Engineering Metrology

Read in Text book Chapter: 5

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from
the Text book
2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e

35. Engineering Metrology and

Instrumentation

Measurement Standards
Line-graduated Instruments
Gages
Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness
and Profile
Coordinate Measuring and layout Machines
Optical Instruments
Automated Measurement
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Measurement Standard
Inch,

foot; based on human body

4000 B.C. Egypt; Kings Elbow=0.4633
m, 1.5 ft, 2 handspans, 6 hand-widths,
24 finger-thickness
AD 1101 King Henry I yard (0.9144
m) from his nose to the tip of his thumb

Measurement Standard
1872,

Meter (in Greek, metron to

measure)- 1/10 of a millionth of the
distance between the North Pole and
the equator
Platinum (90%)-iridium (10%) X-shaped
bar kept in controlled condition in
Paris39.37 in
In 1960, 1,650,763.73 wave length in
vacuum of the orange light given off by
electrically excited krypton 86.

MEASUREMENT AND
INSPECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Metrology
Inspection Principles
Conventional Measuring Instruments and
Gages
Measurement of Surfaces
Advanced Measurement and Inspection
Techniques

Measurement
Procedure in which an unknown quantity is
compared to a known standard, using an
accepted and consistent system of units
The measurement may involve a simple
linear rule to scale the length of a part
Or it may require a sophisticated
measurement of force versus deflection
during a tension test
Measurement provides a numerical
value of the quantity of interest, within
certain limits of accuracy and precision

Metrology
Defined as the science of measurement
Concerned with seven fundamental
quantities (standard units shown in
parentheses):

Length (meter)
Mass (kilogram)
Time (second)
Electric current (ampere)
Temperature (degree Kelvin)
Light intensity (candela)
Matter (mole)

Metrology
From

these basic quantities, most other

physical quantities are derived, such as:

Area
Volume
Velocity and acceleration
Force
Electric voltage
Heat energy

Manufacturing Metrology
In

manufacturing metrology, we are

usually concerned with measuring a length
quantity of a part or product

Length and width

Depth
Diameter
Straightness, flatness, and roundness, etc.
Surface roughness

Selection of Measuring Instruments

Accuracy- closeness of agreement between an

observed value and a standard

Precision - closeness of agreement between
randomly selected individual measurements

Magnification (amplification)

Sensitivity (Resolution); the smallest difference in

dimensions that the instrument can detect or

distinguish
Rules of 10 (gage makers rule)
At least 10 times accurate than the tolerance
Stability (drift); capability to maintain calibrated status

Standard measuring temperature 20 0C

Repeatability and
Reproducibility
(equipment variation)
variation in multiple measurements by an
individual using the same instrument.
Reproducibility (operator variation) variation in the same measuring
instrument used by different individuals
Repeatability

Calibration
Calibration

- comparing a measurement
device or system to one having a known
relationship to national standards
Traceability to national standards
maintained by NIST, National Institute of
Standards and Technology

Repeatability and
Reproducibility Studies
Quantify

and evaluate the capability of a

measurement system

Select m operators and n parts

Calibrate the measuring instrument
Randomly measure each part by each
operator for r trials
Compute key statistics to quantify
repeatability and reproducibility

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy - degree to which a measured value
agrees with the true value of the quantity of
interest
A measurement procedure is accurate when it is
absent of systematic errors
Systematic errors - positive or negative
deviations from true value that are consistent
from one measurement to the next
Precision - degree of repeatability in the
measurement process
Good precision means that random errors in the
measurement procedure are minimized

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy versus precision in
measurement: (a) high accuracy but
low precision; (b) low accuracy but
high precision; and (c) high accuracy
and high precision.

Precision

Precise and
Accurate

Accuracy

Resolution

Accuracy and Precision

Precision vs. Accuracy

Two Dominant Systems of

Units

Two systems of units have evolved into

predominance in the world:
1.
2.

U.S. customary system (U.S.C.S.)

SI (for Systeme Internationale d'Unites) the metric system

Product quality-for manufacturing

Why it important

For interchangeable manufacture

Standardization and mass production
Product components must fit/assemble properly and be
replaceable
Prevention of defect

High product quality:

Reliable performance
Cost is high
Low quality product
Less reliable/fails after short time
Low cost
Difficult to use

To verify quality-requires inspection

Types of Inspection

Inspection involves the use of

measurement and gaging techniques to
determine whether a product, its
components, subassemblies, or materials
conform to design specifications
Inspections divide into two types:
1.

