Heat Exchanger Types and Selection

In order to achieve optimum process operations, it is essential to use the right type of
process equipment in any given process. Heat exchangers, commonly used to transfer
energy from one fluid to another, are no exception.
The selection of the proper type of heat exchangers is of critical importance. Selecting the
wrong type can lead to sub-optimum plant performance, operability issues and equipment
failure.
The following criteria can help in selecting the type of heat exchanger best suited for a given
process:

Application (i.e. sensible vapor or liquid, condensing or boiling)

Operating pressures & temperatures (including startup, shutdown, normal & process
upset conditions)

Fouling characteristics of the fluids (i.e. tendency to foul due to temperature,

suspended solids ...)

Available utilities (cooling tower water, once through cooling water, chilled water,
steam, hot oil...)

Temperature driving force (i.e. temperature of approach or cross and available LMTD)

Plot plan & layout constraints

Accessibility for cleaning and maintenance

Considerations for future expansions

Mechanical considerations such as: 1) material of construction; 2) thermal stresses

(during startup, shutdown; process upset and clean out conditions); 3) impingement
protection

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers accounts for more than 50% of all heat exchangers
installed. However, in many cases, there are more attractive alternatives in terms of cost
and energy recovery. Any time a heat exchanger is being replaced, the opportunity should
be taken to re-assess if the type used is best for the given process. Operating changes since
initial installation as well as advancements in the field of heat transfer may point towards a
different type as being optimal.
Heat Exchangers Types
Shell & tube heat exchangers
Baffle types
Segmental baffles
Double segmental baffles
No-tube-in-window (NTIW) baffles
Rod baffles

EM baffles
Helical baffles
Tube Enhancements
Twisted tubes
Low finned tubes
Tubes inserts (twisted tapes, Cal Gavin)
Compact type heat exchangers
Plate & frame heat exchangers (gasketed, semi-welded, welded)
Spiral
Blazed plate & frame
Plate-fin heat exchanger
Printed circuits
Air-cooled heat exchangers
Heat Exchangers Selection
Past experience, is always the best place to start to guide the selection of heat exchanger
types. Understanding the reasons behind both successes and failures will lead to better equipment
selection.
When comparing different types of heat transfer equipment, one must take into consideration the total
cost of the equipment which includes:
1. purchase cost
2. installation cost
3. operating cost (pumping, fan)
4. maintenance cost
In order to make the best selection, it is important to have some knowledge of the different types of heat
exchangers and how they operate. The tables below offer the advantages and disadvantages of
common types of heat exchangers. They can be used to arrive at a type that is best suited for a given
process.
Shell & tube heat exchangers
Advantages
Widely known and understood since it is the most
common type
Most versatile in terms of types of service

Disadvantages
Less thermally efficient than other types of heat
transfer equipment
Subject to flow induced vibration which Can
lead to equipment failure

Widest range of allowable design pressures and

temperatures
Rugged mechanical construction - can withstand
more abuse (physical and process)

Compact Heat Exchangers

Advantages
Low initial purchase cost (plate type)

Not well suited for temperature cross conditions

(multiple units in series must be used)
Contains stagnant zones (dead zones) on
the shell side which can lead to corrosion
problems
Subject to flow mal-distribution especially
with two phase inlet streams

Disadvantages
Narrower range of allowable pressures

Many different configurations are available

(gasketed, semi-welded, welded, spiral)
High heat transfer coefficients (3 or more
times greater than for shell & tube heat
exchangers, due to much higher wall shear
stress)
Tend to exhibit lower fouling characteristics
due to the high turbulence within the
exchanger
True countercurrent designs allow significant
temperature crosses to be achieved
Require small footprint for installation and
have small volume hold-up

Air Cooled Heat Exchangers

Advantages
Attractive option for locations where
cooling water is scarce or expensive to
treat
Well suited for cooling high temperature process
streams (above 80oC when using cooling water
should be avoided)
Low maintenance and operating costs (typically
30-50% less than cooling water)

and temperatures
Subject to plugging/fouling due to very narrow
flow path
Gasketed units require specialized
opening and closing procedures
Material of construction selection is
critical since wall thickness very thin
(typically less than 10 mm)

Disadvantages
High initial purchase cost
Require relatively large footprint
Higher process outlet temperature (10-20 oF
above the ambient dry bulb temperature)

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Construction Details

The shell-and-tube heat exchanger is named for its two major components round tubes
mounted inside a cylindrical shell.
The shell cylinder can be fabricated from rolled plate or from piping (up to 24 inch
diameters). The tubes are thin-walled tubing produced specifically for use in heat
exchangers.
Other components include: the channels (heads), tubesheets, baffles, tie rods & spacers,
pass partition plates and expansion joint (when required). Shell & tube heat exchanger
designs and constructions are governed by the TEMA and ASME codes.

