a calculator for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, finding the arithmetical mean and to
1
x
find and use x, x2, , log10x and
x
understand and use the symbols <, >, , , /, ,
understand and use the prefixes: giga (G), mega (M), kilo (k), milli (m), micro (), and nano (n)
take account of accuracy in numerical work and handle calculations so that significant figures are neither
lost unnecessarily nor carried beyond what is justified
calculate areas of right-angled and isosceles triangles, circumferences and areas of circles, areas and
volumes of cylinders, rectangles and rectangular blocks
construct and interpret frequency distributions and diagrams, such as pie charts, bar charts and
histograms
understand when information should be presented in the form of a bar chart, histogram or line graph
select appropriate variables and scales for graph plotting using standard 2 mm square graph paper
recognise when it is appropriate to join the points on a graph with straight ruled lines and when it is
appropriate to use a line (straight or curved) of best fit
draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a means to obtain the rate of change.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology 9700 syllabus General syllabus requirements and information
At A Level only
Candidates should be able to:
use the Petersen or Lincoln index to calculate an estimate of population size using mark-releaserecapture data and the formula:
N=
n1 n2
m2
N = population estimate
n1 = number of marked individuals released
n2 = number of individuals (both marked and unmarked) captured
m2 = number of marked individuals recaptured
N NN O O
D = 1
n = number of individuals of each type present in the sample (types may be species and/or higher taxa
such as genera, families, etc.)
N = the total number of all individuals of all types
understand the benefits of using standard error and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) to make
statements about data and to use as error bars on graphs
understand the difference between correlation and causation; use Spearmans rank correlation and
Pearsons linear correlation to test for correlation
use a spreadsheet program for analysing and presenting data, making calculations and carrying out
statistical tests.
Descriptive statistics
For quantitative data, candidates should understand the difference between a normal distribution and a
distribution that is non-normal. Candidates should know appropriate descriptive statistical methods to
simplify their data. They should be able to use a calculator and/or spreadsheet program to find the mean,
median, mode, total range, interquartile range, standard deviation, standard error and the 95% Confidence
Interval (CI). Standard error (SE) and 95%CI are useful for expressing the reliability of an estimate of the
mean and for putting error bars on graphs. Candidates should understand how to apply these methods
and explain their significance for their own data and any given data. The 95%CI is determined as the
mean 2 SE.
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71
Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology 9700 syllabus General syllabus requirements and information
Statistical tests
Candidates should know when it is appropriate to use a statistical test. They should be able to use statistical
tests to test for an association and know when to test for the significance of differences between samples.
The chi-squared (2) test is used to test the difference between observed and expected frequencies of
nominal data. The chi-squared test allows the evaluation of the results of breeding experiments and some
forms of ecological sampling. Chi-squared tests will only be expected on one row of data.
The t-test is of value in much of biology to test for the significance of differences between two samples
each with continuous data. This test should be used if:
Candidates should be able to use Pearsons linear correlation to test for a correlation between two sets of
normally-distributed data. The test should be used if:
the number of paired observations should ideally be 10 or more, but the test can be used if there are at
least 5.
Spearmans rank correlation is used to test for a correlation between two sets of data that are not
distributed normally. The test should be used if:
ordinal data has been collected or the data that has been collected can be converted to an ordinal scale
using ranking
the number of paired observations should ideally be between 10 and 30 in total. The test can be used if
there are more than 5
all individuals must be selected at random from a population; each individual must have an equal chance
of being selected.
For both Pearsons linear correlation and Spearmans rank correlation candidates should know that
correlations exist between 1 (perfect negative correlation), 0 (no correlation) and +1 (perfect positive
correlation).
Candidates should also know that a correlation does not necessarily imply a causative relationship.
These statistical methods are dealt with fully in many books and websites on statistics for biology.
Candidates are not expected to remember the following equations and symbols. They are expected to be
able to use the equations:
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to calculate standard deviations, standard errors and 95% confidence intervals (which they may use for
error bars on graphs)
to use the t-test to find out if there is a significant difference between the means of two small unpaired
samples
www.cie.org.uk/alevel
Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology 9700 syllabus General syllabus requirements and information
to use Spearmans rank correlation to test for a correlation between two sets of non-normal data
to use Pearsons linear correlation to test for a correlation between two sets of normally distributed data.
Candidates will be given access to the equations, the meanings of the symbols, appropriate tables or the
appropriate critical values. In both the t-test and the chi-squared test they should be able to calculate the
number of degrees of freedom without any reminders.
They should appreciate levels of significance and use calculated (or given) values of t, 2, r and rs to make
appropriate conclusions.
Candidates are not expected to remember the following equations and symbols.
s=
standard deviation
t=
t-test
2 test
/^ x xrh2
n1
xr1 xr2
\2 = /
s12 s22
+ o
n1 n2
^O E h2
v = n1 + n2 2
v = c1
s
SM =
n
standard error
rs = 1 c
6 # / D2 m
n3 n
/ xy nxy
rr
n sx sy
Key to symbols
s = standard deviation
R = sum of
x, y = observations
xr = mean
SM = standard error
c = number of classes
O = observed value
E = expected value
Candidates should note that, on some calculators, the symbol may appear instead of the symbol s.
Candidates are not expected to understand the difference between sn() and sn1 (n1).
Papers 4 and 5 may include questions involving the use of descriptive statistics and the statistical tests
stated in the syllabus. Candidates will not be expected to carry out all the steps in these calculations during
an examination, but they may be given partly completed calculations to finish.
Candidates are allowed to use electronic calculators in the examination, as long as they are permitted by the
Cambridge general regulations.
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73