2.

Inspection by variables - product or part

dimensions of interest are measured by the
appropriate measuring instruments
Inspection by attributes product or part
dimensions are gaged to determine whether
or not they are within tolerance limits

Inspection for variable Vs Attributes

Inspection for variable

Inspection for attributes

Measuring the diameter of a

cylindrical part

Gaging a cylindrical part with

a GO/NO=GO gage to
determine if it is within
tolerance

Measuring the temperature of

a oven (is it within the design
specification)
Measuring the electrical
resistance on electronic
components

Determining the defect rate of

sample of production parts
Counting the number of
defects in a automobile as it
leaves the final assembly
plant

Inspection
Procedure in which a part or product feature,
such as a dimension, is examined to
determine whether or not it conforms to
design specification
Many inspections rely on measurement
techniques, while others use gaging methods

Gaging determines simply whether the part

characteristic meets or does not meet the
design specification
Gaging is usually faster than measuring, but
not much information is provided about feature
of interest

Inspection
Postprocess

Inspection
In-process, on-line, real-time inspection
Dimensional Tolerances

The smaller tolerancehigh cost, but more

accurate

Manual Inspection
Inspection

procedures are often performed

manually
The work is boring and monotonous, yet
the need for precision and accuracy is
high
Hours may be required to measure the
important dimensions of only one part
Because of the time and cost of manual
inspection, statistical sampling procedures
are often used to reduce the need to
inspect every part

Sampling Inspection
When

sampling inspection is used, the

number of parts in the sample is usually small
compared to the quantity of parts produced

Sample size may be 1% of production run

Because

not all of the items in the population

are measured, there is a risk in any sampling
procedure that defective parts will slip through

The risk can be reduced by taking a larger

sample size
Fact is that less than 100% good quality must be
tolerated as the price of using sampling

100% Inspection

Theoretically, the only way to achieve

100% good quality is by 100% inspection

All defects are screened and only good

quality parts are passed

Manual 100% Inspection

However, when 100% inspection is done

manually, two problems are encountered:
1.

2.

The expense - the unit inspection cost is

applied to every part in the batch
In 100% manual inspection, there are
almost always human errors

Therefore, 100% inspection using manual

methods is no guarantee of 100% good
quality product

Automated 100% Inspection

Automated 100% inspection can be

integrated with the manufacturing process
to accomplish one or both of the following
corrective actions:
1.

2.

Parts sortation - separating parts into two or

more quality levels, such as acceptable and
unacceptable
Feedback of inspection data to upstream
manufacturing operation so compensating
adjustments can be made in the process to
reduce variability and improve quality

When to Inspect?

Inspection after the product is made:

Expensive production steps completed
High cost of rejection or rework
All possible defects cannot be tested (product is
assembled)
Difficult to identify the cause of defect and hence cannot be
rectified

Inspection while the product is made :

Defect found early, at early production step
Reduce cost of rejection or rework
Identify the cause of defect and hence can be rectified
Facilitate continuous product improvement

Inspection/Testing Points
Receiving

inspection
In-process inspection
Final inspection

31

Receiving Inspection
Spot

check procedures
100 percent inspection
Acceptance sampling

32

Acceptance Sampling
Lot received for inspection
Sample selected and analyzed
Results compared with acceptance criteria

Accept the lot

Send to production
or to customer

Reject the lot

Decide on disposition
33

Pros and Cons

of Acceptance Sampling

Arguments for:

Provides an assessment
of risk
Inexpensive and suited
for destructive testing
Requires less time than
other approaches
Requires less handling
Reduces inspector
fatigue

Arguments against:

Does not make sense for

stable processes
Only detects poor
quality; does not help to
prevent it
Is non-value-added
Does not help suppliers
improve

In-Process Inspection
What

to inspect?

Key quality characteristics that are related to

cost or quality (customer requirements)

Where

Key processes, especially high-cost and

value-added

How

to inspect?

much to inspect?