Tubes
Tubing may be seamless or welded. Seamless tubing is produced in an extrusion process;
welded tubing is produced by rolling a strip into a cylinder and welding the seam. Welded
tubing is usually more economical.
Normal tube diameters are 5/8 inch, 3/4 inch and 1 inch. Tubes of smaller diameter can be
used but they are more difficult to clean mechanically. Tubes of larger diameter are
sometimes used either to facilitate mechanical cleaning or to achieve lower pressure drop.
The normal tube walls thickness ranges from 12 to 16 BWG (from 0.109 inches to 0.065
inches thick). Tubes with thinner walls (18 to 20 BWG) are used when the tubing material is
relatively expensive such as titanium.

Tubing may be finned to provide more heat transfer surface; finning is more common on the
outside of the tubes, but is also available on the inside of the tubes. High flux tubes are
tubing with special surface to enhance heat transfer on either or both sides of the tube
wall. Inserts such as twisted tapes can be installed inside tubes to improve heat transfer
especially when handling viscous fluids in laminar flow conditions. Twisted tubes are also
available. These tubes can provide enhanced heat transfer in certain applications.
Tube sheets
Tube sheets are plates or forgings drilled to provide holes through which tubes are
inserted. Tubes are appropriately secured to the tube sheet so that the fluid on the shell
side is prevented from mixing with the fluid on the tube side. Holes are drilled in the tube
sheet normally in either of two patterns, triangular or square.
The distance between the centers of the tube hole is called the tube pitch; normally the tube
pitch is 1.25 times the outside diameter of the tubes. Other tube pitches are frequently
used to reduce the shell side pressure drop and to control the velocity of the shell side fluid
as it flows across the tube bundle. Triangular pitch is most often applied because of higher
heat transfer and compactness it provides. Square pitch facilitates mechanical cleaning of
the outside of the tubes.
Two tube sheets are required except for U-tube bundles. The tubes are inserted through the
holes in the tube sheets and are held firmly in place either by welding or by mechanical or
hydraulic expansion. A rolled joint is the common term for a tube-to-tube sheet joint
resulting from a mechanical expansion of the tube against the tube sheet. This joint is most
often achieved using roller expanders; hence the term rolled joint. Less frequently, tubes
are expanded by hydraulic processes to affect a mechanical bond. Tubes can also be welded
to the front or inboard face of the tube sheet. Strength welding designates that the
mechanical strength of the joint is provided primarily by the welding procedure and the
tubes are only lightly expanded against the tube sheet to eliminate the crevice that would
otherwise exist. Seal welding designate that the mechanical strength of the joint is provided
primarily by the tube expansion with the tubes welded to the tube sheet for better leak
protection. The cost of seal-welded joints is commonly justified by increased reliability,
reduced maintenance costs, and fewer process leaks. Seal-welded joints are required when
clad tube sheets are used, when tubes with wall thickness less than 16 BWG (0.065 inch) are
used, and for some metals that cannot be adequately expanded to achieve an acceptable
mechanical bond (titanium and Alloy 2205 for instance).

Baffles
Baffles serve three functions: 1) support the tube; 2) maintain the tube spacing; and 3)
direct the flow of fluid in the desired pattern through the shell side.
A segment, called the baffle cut, is cut away to permit the fluid to flow parallel to the tube
axis as it flows from one baffle space to another. Segmental cuts with the height of the
segment approximately 25 percent of the shell diameter are normally the optimum. Baffle
cuts larger or smaller than the optimum typically results in poorly distributed shell side flow
with large eddies, dead zones behind the baffles and pressure drops higher than expected.
The spacing between segmental baffles is called the baffle pitch. The baffle pitch and the
baffle cut determine the cross flow velocity and hence the rate of heat transfer and the
pressure drop. The baffle pitch and baffle cut are selected during the heat exchanger design
to yield the highest fluid velocity and heat transfer rate while respecting the allowable
pressure drop.
The orientation of the baffle cut is important for heat exchanger installed horizontally. When
the shell side heat transfer is sensible heating or cooling with no phase change, the baffle
cut should be horizontal. This causes the fluid to follow an up-and-down path and prevents
stratification with warmer fluid at the top of the shell and cooler fluid at the bottom of the
shell. For shell side condensation, the baffle cut for segmental baffles is vertical to allow
the condensate to flow towards the outlet without significant liquid holdup by the baffle. For
shell side boiling, the baffle cut may be either vertical or horizontal depending on the
service.
Other types of baffles are sometimes used such as: double segmental, triple segmental,
helical baffle, EM baffle and ROD baffle. Most of these types of baffles are designed to
provide fluid flow paths other than cross flow. These baffle types are typically used for
unusual design conditions. Longitudinal baffles are sometimes provided to divide the shell

