Youth, Accounting and Love.
Youth, Accounting and Love.
Skripsi
Diajukan Untuk Melengkapi Tugas-Tugas dan Memenuhi Syarat-Syarat
Untuk Memperoleh Gelar Sarjana Ekonomi
Universitas Sebelas Maret
Surakarta
Disusun Oleh:
Ana Yuliarti
F.1302012
ABSTRAKSI
Critical Review Terhadap Artikel Dengan Judul Management Accounting
And Control System Changes In A Public Sector Context : A Case Study
Ana Yuliarti
F 1302012
Penulisan skripsi ini bertujuan untuk memberikan evaluasi (critical review)
terhadap artikel dengan judul Management Accounting and Control System
Changes in a Public Sector Context : a Case Study. Artikel ini merupakan hasil
penelitian Umesh Sharma (2000) dari departemen akuntansi dan manajemen
keuangan universitas South Pacific, Sufa, Fiji. Artikel ini diperoleh melalui
internet dengan alamat situs http:// www.yahoo.com./.
Masalah yang akan direview adalah pada bagian konsep teoritis penelitian,
metodologi penelitian, dan hasil penelitian. Bagian konsep teoritis penelitian akan
direview mengenai kecukupan tiga teori (teori general system, teori kontinjensi
dan teori institusional) untuk memenuhi tujuan penelitian. bagian metodologi
penelitian, akan direview mengenai tiga hal (teknik pengumpulan data, teknik
pemilihan sampel, serta analisis data) apakah sudah sesuai untuk tujuan penelitian.
Bagian akhir, akan mereview mengenai hasil penelitian. Hal-hal yang akan
direview pada bagian ini meliputi :(1) validitas hasil penelitian setelah dilakukan
review baik dari aspek teoritis maupun aspek metodologi, (2) perbandingan hasil
penelitian dengan penelitian sejenis, (3) penerapan hasil penelitian di Indonesia.
Hasil review terhadap artikel utama :
1. Hasil review terhadap aspek teoritis, menyimpulkan bahwa pendekatan
teori yang digunakan (teori general system, teori kontinjensi, dan teori
institusional) belum mencukupi tujuan penelitian, sehingga perlu
digunakan beberapa konsep, yaitu : dijelaskannya tiga proses dalam teori
institusional, serta pendekatan dari teori perilaku.
2. Hasil review terhadap aspek metodologi menyimpulkan bahwa untuk
bagian teknik pemilihan sampel dan teknik analisis data sudah memenuhi
tujuan penelitian, namun untuk teknik pengumpulan data, khususnya
teknik wawancara, teknik wawancara semi terstruktur belum memenuhi
tujuan penelitian dan seharusnya dilakukan teknik wawancara tidak
terstruktur.
3. hasil review terhadap hasil penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa validitas hasil
penelitian tersebut rendah karena teknik penumpulan data (dalam hal ini
wawancara) serta aspek teori belum memenuhi tujuan penelitian.
penelitian Sharma (2000) juga mempunyai hasil penelitian yang sama
dengan penelitian sejenis. Untuk penerapan hasil penelitian, hal yang bisa
diterapkan adalah pengukuran kinerja untuk sektor publik di Indonesia.
Abstract
Critical Review Terhadap Artikel Dengan Judul Management Accounting
and Control System Changes in a Public Sector Context : a Case Study
Ana Yuliarti
F 1302012
This research purposes to give evaluation (critical review) toward an article
Management Accounting and Control System Changes in a Public Sector
Context : a Case Study. The result of Umesh Sharmas research (2000)
published by departement of accounting and financial management university of
the south pacific, Suva, Fiji. This article is taken from internet in website
http://www.yahoo.com/.
The matter which will be reviewed are in the concept of theoritical
approach, research methodology, and the result of reserah. In the part of
theoritical approach concept, it will be reviewed on the adequate of three theories
(general system, contingency, and institutional) to fulfill the research purpose.
While, in the part of research methodology it will be reviewed toward three
things, (namely : technique of collecting data, technique for selecting sample and
data analysis.) Wether has been appropriated with the research purpose. The last
part wich will be reviewed is the research result in this part, it will be discuss
abaout three things, they are (1) the validity of result of research after being done
review both theoritical approach and research methodology, (2) the comparation
between research result and the other one, (3) the implementation those result in
Indonesia.
The review result toward main article :
1. the review result toward theoritical aspect concludes that three theoritical
approach not adequate for the research purpose. So, it is necessary t use
some added concepts, namely : to be explained three process of institutional
theory, and to be used behavioral theory,
2. toward methodology aspect concludes that technique of selecting sample
and technique of data analysis has fulfilled the research purpose. However,
technique of selecting data (semi structured interview) not fulfilled the
research purpose. It should be done by unstructured interview.