All, nothing, or a sample

35

Economic Model
C1 = cost of inspection and removal of
nonconforming item
C2 = cost of repair
p = true fraction nonconforming
Breakeven Analysis: p*C2 = C1
If p > C1 / C2 , use 100% inspection
If p < C1 / C2 , do nothing
36

Contact Vs Non contact inspection

Contact inspection Techniques:

Involves use of mechanical probes or other device that makes
contact with the object being inspected and measure/gauge
physical dimension of the part.

1.
2.
3.

4.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Contact inspection technologies:

Conventional measuring and gauging instruments
Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)-measure mechanical
dimension
Stylus type surface texture measuring machine-roughness and
waviness measurement
Electrical contact probe testing integrated circuits (IC) and
printed circuit board (PCB)
Why they are technologically and commercially important
Widely used inspection technique
Accurate and reliable
In many case the only method to accomplish the inspection
Low cost

Contact Vs Non contact inspection

Non-Contact inspection Techniques:

Sensor is located at a distance from the object to measure or gauge
the desired feature.

1.

2.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Non-Contact inspection technologies-classification:

Optical- light (white light or laser) to accomplish the
measurement or gauging (machine vision, laser scanning,
roughness/profile measurement, laser triangulation etc)
Non-optical- utilizes energy forms other than light to perform
inspection, such as electric field, radiation (other than light like
Xray), ultrasonic
Advantage of non-contact over contact inspection
Avoids damage to the surface (and the contact probe)
Much faster no repositioning of parts required
Does not require any additional handling and positioning of
parts
Feasible 100% inspection
Can inspect parts non feasible by contact type- hot surface, soft
material, biological sample etc.

Measuring Instruments and

Gages
Conventional

measuring instruments and

gages include:

Measuring instruments for linear dimensions

Precision gage blocks
Comparative instruments
Fixed gages
Angular measurements

Measurement of Linear
Dimensions
Measuring

instruments are divided into two

types:

Graduated measuring devices include a set of

markings on a linear or angular scale to which
the object's feature of interest can be
compared for measurement
Nongraduated measuring devices have no
scale and are used to compare dimensions or
to transfer a dimension for measurement by a
graduated device

Line-graduated Instruments
Graduatedmarked

to indicate a

certain quantity
Rules; Steel rule (machinists rule), bar
or tape, [1 mm or 1/64 in]
Vernier calipers; after P. Vernier 1600s,
caliper gages, [25 mm or 0.001 in],With
digital readout
Micrometers; sensitivity [2.5 mm or
0.0001 in],

Graduated Measurement Tools

Machinists Ruler

Combo Ruler

Micrometer

External micrometer, standard one-inch size with digital readout

(photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.).

Calipers

Analog
and
Digital
Measuring
Devices
(a) A vernier (analog) micrometer. (b) A digital micrometer with a range of 0 to 1 in. (0 to 25 mm) and a
resolution of 50 in. (1.25m). It is generally easier to read dimensions on this instrument compared to the
analog micrometer. (c) Schematic illustration showing the integration of digital gages with
microprocessors for real-time data acquisition for statistical process control. Source: (a) Courtesy of L.C.
Starret Co. and (b) Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.

Basic hand held tools (cont.)

Vernier Caliper, Dial Caliper (direct reading) resolution 0.001 inch, 0.025 mm Cost $100
Digital Caliper (direct reading) - resolution
0.0001 inch, 0.0025 mm, or 2.5 mm $100

Uses of Calipers

Vernier Scale Reading

1.5

3 0.025 +
7 0.001 = 1.582
in

Example: Reading the Scale

Base Measurement:

Vernier Scale:
Total Measurement:

Vernier Scale Reading-Metric

40 mm
40 + 3 = 43 mm
40+3+ 9 x 0.02 = 43.18 mm

Example 2:

Base Measurement:
Vernier Scale:
Total Measurement:

Vernier Scale Reading

2
2 + 0.1 = 2.1
2+ 0.1+0 x 0.025 = 2.10
2+ 0.1+0 x 0.025+15 x 0.001 = 2.115 in

Problems with Calipers

Abbe offset error

Micrometers

Micrometer

The micrometer is a basic precision measuring

tool. To a machinist, this tool is indispensable.
The engineer should also realize the importance
of being able to use this tool properly. This
discussion should help in mastering the use of
the common "Mike," whether it is an outside,
inside or depth type.