creating multiple passes on the shell side. This type of heat exchangers is sometimes useful
in heat recovery applications when several shell side passes allow to achieve a severe
temperature cross.
Tie Rods and Spacers
Tie rods and spacers are used for two reasons: 1) hold the baffle assembly together; and 2)
maintain the selected baffle spacing. The tie rods are secured at one end to the tube sheet
and at the other end to the last baffle. They hold the baffle assembly together. The spacers
are placed over the tie rods between each baffle to maintain the selected baffle pitch. The
minimum number of tie rod and spacers depends on the diameter of the shell and the size of
the tie rod and spacers.

Channels (Heads)
Channels or heads are required for shell-and-tube heat exchangers to contain the tube side
fluid and to provide the desired flow path.
Many types of channels are available. The three (3) letters TEMA designation is the standard
method for identifying the type of channels and the type of shell of shell-and-tube heat
exchangers. The first letter of the TEMA designation represents the front channel type
(where the tube side fluid enters the heat exchanger), the second letter represents the shell
type and the last letter represents the rear channel type. The TEMA channel types are
shown below.

The channel type is selected based on the application. Most channels can be removed for
access to the tubes. The most commonly used channel type is the bonnet. It is used for
services which do not require frequent removal of the channel for inspection or cleaning. The
removable cover channel can be either flanged or welded to the tube sheet. Flanges are
usually not provided for units with larger shell diameters. The removable cover permits
access to the channel and tubes for inspection or cleaning without the need to remove the
tube side piping. Removable cover channels are provided when frequent access is required.

The rear channel is often selected to match the front channel. For example, a heat
exchanger with a bonnet at the front head (B channel) will often have a bonnet at the rear
head (M channel) and will be designated as BEM. However, there can be circumstances
where they are different such as when removable bundles are used.
Pass partitions are required in channels of heat exchangers with multiple tube passes. The
pass partition plates direct the tube side fluid through multiple passes. The number of tube
side passes is normally less than eight, although more than eight passes can in some cases
be required. Multiple tube passes allow to maximize the tube side heat transfer within the
pressure drop constraint. Typically, heat exchangers with liquid as the tube side fluid have
multiple tube passes. Most heat exchangers with large tube side volumetric gas flow rates
have a single tube pass.

Typical Applications
The shell-and-tube heat exchanger is by far the most common type of heat exchanger used
in industry. It can be fabricated from a wide range of materials both metallic and nonmetallic. Design pressures range from full vacuum to 6,000 psi. Design temperatures range
from -250oC to 800oC. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers can be used in almost all process
heat transfer applications.
The shell-and-tube design is more rugged than other types of heat exchangers. It can stand
more (physical and process) abuse. However, it may not be the most economical or most
efficient selection especially for heat recovery applications or for highly viscous fluids. The
shell-and-tube heat exchanger will perform poorly with any temperature crosses unless
multiple units in series are employed.
Typical applications include condensers, reboilers and process heaters and coolers.

Common Operating Problems for Air-coolers

Air-cooled heat exchangers (ACHE) are commonly used in industry. They offer definite
advantages in certain types of applications. However, due to their use of atmospheric air,

air-cooled heat exchangers experience operating problems not encountered in other types of
heat exchangers. We present here some of the more common operating problems with aircoolers.
Reduced Air Flow Rate
Air flow is the single most important variable in the operation of air-cooled heat
exchangers. In continuous processes, the heat load on an ACHE generally remains fairly
constant while the air flow is increased or decreased based on the ambient air
temperature. There are a variety of reasons why air-coolers may experience reduced air
flow (see below). When an air-cooler experiences reduced air flow, its cooling capacity is
reduced and it is during warm summer days when the impact on production is most often
seen. Below is a list of several causes of reduced air flow and possible solutions.
Dirty Tube Bundles
Air flow is directly related to pressure drop. When the pressure drop through the tube
bundle of an air-cooler increases, the air flow decreases. The most likely cause of increased
pressure drop is a dirty tube bundle. As the tube bundle gets fouled over time, the pressure
drop gradually increases leading to reduced air flow around the tubes. Tube bundles can
become plugged with leaves, paper or poplar fluff pollen.
The most efficient way to determine if an air-cooler is dirty and experiencing reduced air flow
is to develop an air flow profile using an anemometer. The anemometer is used to measure
the air velocity at multiple locations and the data can be analyzed to display air volumetric
profiles and overall air flow. Figure 1 below shows data generated using an
anemometer. The most useful way to use the data measured from the anemometer is to
compare the current air profile to an existing baseline profile taken for the same fan when
first installed or after cleaning. The two profiles are then compared to determine if the
overall air flow has dropped significantly over time. Reverse air flow at the tip of the fan
blades (shown by negative air flow values on Figure 1) would be an indication of a fouled aircooled heat exchanger. Reverse air flow is caused by excessive pressure drop through the
tube bundles which leads the air to flow back around to the suction side of the blade.
Figure 1