3. the result review toward the research result concludes that validity of those
research result is low validity because technique of selecting data and
theoritical aspect not fulfill the the research purpose yet. Sharma research
(2000) is also has a same result with the similar researh in other
organization, inspite of neither theoritical approach nor metodology
research is similar. For the implementation result of research, something
which could be implemented is the performance measurement for the sector
public in Indonesia.
LEMBAR PENGESAHAN
1.
Dra. Falikhatun,Msi.,Ak
NIP.132 086 369
Ketua
Penguji
Pembimbing
MOTTO
Dengan menyebut nama Allah Yang Maha pemurah lagi Maha Penyayang
Segala puji bagi Allah, Tuhan semesta alam
Maha Pemurah lagi Maha Penyayang
Yang menguasai hari pembalasan
Hanya Engkaulah yang kami sembah, dan hanya kepada Engkaulah kami
mohon pertolongan
Tunjukilah kami jalan yang lurus
(yaitu) jalan orang-orang yang telah Engkau anugerahkan nimat kepada
mereka; bukan (jalan) mereka yang dimurkai dan bukan (pula jalan)
mereka yang sesat.
PERSEMBAHAN
KATA PENGANTAR
?@ABCDEFGHCDID?JK
Aslih
jayent( Ayunee.tumpuk
undung..),
enimamahnya
all
of
my
friend
at
D,
(makasiiih
).
Rini
and
13. Jepang satu.....sensei novi and sensei alfa. (septi, ayu, Fahruddin, zaky, Harry,
mbak Hasih dan bu yenni) san...arigato gozaimasu...
14. Temen-temen TPA nurkhasanah (ustadz and ustadzahnya), afwan ana enggak
bisa memberikan yang terbaik. Buat adik-adiknya maap yaaa, suka bentakbentak.
15. family at Demak, Purwokerto, Banjarnegara, Mataram, etc juga sahabatsahabat seperjuangan (dari TK, SD, SMP, SMA) nan jauah di mato atas
segala doa dan senyum kalian...maaf jika aku belum bisa menjadi sahabat n
saudara yang baik untuk kalian.
16. everything in my room,..yang selalu jadi curahan hatiku...saat aku seneng,
sedih...si NONOkia yang sekarang tak tahu engkau dimana...selalu jadi
penghiburku saat aku jenuh..snake II.., si KOKOMputer...yang di saat
menjelang hari H harus capek nemenin aku, ..siPOLYtron..yang 24 jam
nemenin KIPANG, wekerku yang selalu mbangunin tidurku, widebed n
priend yang selalu memanjakanku saat aku capek...,si koMO,...hiburan
baru..yang selalu kunanti..
Serta semua pihak yang telah membantu dalam penulisan skripsi ini. Semoga
Allah SWT senantiasa memberikan rahmat dan anugrah-Nya yang berlimpah
sebagai balasan atas budi baik yang telah dilakukan.
Penulis menyadari bahwa penyusunan skripsi ini masih jauh dari sempurna.
Oleh karena itu kritik dan saran sangat penulis harapkan demi perbaikan di masa
datang. Akhir kata besar harapan penulis, semoga skripsi ini bermanfaat bagi kita
semua, Amin.Ya Rabbal Alamin
Wassalamualaikum. Wr. Wb.
Agustus 2004
Ana Yuliarti
DAFTAR ISI
HALAMAN JUDUL..................................................................................... .. i
HALAMAN ABSTRAKSI ........................................................................... .ii
HALAMAN PERSETUJUAN PEMBIMBING ........................................... iv
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN......................................................................... v
HALAMAN MOTTO .................................................................................... vi
HALAMAN PERSEMBAHAN ...................................................................vii
HALAMAN KATA PENGANTAR ............................................................viii
DAFTAR ISI................................................................................................. xi
BAB
I. PENDAHULUAN ............................................................................ 1
A. Ringkasan Artikel....................................................................... 1
1. latar belakang artikel ............................................................ 1
2. tujuan artikel......................................................................... 2
3. dasar teoritis artikel .............................................................. 2
4. metodologi penelitian artikel................................................ 4
5. hasil penelitian artikel .......................................................... 7
6. diskusi dan kesimpulan artikel ............................................. 14