Micrometers
Usually more accurate than calipers

However, mics usually have a limited

travel range ~ 25mm or 1

Example: Reading a Mic

Base Measurement:
Mic Scale:
Total Measurement:

Reading Micrometers-Inch

Large barrel divisions - - - - - - -X 0.100 = 0.200"

Small barrel divisions- - - - - - - X 0.025 = 0.025"
Thimble divisions- - - - - - - - - X 0.001 = 0.016"
Reading - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.241

Example 2:

Base Measurement:
Mic Scale:
Total Measurement:

Reading Micrometers-Metric

Major

divisions - - - - - - = 5 mm
Minor divisions- - X 0. 5 = 1.5 mm
Thimble divisions- X 0.01 = 0.485
Reading - - - - - - - - - - - 6.985 mm

Vernier Micrometer

Base Measurement:
Mic Scale:
Vernier Scale:
Total Measurement:

Reading Vernier Micrometers

Large barrel divisions Small barrel divisions------Thimble divisions - - - - - - - - Fourth significant figure the numbered vernier
line that is in coincidence with a thimble line
Reading

X 0. 1 00 = 0. 400 "
X 0.025 = 0.050 "
X 0.001 = 0.019"
X 0. 0001= 0. 0007"
0.4697 "

Problems with using Mics

Digital-Micrometer Depth Gage

A digital micrometer depth gage. Source:

Courtesy of Starret Co.

Measuring Gear-Tooth
Thickness and Profile

Measuring gear-tooth thickness and profile with (a) a gear-tooth

caliper and (b) pins or balls and a micrometer. Source: Courtesy
of American Gear Manufacturers Association.

Non-graduated Measurement
Tools

Gauge blocks, standards

Precision Gage Blocks

The standards against which other dimensional
measuring instruments and gages are
compared
Usually square or rectangular blocks
Surfaces are finished to be dimensionally
accurate and parallel to several millionths of
an inch and are polished to a mirror finish
Precision gage blocks are available in certain
standard sizes or in sets, the latter containing
a variety of different sized blocks

Gage Blocks

Gage

blocks are industrys dimensional

standard.
They are small blocks made of hardened steel
to precise tolerances.
Primary use of gage blocks include: calibration
of other instruments, machine set-up, layout.

Gage Block Sets

The

tolerance depends on the

class of the set.
Example: (81 piece set):

9 blocks with 0.0001-in. increments from

0.1001 to 0.1009 inclusive
49 blocks with 0.001-in. increments from
0.101 to 0.149 inclusive
19 blocks with 0.050-in. increments from
0.050 to 0.950 inclusive
4 blocks with 1-in. increments from 1 to 4
inclusive 2
tungsten-steel wear blocks, each 0.050 in.
thick

Gage Blocks

Used to set up a reference, to

which other gages use. ie.
Dial indicators.

Gage Blocks - wringing

Blocks Used:
3.0000
+0.1003
+0.1080
+0.1100
+0.1000
+0.3000
3.7183

Example
Blocks Used
Desired dimension = 3.7183
Ten-thousandths place = 0.1003
Remainder = 3.618
Thousandths place = 0.108
Remainder = 3.51
Hundredths place = 0.11
Remainder = 3.4
Two wear blocks = 0.1 (0.05 each)
Remainder = 3.3
Tenths place = 0.3
Remainder = 3.0
Units place = 3.0
Remainder = 0.0 Check ...

0.1003
0.108
0.11

3.7183
in.

0.1
0.3

3.0
3.7183

Applications

Fixed Gages

(a) Plug gage for holes with GO and NOT GO on opposite ends. (b) Plug gage
with GO and NOT GO on one end. (c) Plain ring gages for gaging round rods.
Note the difference in knurled surfaces to identify the two gages. (d) Snap gage
with adjustable anvils.

GO - plug checks the hole is large enough

NO GO - plug checks the hole is not too large

GO/NO-GO gages
So-called because one gage limit allows the part to
be inserted while the other limit does not
GO limit - used to check the dimension at its
maximum material condition
This is the minimum size for an internal feature
such as a hole
It is the maximum size for an external feature
such as an outside diameter
NO-GO limit - used to inspect the minimum material
condition of the dimension in question

Plug Gage - Example

D1

What size should

the GO and
NO GO gage be
made?
Assume 10%
precision on
tolerance.
Tolerance:
GO gage diameter:
NO GO gage diameter:

D2

Plug Gages
D1

Example:

D1 = 1.504
D2 = 1.500
Tolerance on D1 & D2 = 10%(0.004) = 0.0004

No Go gage: D1 = 1.504 0.0002

Go gage: D2 =

D2

Ring Gages

Snap Gage

Snap gage for measuring diameter of a part;

difference in height of GO and NO-GO gage
buttons is exaggerated.