Once the cleaning is complete, a second set of air flow measurements should be taken for
two reasons: 1) the new air flow profile can serve as the clean baseline to evaluate future

performance; 2) if the air profile still shows reverse air flow at the fan tips or fan hub, it could
be an indication that other problems still exist (see Reverse Flow below).
The required cleaning frequency for an air-cooler will depend greatly on its location. Some
ACHE will require frequent tube bundle cleaning while others may never need to be
cleaned. Air flow measurements are a non-intrusive way to determine when the tube bundle
of an air-cooler needs to be cleaned. Figure 2 shows air flow profiles before and after
cleaning. As can be seen, cleaning can significantly increase the air flow through and aircooler and lead to improved performance.
Figure 2

Reverse Flow
Reverse flow is a common problem in older air-coolers. This misdirected flow causes two
problems for the heat exchanger: 1) the obvious one is a net loss in the amount of air that
travels through the tube bundle to provide cooling; 2) the secondary effect is that when the
air flow returns to the suction side of the fan, it is again sucked up and creates artificially
high inlet air temperatures which ultimately lead to less heat transfer capacity.
There are two areas where reverse flow is most prevalent. The most common one is at the
tip of the fan blade where it meets the plenum housing. Over time or with incorrect
installation, a gap can be found which will increase the amount of air flow that loops around
the blade and travels back to the fan suction side. This gap should be approximately 3/8
but not greater than 3/4 as per API-660. Reverse flow can be detected by measuring the
fan tip gap but the recommended way to determine if reverse flow is present is to conduct
an air velocity profile (shown above in Figure 2) and look for a negative air flow
number. Again, it is better to look at the air profile from an exchanger immediately after it
was cleaned. If the exchanger is not clean, the high pressure drop caused by the dirt could
lead to reverse flow which could be eliminated with a simple cleaning. If reverse flow exists
after cleaning, the fix is to install tip a seal on the plenum which will eliminate the gap.
A less common form of reverse flow in ACHE occurs if there is a gap in the area above the
motor or hub. Air will loop back through the center of the fan blade and be caught in a
recycle. This problem will again be obvious if an air flow profile is taken. The fix to this
problem is more complicated and costly but in most cases installing a hub seal will eliminate
this problem.

Blade Pitch
ACHE fans can have fixed or adjustable pitch blades. Adjustable pitch blades are most often
used and the adjustment can be either manual or automatic. The blade angle on manually
adjusted pitch fans can only be changed when the air cooler shutdown. Automatically
adjusted fan blades can be rotated to various angles while the air cooler is in
operation. Newer air-cooled heat exchangers are usually provided with manually adjusted
fan blades and use variable speed motors to provide the required air flow variability. Blades
require an initial angle setting to achieve optimum performance. Quite often, automatically
adjusted fan blades get stuck after some time and the air flow variability from the variable
blade pitch angle is no longer available for process control.
A common problem with air-coolers is improper blade pitch angle. This problem may result
from efforts to decrease energy usage by reducing the fan motor load. If the blade pitch is
set low to reduce the motor load, the air flow may be too low to provide the desired
cooling. On the other hand, if the blade pitch is set too high the load on the motor may be
too high and the motor may stall or burn out. Typically, the optimum blade pitch angle is in
the range of 12 and 17 degrees. It is always best to refer to the manufactures specifications
to set the optimum blade pitch angle. Generating air flow profiles can help narrow in on the
optimum blade pitch angle.
Motor Amps
A related problem that is often encountered is motor not running near their full load amps
(FLA). To optimize peak air flow and heat transfer, fan motors should operate near their full
load amp (FLA) set point. If a motor is running below 70% of FLA, adjusting either the motor
or the blade pitch angle to increase the air flow will lead to better performance. It is
preferred to have the %FLA at or above 85.
Mechanical Integrity
The overall condition of an ACHE can greatly reduce its ability to transfer heat. The
following list contains common areas where air-coolers can experience minor problems that
are relatively easy to fix.
Louvers
Air-coolers sometimes use louvers to control the outlet temperature by throttling the air
flow. Missing or inoperable louvers are a common problem. Louvers should be inspected
periodically to validate that the actuators are working properly. At full open, the louvers
should be at least 50% to 60% open to allow unimpeded air to travel through the tube
bundle.
Plenum
Another structural component of every air cooled heat exchangers is the plenum
housing. The plenum should be inspected periodically to confirm that no panels are missing
or that no large holes exist. If there are gaps in the plenum, the air will have a path through
which to escape without going through the tube bundle. This reduces the overall heat
transfer capability of the heat exchanger.
Tube Bundles
Although a fairly common practice, it is not recommended to spray water on tube bundles to
provide temporary additional heat transfer capacity during hot summer days. Operating
plants which adopt this practice see a deterioration of the aluminum tube fins overtime from
corrosion and fouling due to chloride formation in the heat transfer surface. This practice
leads to a reduction in performance over time and in time the tube bundle needs to be