B. Tujuan dan Kegunaan Penelitian................................................ 16
C. Perumusan Masalah.................................................................... 16
D. Pendekatan Penelitian................................................................. 17
E. Organisasi Bab-Bab Selanjutnya................................................ 18
ll. REVIEW ASPEK TEORITIS........................................................... 19
A. Teori Institusional.......................
......................................... 19
B. Teori Perilaku..............................
......................................... 21
C. Ringkasan..................................... .............................................. 27
III. REVIEW ASPEK METODOLOGI.................................................. 28
A. Teknik Pengumpulan Data............ ............................................. 28
B. Metode Pemilihan Sampel.......................................................... 35
C. Teknik Analisis Data..................... ............................................. 38
D. Ringkasan ................................... ............................................... 44
IV. REVIEW HASIL PENELITIAN ...................................................... 46
A. Validitas Hasil Penelitian.. ............................................. 46
B. Perbandingan Hasil Penelitian Dengan Penelitian Sejenis......... 51
1. persamaan penelitian............................................................. 53
2. perbedaan penelitian.............................................................. 55
C. Penerapan Hasil Penelitian di Indonesia .................................... 56
D. Ringkasan ............................................... 60
V. KESIMPULAN
.......................................................................... 62
B.
C.
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
A.
Ringkasan Artikel
1.
Latar belakang
Artikel utama dengan judul Management Accounting and Control
System Changes in a Public Sector Context : a Case Study merupakan
hasil penelitian Umesh Sharma (2000) dari Department of Accounting and
Financial Management University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
Penelitian ini dilakukan pada sebuah organisasi sektor publik yaitu
Housing Authority of Fiji (disingkat HA). Organisasi ini bergerak di
bidang penyediaan perumahan dan mortgage finance (pembiayaan
hipotik) untuk masyarakat ekonomi kecil dan menengah di Fiji. Artikel ini
diambil dari alamat alamat situs http://www.yahoo.com/.
Rumah adalah kebutuhan yang sangat penting, tetapi karena
keterbatasan masalah keuangan, kemampuan masyarakat untuk dapat
mempunyai rumah sendiri menjadi terbatas. Masyarakat berpenghasilan
kecil sering kali diabaikan dan mereka berusaha untuk menjadi penghuni
liar. Hal tersebut menyebabkan adanya sewa-menyewa secara ilegal.
Masalah lahan adalah satu hal yang paling banyak menimbulkan masalah
penyewaan secara ilegal. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, HA harus mengambil
langkah untuk memecahkan persoalan yang terjadi di HA.
2.
Tujuan Artikel
Artikel dengan judul Management Accounting and Control System
Changes in a Public Sector Context : a case study ini adalah :
a.
b.
3.
Dasar Teoritis
Banyak penelitian tentang akuntansi manajemen menyimpulkan
bahwa sukses dalam sistem pengendalian manajemen berhubungan
dengan faktor sosial, sejarah, politik dan budaya yang merupakan faktor
eksternal organisasi (Hopwood, Neimark dan Tinker, Burchell et al,
Miller dan Oleary, Scapens dan Roberts, Hoque dan Hopper, Broadbent
dan Guthrie, Broadbent dalam Sharma, 2000).
mempengaruhi
penerimaan
sistem
penganggaran.
Bukti
juga
4.
Metodologi Penelitian
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian alamiah (naturalistic research)
yang berfokus pada studi kasus (Yin, Humphrey dan Scapens dalam
Sharma, 2000) yang melihat perubahan dalam MACS pada subjek
organisasi.
Peneliti menggunakan interpretive approach (pendekatan penafsiran)
karena dianggap layak untuk menjelaskan perubahan MACS di HA.
(Burns dan
5.
pengendalian
serta
adanya
seseorang
yang
bahwa
TQM
meningkatkan
perbaikan
secara
sektor publik lain seperti FEA, dan Telecom. Hal ini sesuai dengan
teori institusional.
Implementasi TQM membawa perbaikan dalam organisasi.
Sebelum implementasi TQM pemrosesan pinjaman memakan waktu
berbulan-bulan dan setelah implementasi hanya diperlukan waktu satu
hingga dua hari. TQM telah memperjelas visi dan misi organisasi bagi
para karyawan. Keuntungan yang dapat diperoleh HA dengan
menerapkan TQM adalah : lebih tepat waktu dalam perjanjian
peminjaman, Suplai rumah yang lebih cepat dan sesuai dengan
harapan konsumen dan, perbaikan profitabilitas. Dengan penerapan
TQM di HA, setiap karyawan merealisasikan pentingnya mereka
dalam organisasi. Hal tersebut memberi motivasi kepada karyawan
untuk bekerja lebih keras melalui penerapan TQM di HA.