Mechanical Gages: Dial

Indicators

Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically

magnify the deviation to permit observation
Most common instrument in this category is the
dial indicator, which converts and amplifies the
linear movement of a contact pointer into rotation
of a dial
The dial is graduated in small units such as 0.01
mm or 0.001 inch
Applications: measuring straightness, flatness,
parallelism, squareness, roundness, and runout

Dial Indicators

Dial indicator: front view shows

dial and graduated face; back
view shows rear of instrument
with cover plate removed
(photo courtesy of Federal
Products Co.).

Dial Indicator Uses

Three uses of dial indicators: (a) roundess, (b) depth, and

(c) multiple-dimension gaging of a part.

Dial Indicator to Measure

Runout

Dial indicator setup to measure runout; as part is

rotated about its center, variations in outside
surface relative to center are indicated on the dial.

Dial Indicators - Runout

Measuring Roundness

(a) Schematic illustration of out-of-roundess (exaggerated). Measuring roundess

using (b) a V-block and dial indicator, (c) a round part supported on centers and
rotated, and (d) circular tracing. Source: After F. T. Farago.

Dial indicator-Measuring Straightness

Measuring straightness manually with (a) a knife-edge rule and (b) a dial
indicator. Source: After F. T. Farago.

Measuring Parallelism
Measuring

parallelism

V = variation in parallelism which must not exceed

the specified tolerance

Measuring Perpendicularity
Measuring

perpendicularity

V = variation in perpendicularity which must not

exceed the specified tolerance

Other Applications of Dial Indicators

Angle Measurements
Squares

Sine

bars
Protractors

Sine
Bars
Non-graduated measurement for better than 5 accuracy.

Sin

A = H/L
Example: Calculate gage block build
up required to set a 5 sine bar to an
angle of 30.
H=5sin 30 = 5.0000(0.5)=2.5000 in.

Dial Indicators - Sine Bars

SinA = H/L

Applications of Dial Indicators

Measuring

angularity

V = variation in orientation which must not exceed

the specified tolerance

Electronic Amplification Gauges

Measurements By Comparison

Dial

indicators
Electronic gages
Pneumatic gages
Optical Comparator

Dial Indicators -

Pneumatic Gage Principles

Pneumatic Gages
Outside Diameter
Inside Diameter

Pneumatic Gages - Example

Special air gaging system from Edmunds is used to

measure piston ODs and other characteristics.

Optical Comparators
The

magnifying power of the optics is used

to compare the actual part image with a
template or chart, drawn to the same
scale

Optical Comparators
Example

Optical Contour Projector

A bench-model horizontal-beam contour projector with a 16-in. diameter screen

with 150-W tungsten halogen illumination. Source: Courtesy of L. S. Starrett
Company, Precision Optical Division.

Toolmakers Microscope

Optical - Interference Methods

Optical Flats

Principles of Interference

Interferogram for flat wavefronts

with tilt

Measuring Flatness

(a) Interferometry method for measuring flatness using an optical flat. (b) Fringes on a flat, inclined
surface. An optical flat resting on a perfectly flat workpiece surface will not split the light beam, and
no fringes will be present. (c) Fringes on a surface with two inclinations. Note: the greater the
incline, the closer together are the fringes. (d) Curved fringe patterns indicate curvatures on the
workpiece surface.