replaced. Replacing tube bundles is expensive and time consuming and should be used as a
last resort. If the fins are corroded or have become detached, there may not be any other
option than replacing the tube bundle.
A common problem is bent or crushed tube fins. In this case, a comb type device can be
used to rake through and lift the fins back into a position perpendicular to the tubes. This
will help increase the heat transfer performance of the air-cooler.
Control Philosophy
This section covers a few of the potential control problems with air-coolers.
Inlet Process Conditions
Over time or periodically, the inlet process conditions can change. The process flow rate,
composition and inlet temperature may vary from design conditions. Often air-coolers are
thought of as under-performing when actually the total required heat duty has changed over
time or suddenly increased.
Control Set Point
Another less common cause for air-cooler problems is improper control set points. Often the
use of heat exchangers changes over time but the set points tend to be fixed and
forgotten. A quick check of the current heat exchanger design documentation can provide
insight into the expected process conditions and set points. The plant data should be
compared to the design data and any discrepancies investigated.
Non-Condensable Purges
Many air-coolers are used as overhead condensers on distillation columns. Similar to all
other heat exchangers, air-coolers performance can suffer if non-condensable vapor gets
trapped in the tubes reducing the effective heat transfer area. The usual design technique
to eliminate this effect is to provide a non-condensable purge line that will provide a way out
of the system. If an air-cooler is not performing well in an overhead condensing service, one
cause could be that the non-condensable purge line has been closed or plugged. This line
should be checked periodically to assure a clear path and prevent gas build-up.
Process Side Issues
The easiest and most cost effective fixes to air-cooler problems usually occur on the air side
of the exchanger. Unfortunately this does not fix all problems and we also find that heat
transfer limitations can occur because of poor conditions on the process side.
If the process side of the tubes gets fouled or scale builds up, the performance of the aircooler will be reduced. Many exchangers that do foul on the process side are well known
and should be put on a routine maintenance schedule to keep them clean. If a heat
exchanger is suspected to be fouled, pressure drop readings and tracking can be used to
confirm fouling. As the tube inside diameter gets smaller when fouling is present, the
velocity increases and the overall pressure drop starts to increase. If this is encountered,
the exchanger should be taken off line and cleaned.

Heat Transfer Coefficients

It is often useful to determine values for overall heat transfer coefficients while performing non-exact
activities such as early project cost estimating and basic heat exchanger performance assessments.

The equation which relates the overall heat transfer coefficient to the heat duty and the heat transfer area
is:
Q= U*A*Tlm
Where:
Q = heat load
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = heat transfer area
Tlm = log mean temperature difference
Overall heat transfer coefficients are dependent on many parameters such as the nature of the fluid, fluid
velocities, type of heat exchanger, temperatures and fouling. Despite all these determining parameters,
typical overall heat transfer coefficients are available for common applications and fluids. If little
information about the process and the parameters outlined above is available, the following values can be
used as a guide for overall heat transfer coefficients:
Sensible Vapour:
Sensible Heating/Cooling or Condensing:
Boiling:

30 Btu/hr-ft2-F
100 Btu/hr-ft2-F
120 Btu/hr-ft2-F

When more information about the fluids and process is available, one can use the overall heat transfer
coefficient values in the tables below as a guide as to the order of magnitude. Actual overall heat transfer
coefficients may be smaller or larger than the values listed.