Pada awal penerapan TQM menimbulkan perilaku resistensi di
organisasi, timbul keengganan yang sangat besar dari para karyawan
untuk menerimanya. Beberapa orang karyawan masih bersikap malas
dalam bekerja. Keengganan para karyawan ini dikurangi melalui
pemberian pelatihan. Beberapa orang manajer juga gelisah dengan
penerapan TQM karena orang-orang di bawah mereka diberikan
kebebasan untuk memberikan penilaian kepada mereka. Tim pimpinan
berusaha mengatasi hal ini dengan melakukan diskusi yang berfokus
pada proses dan alat yang dapat memperbaiki mereka. Para supervisor
juga dihadapkan pada rasa takut, dimana sebelumnya mereka selalu
lima menit hingga satu jam untuk melakukan diskusi tentang penilaian
kinerja para staf mereka, bersama dengan para supervisor. Setiap
enam bulan sekali para pekerja dinilai kinerjanya apakah memenuhi
target ataukah tidak. Sebagai imbalan atas pencapaian tujuan
perusahaan, para pekerja diberikan penghargaan berupa bonus di akhir
tahun, untuk pekerja yang mengalami defisiensi selanjutnya diberikan
pelatihan.
HA melakukan penilaian kinerja untuk memenuhi legitimasi
eksternal, yaitu federasi buruh fiji, hal ini sejalan dengan teori
konstitusional. Sistem kontrak telah menimbulkan resistensi, beberapa
manajer
diberhentikan
diimplementasikan.
dari
Penerapan
pekerjaannya
sistem
sejak
kontrak
sistem
tidak
ini
cukup
6.
seminar
kepada
anggota-anggotanya,
HA
harus
mempunyai
peran
penting
mendorong
HA
teori kontinjensi,
Hasil dari teori ini menunjukkan bahwa struktur organisasi yang
efektif sangat tergantung pada situasi yang ada pada organisasi itu
sendiri. Penerapan TQM dapat menciptakan kualitas di HA, sebagai
akibat desentralisasi organisasi tersebut.
Penerapan sistem kontrak manajemen merupakan pengaruh dari
perubahan politik negara mengenai sektor publik. Sistem ini selain
dapat
teori institusional
Menurut analisis teori ini, kelangsungan hidup suatu organisasi
membutuhkan penyesuaian terhadap norma sosial. Noma sosial yang
dimaksud adalah kebijakan negara tentang reformasi sektor publik,
dimana HA harus menyesuaikan dengan kebijakan tersebut untuk
mendapatkan legitimasi eksternal dan beroperasi dengan basis
keuangan dengan motif mencari laba.
Program penilaian kinerja untuk staf yunior diterapkan di HA
dengan tujuan mendapat legitimasi eksternal dan konsisten dengan
organisasi lain di negaranya.
B.
C.
PERUMUSAN MASALAH
1.
2.
3.
D.
3.
4.
E.
BAB II
REVIEW ASPEK TEORITIS
Bab II berisi review terhadap aspek teoritis dari artikel dengan judul
Management Accounting and Control System Changes in a Public Sector
Context : a Case Study. Studi kasus mengenai perubahan MACS di HA dilihat
dari dimensi sosial dan dimensi politik. Data yang diperoleh selama penelitian
selanjutnya dijelaskan dengan menggunakan tiga pendekatan yaitu ; general
system, kontinjensi, dan teori institusional. Penggunaan tiga pendekatan tersebut,
dimaksudkan agar saling melengkapi dan dapat membangun sebuah analisis yang
utuh (Hoque dan Hopper, Ansari dan Euske, Berry et al. dalam Sharma, 2000).
Berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, terdapat beberapa konsep yang perlu
digunakan untuk memenuhi tujuan penelitian. Konsep-konsep tersebut antara lain
: tiga proses teori institusional, teori perilaku.
Teori Institusional
Teori institusional
mempelajari
bagaimana
sebuah
organisasi
menyatakan
bahwa
terkadang
organisasi
cenderung
tidak
Teori perilaku
Ketiga teori tersebut tidak menjelaskan efek perubahan MACS
organisasi sektor publik terhadap aspek perilaku, pendekatan sosioteknikal ,
teori resistensi, serta teori rewards dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan
hubungan ini.
Teori perilaku merupakan suatu studi sistematik yang mempelajari
tentang persepsi individual, nilai, kapasitas pembelajaran, dan tindakan yang
akan dilakukan baik secara individu maupun kelompok di dalam suatu
organisasi, menganalisa tentang pengaruh lingkungan eksternal terhadap
organisasi dan sumber daya manusianya, misi, tujuan dan strategi.
organisasi
yang
efektif
seharusnya
menumbuhkan
dalam
dilihat
perubahan
dari
organisasi
kacamata
menunjukkan
psikologis
sosial
bahwa
memiliki
tentang
keputusan
organisasi,
dan
(3)
kurangnya
a.
b.
c.
d.
karena
melihat
bahwa
sistem
kontrak
membawa
ketidakpastian.