Using Optical Flats

Optical Flats - Surface Flatness

Optical Flats - Height

Measurement
Fringe spacing= (/2sin )

Example : In the figure below, find the angle when

50 fringes are formed along the length 1 (1.5inch),
under a monochromatic helium light source (=23.2
min.).
l

Fringe spacing= (/2sin )

Fringe spacing= 1.5/50=0.03in

Sin= 23.2 min/(2x0.03)
= .0221

In the figure the gauge block stack (S) is 15.1424inch (h). Under a
monochromatic helium light source (=23.2 min.), 100 fringes are
observed on the optical flat along the length of gauge block stack (l)
and 75 fringes are formed along the length of unknown block M .
Nominal length and height of the blocks are (l=)2in and 1 in.
respectively; and the entire assembly is at 68F. Calculate the height
and length (lm) of the unknown block M.

hd

h
S

lm
l

100 fringes for a width of 2in

75 fringes for the unknown block M
Length lm of the block=
75X2/(100)=1.5in
Fringe spacing= (/2sin )

Fringe spacing= 2/100=0.02in

Sin= 23.2 min/(2x0.02)
= .0332
Tan=hd/1m= hd/1.5
hd= 869 min
Height of the unknown block
M=15.1424in-869 min=15.14153in

Disadvantages of optical flats

Should be in intimate contact with the test

sample-can scratch both the surface
Large diameter thin samples can conform to the
surface of the optical flat-leading to inaccurate
result
Manual and slow process
Measurement accuracy depends on the flatness
of the optical flat-1/20, 1/10 or 1/4
accuracies
Solution- non contact interferometry

Advanced Technologies in
Inspection

Substitutes for manual measuring and

gaging techniques in modern manufacturing
Usually faster and more reliable than
manual inspection
Include contact and non-contact sensing
methods:
1.
2.

3.
4.

Lasers
Coordinate measuring machines
Machine vision
Other non-contact techniques

Non-contact interferometry
Interferometers

use the same principles as

optical flats.
Does not damage the sample
More accurate than contact type
Automated system, the fringes are captured by the CCD camera and processed by
the software using algorithams
Base
Half-Silvered
Mirror

Reference
Surface

Plate

Filter
Light
Source

Lens

Lens

Receiver
(Camera)

Surface
to be
Measured

White Light Interferometers Basic Setup

White Light Interferometers Example Fringes

Base
Plate

Sample

White Light Interferometers Advanced Setup

Base
Plate

Reference
Surface

Half-Silvered
Mirror

Filter

Light
Source

Lens

Lens
Surface
to be
Measured

Receiver
(Camera)
Motor

Non-contact interferometry
Alternative

set-up
Half
silvered
mirror

Courtesy : Veeco
System

Reference

Sample

Fringe formation Courtesy : Veeco

System

Interferogram of spherical surfaces

Courtesy : Veeco System

White Light Interferometer

White light interferometer: a powerful technique

for non-contact measurement of surface
topography at high vertical (~nm) and moderate
lateral resolution (~mm).

Using white light increase the dynamic range of

measurement
Range for one wavelength ~ /4
Range for two wavelengths ~ (1* 2)/(1- 2)

Lateral resolution depend on magnification

Measurement of Surfaces
Two parameters of interest:
Surface texture - geometry of the surface,
commonly measured as surface roughness

Surface roughness - small, finely-spaced

deviations from the nominal surface
determined by material and process that
formed the surface

Surface

integrity - deals with the material

characteristics immediately beneath the
surface and the changes to this subsurface
that resulted from the processes that
created it

Measurement of Surface
Roughness

Three methods to measure surface

roughness:
1.

2.
3.

Subjective comparison with standard test

surfaces
Stylus electronic instruments
Optical techniques

Subjective Comparison

The earliest ways of measuring surfaces

Thumbnail

Eye

Both of these are highly effective but subjective

Demand for quantitative results led to the

development of two branches of instrumentation:

one following the tactile example of the nail, (contact type)

the other mimicking the eye (non-contact type)

Stylus Instruments

Similar to the fingernail test, but more scientific

A stylus tip is used for measuring the surface (Talysurf)
Stylus with tip size of approximately 0.1 to 10mm traverse
the surface

In these electronic devices, a cone-shaped diamond

stylus is traversed across test surface at a constant slow
speed
As the stylus head is traversed horizontally, it also
moves vertically to follow the surface deviations
The vertical movement is converted into an electronic
signal that represents the topography of the surface
The resulting data set is stored in a computer for
statistical analysis

Stylus Traversing Surface

The operation of stylus-type instrument. Stylus

head traverses horizontally across surface, while
stylus moves vertically to follow surface profile.
Vertical movement is converted into either (1) a
profile of the surface, or (2) the average
roughness value.