Heaters (no phase change)

Hot Fluid

Cold Fluid

Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Steam

Air

10 20

Steam

Water

250 750

Steam

Methanol

200 700

Steam

Ammonia

200 700

Steam

Aqueous solutions

100 700

Steam

Light hydrocarbons

100 200

(viscosity < 0.5 cP)

Steam

Steam

Medium hydrocarbons
(0.5 cP < viscosity < 1 cP)

Heavy hydrocarbons

50 100

(viscosity > 1)

6 60

Steam

Gases

5 50

Dowtherm

Gases

4 40

Dowtherm

Heavy oils

8 60

Flue gas

Aromatic hydrocarbon and

steam

5 10

Evaporators

Hot Fluid

Cold Fluid

Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Steam

Water

350 750

Steam

Organic solvents

100 200

Steam

Light oils

80 180

Steam

Heavy oils (vacuum)

25 75

Water

Refrigerant

75 150

Organic
solvents

Refrigerant

30 100

Coolers (no phase change)

Cold Fluid

Hot Fluid

Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Water

Water

150 300

Water

Organic solvent

50 150

Water

Gases

3 50

Water

Light oils

60 160

Water

Heavy oils

10 50

Light oil

Organic solvent

20 70

Brine

Water

100 200

Brine

Organic solvent

30 90

Brine

Gases

3 50

Organic
solvents

Organic solvents

20 60

Heavy oils

Heavy oils

8 50

Condensers

Cold Fluid

Hot Fluid

Overall U
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Water

Steam (pressure)

350 -750

Water

Steam (vacuum)

300 600

Water or brine

Water or brine

Water or brine

Water or brine

Water or brine

Organic solvent (saturated,

atmospheric)

Organic solvent (atmospheric, high

non-condensables)

Organic solvent (saturated,

vacuum)

Organic solvent (vacuum, high noncondensables)

Aromatic vapours (atmospheric with

100 200

20 80

50 120

10 50

non-condensables)

5 30

Water

Low boiling
hydrocarbon(atmospheric)

80 200

Water

High boiling
hydrocarbon(vacuum)

10 30

When the process is well defined, one can use film heat transfer coefficients to calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient.
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the film coefficients using the
equation:
1 =
U

1 + Rout + Rwo + Rio + 1

hout
hio

Where:
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
hout = film coefficient on outside surface
Rout = resistance due to fouling on outside surface
Rwo = resistance due to metal wall of heat transfer area (corrected to the outside)
Rio = resistance due to fouling on inside surface (corrected to the outside)
hio = = film coefficient on inside surface (corrected to the outside)
In order to use the equation above, values for the film heat transfer coefficients must be determined. Film
coefficients, just like overall coefficients, are influenced by many parameters such as nature of the fluid,
type of heat exchanger, fluid velocity, transport properties and temperature. The tables below provide
examples of film coefficients values for various applications. Again, these should be used as a guide as
to the order of magnitude and the actual film coefficients may be smaller or larger than the values listed.

no phase change

Fluid

Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Water

300 2000

Gases

3 50

Organic Solvents

60 500

Oils

10 120

Condensing

Fluid

Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Steam

1000 3000

Organic Solvents

150 500

Light Oils

200 400

Heavy Oils (vacuum)

20 50

Ammonia

500 1000

Evaporation

Fluid

Film Coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft2-F)

Water

800 2000

Organic Solvents

100 300

Light Oils

150 300

Heavy Oils

10 50

Ammonia

200 400

Fouling
The deposition of any undesired material on heat transfer surfaces is called fouling. Fouling
may significantly impact the thermal and mechanical performance of heat exchangers.
Fouling is a dynamic phenomenon which changes with time.

Fouling increases the overall thermal resistance and lowers the overall heat transfer
coefficient of heat exchangers. Fouling also impedes fluid flow, accelerates corrosion and
increases pressure drop across heat exchangers.
Different types of fouling mechanisms have been identified. They can occur individually but
often occur simultaneously. Descriptions of the most common fouling mechanisms are
provided below:
Scaling/Crystallization Fouling:
Scaling is the most common type of fouling and is commonly associated with inverse
solubility salts such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) found in water. Reverse solubility salts
become less solute as the temperature increases and thus deposit on the heat exchanger
surface. Scale is difficult to remove mechanically and chemical cleaning may be required.

Particulate/Sedimentation Fouling:
Sedimentation occurs when particles (e.g. dirt, sand or rust) in the solution settle and
deposit on the heat transfer surface. Like scale, these deposits may be difficult to remove
mechanically depending on their nature.

