Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process where metal is shaped by plastic deformation under
great pressure into high strength parts. Forging or cold forming are metal forming
processes.. Plastic deformation produces an increase in the number of dislocations
resulting in a higher state of internal stress. Indeed, strain hardening is attributed to the
interaction of dislocations with other dislocations and other barriers (such as grain
boundaries). Simultaneously, the shape of primary crystals (dendrites) changes after
plastic working of the metal. Dendrites are stretched in the direction of metal flow
and thus form fibers of increased strength along the direction of flow. We may distinguish
hot working from cold working. Hot working is performed above the recrystallization
temperature old-working is performed below it.
In hot working strain hardening and distorted grain structure are very rapidly
eliminated by the formation of new strain-free grains as the result of recrystallization.
Rapid diffusion at hot working temperatures aids in homogenizing the preform. Initial
porosity can also be significantly reduced, eventually completely healed.
Metallurgical phenomena such as strain hardening and recrystallization are important
because these changes in structure result in an increase in ductility and toughness over the
cast state.
Casting
The casting process consists of pouring or injecting molten metal into a mold containing
a cavity with the desired shape of the casting. Metal casting processes can be classified
either by the type of mold or by the pressure used to fill the mold with liquid metal
Casting is a solidification process.Therefore, the microstructure can be finely tuned, such
as grain structure, phase transformations and precipitation. However, defects such as
shrinkage porosity, cracks and segregation are also intimately linked to solidification.
These defects can lead to lower mechanical properties. A subsequent heat treatment is
often required to reduce residual stresses and optimize mechanical properties.
Strength of forging
Weakness of forging:
Good Mechanical
properties
(yield strength,
ductility,
toughness)
Reliability (used
for critical parts)
No liquid metal
treatment
:
Defects
- Laps
- Die unfill
- Die failure
- Piping
Shape limited when
undercuts or
cored sections are
required Overall cost
usually higher than
casting Multiple steps
often required
Strength of
casting
Large and
complex parts
High production
rate
Design
flexibility
Weakness of casting:
Defects
Shrinkage porosity
Metallic projections
Cracks, hot tearing,
cold shuts Laps, oxides
Misruns, insufficient
Volume inclusions
Requires close process
control and inspections
(porosity may
PROPERTIES
USES
Mild Steel
Carbon 0.1 - 0.3%
Iron 99.9 - 99.7%
Tough. High tensile strength. Can be case hardened.
Rusts very easily.
Most common metal used in
workshops. Used in general metal products and
engineering.
Carbon Steel
Carbon 0.6 - 1.4%
Iron 99.4 - 98.6%
Tough. Can be hardened and tempered.
tools such as drills.
Stainless steel
rust and stains.
Cast iron
Cutting
Carbon 2 - 6%
Iron 98 - 94%
Strong but brittle. Compressive strength very high.
Castings, manhole covers, engines.
Almost 100% iron
Fibrous, tough, ductile,
Ornamental gates and railings. Not in much use
Wrought iron
resistant to rusting.
today.
NAME
ALLOY OF
PROPERTIES
USES
COLOU
R
Aluminiu
m
Copper
Brass
Silver
Lead
Reddis
h
brown
Yellow
Not an alloy
Mixture of copper
and zinc 65% 35% most common
ratio.
Whitish Mainly silver but
grey
alloyed with copper
to give sterling
silver.
Bluish
Not an alloy.
grey
Electrical wiring,
tubing, kettles,
bowls, pipes.
Parts for electrical
fittings, exposed
handles.
Solders, pipes,
batteries, roofing.
solder,
ornaments.
If you use metals as part of a practical project a knowledge of the shape or section of
lengths of metals is important. The diagrams below show examples of solid lengths and
also tubes. When you order metals you need to describe the section you want.
Alloying
Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and oxidation
resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature strength. As a
hardening element, Chromium is frequently used with a toughening element such as
nickel to produce superior mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium
contributes increased strength. Chromium is a strong carbide former. Complex
chromium-iron carbides go into solution in austenite slowly;.
Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel
does not form carbides in steel. It
Chemical composition sus316
remains in solution in ferrite,
strengthening and toughening the ferrite
Element
Weight %
phase. Nickel increases the hardenability
and impact strength of steels.
Molybdenum increases the hardenability
C
0.15
of steel. Molybdenum may produce
Mn
2.00
secondary hardening during the
tempering of quenched steels. It
Si
0.75
enhances the creep strength of low-alloy
Cr
18.0(nom)
steels at elevated temperatures.
Mo
Ni
P
S
03
14(nom)
0.04
0.03
Polymers
A) Thermoplastics such as polyethylene, which soften on heating.
B) Thermosets or resins such as epoxi which harden when two components are heated
together.
C) Elastomers or rubbers D) Natural polymers such as cellulose, lignin and protein,
which provide the mechanical basis of most plant and animal life
it actually encompasses a large class comprising both natural and synthetic materials with
a wide variety of properties.
Elastomers are linear polymers with occasional-cross links. These cross-links
provide a memory so it returns to its original shape on unloading.
Polymers which show rubbery behavior at their operating temperature are called
elastomeric Some elastomeric polymers are thermoplastics & others are thermosetting.
The prototype is natural rubber
Elastomer
Polyisoprene
Polybutadiene
Polychloroprene
use
Natural rubber
Synthetic rubber, ar tyres
Neoprene
.
Advantages of using Elastomers
High Strength
High Resistance to Corrosion and Chemical
High Resistance to Elevated Temperature
High Resistance to Abrasion
Toughness
Fatigue
Light Weight
disadvantages