Stylus Instruments

Talysurf

www.ijs.si

Contact Stylus Type - disadvantages

Scanning is time consuming

Soft materials or bio-medical samples, which might

be damaged or scratched by touch

In process measurement is not possible

Limitations in resolution and accuracy due to

mechanical movement and detection

Coordinate measuring machine

(photo courtesy of Brown and
Sharpe Mfg Co.).

Coordinate Measuring Machines

Relatively recent development

Highly accurate and sensitive
Measure absolute position from
which can be derived
Lengths
Angles
Dimensions
Flatness
Roundness
etc

Coordinate Measurement
Machines (CMM)
CMMs

have gained wide spread

acceptance in the metrology industry.
Have replaced many of the hand tools
typically used.
Automated CMMs allows manufacturing
engineers to implement pre-programmed
inspection routines on the shop floor.

Coordinate Measuring Machine

(CMM)
Measuring machine consisting of a contact probe
and a mechanism to position the probe in
three-dimensions relative to surfaces and
features of a workpart
The probe is fastened to a structure that allows
movement relative to the part
Part is fixtured on worktable connected to
structure
The location coordinates of the probe can be
accurately recorded as it contacts the part
surface to obtain part geometry data

Contact Type

CMM

CMM have 3 reference guideways

In this coordinate system, the stylus moves inside the

measurement volume to acquire measurement data

The probe head moves towards the workpiece and the

movement in the X, Y and Z direction are tracked by the
computer

Measures relative to datum surface

On contacting the workpiece, the actual coordinates are

transferred to the computer

1-10micro meter accuracy

CMM - Basic Components

What are the two
advances which have
made CMMs possible?
Bridge
Ram
Probe
Reference Base

CoordinateMeasuring
Machine

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a) Schematic illustration of a coordinate-measuring machine. (b) A touch signal probe. (c)
Examples of laser probes. (d) A coordinate-measuring machine with a complex part being measured.
Source: (b) through (d) Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.

Coordinate-Measuring Machine
for Car Bodies

A large coordinate-measuring machine with two heads measuring various

dimensions on a car body. Source: Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.

3 Styles of CMM
Gantry style CMM
Provides the most stable
(and thus accurate) platform
Widely used in industry for
quality control applications.
Sizes - from small to
airplane sized.

Horizontal Arm CMM

Used in situations where
a gantry style will not
work.
Not as stable or accurate
as gantry.

Articulate Arm CMM

The least accurate of the
CMM styles.
Often used in the field
as a portable CMM for
machine setup.
Courtesy: Gold Shield

Other Type of CMM

CMM - Optical Encoders

Non-contact

open optical system

Resolutions from 10 m to 1 m

CMM - Touch Probes

The

end effector of the CMM is called the

touch probe.
Touch Probes come in 3 main
configurations:

Fixed
Touch Triggered
Optical

CMM - Fixed Probe

Fixed

probes are often

made of a solid piece of
material, such as tool
steel.
The operator must us
great care that the probe is
against the material being
measured.

CMM Touch trigger Probes

Modern

"touch-trigger" probes with

sensitive electrical contact that signals
when the probe is deflected from neutral
position in the slightest amount

On contact, the coordinate positions are

recorded by the CMM controller, adjusting
for overtravel and probe size

CMM - Touch Trigger Probe

Touch

trigger probes send an electrical

signal to the CMM as soon as the probe
ball touches the material being
measured.
Allows much faster data gathering.

CMM - Touch Trigger Stylus

CMM - Touch Probe Stylus

CMM - Optical Probes

Use

active light (usually a laser) to

measure surface distance.
Good for materials to soft to touch.
However, they least accurate of the
probe styles.

CMM - Software
Most

CMMs will come with software which

will allow the user to find the dimensions of
basic geometric elements:

planes, holes, centers, lines, etc.

DMIS

(dimensional measuring interface

standard) will allow you to connect your
CMM to PC CAD/CAM software.

CMM - setup
Calibrate

probe by taking measurements

of the calibration sphere.
Define the part datums (x,y and z) axis.
Measure the part.

CMM - calibration
Calibrated to 0.00002 inches

Probe calibration: Define

parameter of the probe (tip radius,
tip position for multi tip probe,
elastic bending coefficient etc)
Probe calibration allows
coordinate measurement to
automatically compensate for the
probe dimension
Calibration is done by making the
probe contact with a cube of sphere
of known dimention

CMM - Part datums

The principle axis of the part
must be defined on the
machine.