Corrosion Fouling:
Results from a chemical reaction which involves the heat exchanger surface material. Many
metals such as copper and aluminum form adherent oxide coatings which serve to passivate
the surface and prevent further corrosion. Metal oxides which are corrosion products exhibit
quite a low thermal conductivity and even relatively thin coatings of oxides may significantly
affect heat exchanger performance.

Chemical Fouling:

Fouling from chemical reactions in the fluid stream which result in the deposition of material
on the heat exchanger surface. This type of fouling is common for chemically sensitive
materials when the fluid is heated to temperatures near its decomposition (degradation)
temperature. Coking of hydrocarbon material on the heat transfer surface is also a common
chemical fouling problem.

Freezing Fouling:
Occurs when a portion of the hot stream is cooled to near the freezing point of one of its
components. An example in refineries is when paraffin solidifies from a cooled petroleum
product. Another example is freezing of polymer products on the heat exchanger surface.

Biological Fouling:
Occurs when biological organisms grow on heat transfer surfaces. It is a common fouling
mechanism where untreated water is used as the coolant. Problems range from algae to
other microbes such as barnacles and zebra mussels. During seasons when these microbes
are said to bloom, colonies several millimeters deep may grow across the surface within
hours, impeding circulation near the surface wall and impacting heat transfer.

It is important to consider fouling in the design of a heat exchanger. There are different
methods to provide the added heat transfer area needed to account for the expected fouling
and maximize runtime between cleaning. For shell and tube heat exchanger, the common
method is to use fouling factors. For other types of heat exchangers, excess heat transfer
area is often used. However, fouling is a self-fulfilling prophecy and the selection of fouling
factors or excess area must be done carefully.

Fouling tendencies depends on the type of heat exchanger and the fluids. During the design
stage certain considerations may help minimize fouling experienced in the field:

If possible, allocate the more fouling fluid to the tube side

Design for a fouling fluid velocity of 5 ft/sec on the tube side and 3 ft/sec on the shell
side

Try to keep the fluid velocity constant

Allow for easy access for cleaning

In water service, ensure the tube wall temperature is not too high to create salt
deposits or render treatment chemicals ineffective

Do not throttle water flows in winter time

Fouling Factors
The use of fouling factors is a common method to account for the expected fouling tendency
of a process and maximize the runtime between cleaning for shell and tube heat
exchangers. Fouling factors are selected to represents the fouling expected just before
cleaning time. This method results in the heat exchanger performing better when clean and
just meeting the heat transfer requirements when fouled.
Both physical and economical considerations must be reviewed when selecting the
appropriate fouling factors. Physical considerations that influence the selection of the
fouling factors are:

nature of fluid

type of fouling

fluid temperature

wall temperature

material of construction

fluid velocity

Economic considerations that influence the fouling factors selection are:

Initial purchase cost of the exchanger

Variations of cost with size

Frequency of cleaning required

Cost of cleaning (including loss of production)

Fluid pumping cost

Desired net return on investment

The initial purchase cost increases with increasing fouling resistance while cleaning and
down-time expenses generally decrease with increasing fouling resistance. However,
using large fouling factors can lead to more fouling than anticipated and result in more
frequent cleaning. Selecting the optimum fouling factors involves satisfying conflicting
goals.

Fouling Factors
Fouling is a function of the system and the equipment used. Parameters which influence the
fouling rate in a system include: the type of fluid, the type of heat exchanger, the
temperatures, the velocities and the materials of construction. The actual fouling rate is
different for each application.
There are numerous resources for fouling factor values. The best source is from existing
operating facilities. When production data is available, it can be used to calculate the actual
fouling factors for the system. Together with the maintenance and cleaning history, this
provides the best resource for selecting the fouling factors for a particular application.
However, when production data is not available, one must rely on other sources. Over the
years, typical fouling factors have been compiled for various systems and fluids. The tables
below show some of these typical fouling factors:

Process Fluids

Fouling Resistance

(ft2-F-hr/BTU)

Oils

Fuel Oil #2

0.002

Fuel Oil #6

0.005

Transformer Oil

0.001

Engine Lube Oil

0.001

Gases and Vapors

Acid gas

Ammonia vapor

Chlorinated hydrocarbons vapors

0.002 - 0.003

0.001

0.001 - 0.0015

Chlorine Vapor

0.002

CO2 vapor

0.001

Compressed Air

0.001

Hydrogen

0.0005

Hydrogen (saturated with water)

0.002

Light Hydrocarbon vapors (clean)

0.001

Natural Gas

Natural Gas Flue Gas

Nitrogen

Polymerizable vapors (with

inhibitor)

Refrigerant Vapors (oil bearing)

0.001 - 0.002

0.005

0.0005

0.003 - 0.03

0.002

Solvent Vapor

0.001

Stable Overhead Products

0.001

Steam (non-oil bearing)

Steam (exhaust, oil bearing)

0.0005

0.0015 - 0.002

Liquids

Ammonia Liquid

0.001

Ammonia Liquid (oil bearing)

0.003

CO2 Liquid

0.001

Chlorinated hydrocarbons liquid

0.001 - 0.002

Chlorine Liquid

0.002

DEG & TEG Solutions

0.002

Ethylene Glycol Solutions

0.002

Gasoline

0.002

Heavy Fuel Oils

0.005 - 0.007

Heavy Gas Oil

0.003 - 0.005

Hydraulic Fluid

0.001

Kerosene

0.002 - 0.003

Light Gas Oil

0.002 - 0.003

Light hydrocarbon liquid (clean)

0.001

MEA & DEA Solutions

0.002

Naphtha and Light Distillates

0.002 - 0.003

Organic Heat Transfer Liquids

0.002

Refrigerant Liquids

0.001

Water

water temperature

water velocity

Fouling Resistance

Fouling Resistance

(ft2-F-hr/BTU)

(ft2-F-hr/BTU)

125F or less

over 125F

3 ft/s or less

over 3 ft/s

3 ft/s or less

over 3 ft/s

Boiler Blowdown Water

0.002

0.002

0.002

0.002

Brackish Water

0.002

0.001

0.003

0.002

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

Condensate

Cooling Tower Water (treated)

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

Cooling Tower Water

(untreated)

0.003

0.003

0.005

0.004

City or Well Water

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

River Water (minimum)

0.002

0.001

0.003

0.002

River Water (average)

0.003

0.002

0.004

0.003

River Water (muddy or silty)

0.003

0.002

0.004

0.003

0.0005

0.0005

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.0005

0.001

0.001

Sea Water

Treated Boiler Feed Water

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Start-up and Shutdown Procedures

Shell and tube heat exchangers are designed to eliminate problems from differential thermal
expansion of the shell and the tubes. When the temperature difference between the hot
fluid and the cold fluid is large, a removable bundle or a floating head is used to avoid
damage from the different thermal expansion rates of the tubes and the shell.
For extreme temperature differentials, the metal temperatures should be analyzed carefully.
Mechanical stress calculations should be performed to determine the consequences of any
thermal shock on the heat exchanger.
In some cases, differential thermal expansion can be a problem at start-up or shutdown.
Many shell and tube heat exchangers have suffered damage during start-up and
shutdown because the fluids were not introduced or removed in the proper sequence.

Fluid Location
Exchanger
Type

Start-up Procedure
Shell Side

Fixed
Tube sheets

Removable
Bundle

Tube Side

Liquid - HOT

Liquid - COLD

Condensing gas HOT

Liquid or Gas COLD

Gas - HOT

Liquid - COLD

Liquid - COLD

Liquid - HOT

Liquid - COLD

Gas - HOT

Liquid - HOT

Liquid - COLD

Condensing gas u-tubes

HOT
floating head
Gas - HOT

Shut-down
Procedure

Liquid or Gas COLD

Liquid - COLD

Shut down both fluids

Start both fluids gradually
gradually at the same
at the same time
time
Start hot fluid first, then
slowly start the cold
Shut down cold fluid
fluid. Avoid temperature first, then hot fluid
shock
Shut down cold fluid
Start hot fluid first, then
gradually, then hot
cold fluid
fluid
Shut down both fluids
Start both fluids gradually
gradually at the same
at the same time
time
Start cold fluid first, then Shut down hot fluid
hot fluid
first, then cold fluid
Start hot fluid first, then Shut down hot fluid
cold fluid gradually
first, then cold fluid
Shut down hot fluid
Start hot fluid first, then
first, then cold fluid
cold fluid gradually
gradually
Start hot fluid first, then Shut down hot fluid
cold fluid gradually
first, then cold fluid

Liquid - COLD

Liquid - HOT

Start cold fluid first, then Shut down hot fluid

hot fluid gradually
first, then cold fluid

Start cold fluid first, then Shut down hot fluid

hot fluid gradually
first, then cold fluid
The table below offers suggestions on the order in which the hot and cold fluids should
be introduced at start-up or removed at shutdown for different applications.
Liquid - COLD

Gas - HOT