CMM - measurement

Can measure flatness, squareness, determining

the centre and diameter of hole, axis and
diameter of cylinder, angle between two lines and
plane, definition of a line and a plane etc using
CMM software

CMM Advantages
Higher

productivity - a CMM can perform

complex inspection procedures in much
less time than traditional manual methods
Greater inherent accuracy and precision
than conventional methods
Reduced human error
Versatility - a CMM is a general purpose
machine that can be used to inspect a
variety of part configurations

Measurements with Lasers

Laser

stands for light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation
Lasers for measurement are low-power gas
lasers that emit light in the visible range
Laser light beam is:

Highly monochromatic - the light has a single

wave length
Highly collimated - the light rays are parallel

These

properties have motivated many

applications in measurement and inspection

Laser Triangulation

tanA = L /R
D=HR
D= H L / tanA

Scanning Laser Systems

Laser beam deflected by a rotating mirror to
sweeps a beam of light past an object
Photodetector on far side of the object senses
the light beam during its sweep except for the
short time while it is interrupted by the object
This time period can be measured quickly with
great accuracy
A microprocessor system measures the time
interruption related to the size of the object in the
path of the laser, and converts it to a linear
dimension

Scanning Laser Measurement

Scanning laser system for measuring diameter

of cylindrical workpart; time of interruption of
light beam is proportional to diameter D.

Scanning Laser Systems

Laser Micrometers

(a) and (b) Two types of measurements made with a laser scan micrometer. (c) Two
types of laser micrometers. Note that the instrument in the front scans the part
(placed in the opening) in one dimension; the larger instrument scans the part in two
dimensions. Source: Courtesy of BETA LaserMike.

Machine Vision System

Operation of a machine vision system.

Machine Vision
Acquisition, processing, and interpretation of
image data by computer for some useful
application
2-D systems view the scene as a plane

Examples: dimensional measuring and gaging,

verifying presence of components, and checking
for features on a flat surface

3-D

vision systems are required when contours

or shapes are involved
Majority of current applications are 2-D
Higher speed than traditional CMM inspection

Image Acquisition and Digitizing

- Step 1
Accomplished

by a video camera
connected to a digitizing system to store
the image data for subsequent processing
With the camera focused on the subject,
an image is obtained by dividing the
viewing area into a matrix of discrete
picture elements (called pixels)

Each pixel assumes a value proportional to

the light intensity of that portion of the scene

Image Acquisition and Digitizing

In

a binary vision system, the light

intensity is reduced to either of two
values

Black or white = 0 or 1

Each

set of pixel values is a frame,

which is stored in computer memory

Reading the pixel values in a frame is

performed at 30 Hz in U.S., 25 Hz in
European systems

Image Acquisition and Digitizing

Image acquisition and digitizing: (a) the scene

consists of a dark-colored part against a light
background; (b) a 12 x 12 matrix of pixels imposed
on the scene.

Pixel Values in Binary Vision

111111111111
111111111111
111111111111
111111100011
111111011011
111110011011
111100000011
111000000011
111010000011
111100000011
111111111111
111111111111

Pixel values in a binary vision system for the

image.

Image Processing and Analysis

- Step 2

The data for each frame must be analyzed

within one scan (1/30 or 1/25 s)
Techniques to analyze image data:
1.

2.

Edge detection - determining locations of

the boundaries of an object
Accomplished by identifying contrast in
light intensity between adjacent pixels at
borders
Feature extraction - determining feature
values of an image, such as area, length,
width, diameter, perimeter, and aspect ratio

Interpretation - Step 3
Concerned with recognizing the object
Identifying the object in the image by
comparing it to predefined models or
standard values

Accomplished using extracted features

One common technique is template
matching, which refers to methods that
compare one or more features of an image
with corresponding features of a model
(template) stored in computer memory

Machine Vision Applications

1.
2.
3.
4.

Inspection
Part identification
Visual guidance and control
Safety monitoring

Machine Vision Inspection

Most

important category - accounts for

about 90% of all industrial machine vision
applications
Most applications are in mass production
where cost of programming and
installation can be spread over many units
Typical tasks:

Dimensional measurement or gaging

Verification functions-presence of
components, hole location, number of holes
Identification of flaws and defects