Resistensi terhadap perubahan MACS di HA sesuai dengan force
field theory yang dikembangkan oleh Kurt lewin, yang menyatakan
terdapat dua kekuatan yang saling berlawanan satu sama lain dan
bagaimana organisasi sewaktu-waktu akan diseimbangkan dengan kedua
kekuatan yang saling bertentangan ini. Ketika dua kekuatan yang saling
bertentangan berada dalam keadaan setimbang, organisasi dalam
keadaan inersia dan tidak berubah. Untuk mendapatkan perubahan
dalam organisasi, manajer harus mengubah strategi untuk meningkatkan
kekuatan untuk perubahan, mengurangi resistensi perubahan, atau
melakukan kedua-duanya.
teori rewards
Sebuah sistem rewards berdasarkan pada merit ratings (sebuah
sistem rating formal yang diterapkan pada karyawan) dapat mendorong
karyawan untuk menunjukkan kinerja yang lebih baik. Sistem rewards
dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu extrinsic rewards dan intrinsic rewards.
Ringkasan
Dari hasil review terhadap aspek teoritis terhadap penelitian Sharma
(2000), dapat disimpulkan bahwa penggunaan tiga pendekatan teori (yaitu
general system theory, teori kontinjensi, dan teori institusional) belum
mencukupi tujuan penelitian. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, maka perlu adanya
penambahan konsep, yaitu: dijelaskannya tiga tahap proses institusional serta
digunakannya perspektif perilaku.
Teori institusional seharusnya dijelaskan dengan tiga proses isomorphis,
yaitu proses koersif, mimetik dan normatif, sehingga dapat diketahui alasan
dan tujuan suatu organisasi melakukan praktek yang sama dengan organisasi
lain.
BAB III
REVIEW ASPEK METODOLOGI PENELITIAN
Bab III ini akan menguraikan review mengenai metodologi penelitian yang
digunakan dalam artikel dengan judul Management Accounting and Control
System Changes in a Public Sector Context : a Case Study.
Penelitian mengenai perubahan MACS di HA termasuk dalam kategori
naturalistic research atau penelitian alamiah. Peneliti menggunakan pendekatan
interpretatif untuk menjelaskan perubahan MACS di HA. Untuk studi kasus ini,
peneliti mempercayakan deskripsi peristiwa yang terjadi di HA kepada partisipan
organisasi.
Peneliti menggunakan tiga pendekatan teori yang berhubungan dengan
penelitian ini, yaitu general system, teori kontinjensi, dan teori institusional.
Review pada metodologi penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah teknik
pengumpulan data, pengambilan sampel, serta teknik analisis data sudah
memenuhi tujuan penelitian.
A.
kepercayaan suatu informasi yang diperoleh melalui alat dan waktu yang berbeda
dalam metode kualitatif (Patton dalam Moleong, 1995). Hal itu dapat dicapai
dengan cara : (1) membandingkan data hasil pengamatan dengan hasil
wawancara; (2) membandingkan apa yang dikatakan di depan umum dan apa yang
dikatakan secara pribadi; (3) membandingkan apa yang dikatakan orang-orang
tentang situasi penelitian dengan apa yang dikatakannya sepanjang waktu; (4)
membandingkan keadaan dan perspektif seseorang dengan berbagai pendapat dan
pandangan orang seperti rakyat biasa, orang yang berpendidikan menengah atau
tinggi, orang berada, orang pemerintahan; (5) membandingkan hasil wawancara
dengan isi satu dokumen yang berkaitan. Pada triangulasi dengan metode,
menurut Patton dalam Moleong (1995), terdapat dua strategi, yaitu : (1)
pengecekan derajat kepercayaan penemuan hasil penelitian beberapa teknik
pengumpulan data dan (2) pengecekan derajat kepercayaan beberapa sumber data
dengan metode yang sama. Teknik trianggulasi yang ketiga adalah dengan jalan
memanfaatkan peneliti lain atau pengamat lainnya untuk keperluan pengecekan
kembali dengan derajat kepercayaan data. Pemanfaatan pengamat lainnya
membantu mengurangi kemencengan dalam pengumpulan data. Pada dasarnya
penggunaan satu tim penelitian dapat direalisasikan dilihat dari segi teknik ini.
Trianggulasi dengan teori, menurut Lincoln dan Guba dalam Moleong (1995),
berdasarkan anggapan bahwa fakta tertentu tidak dapat diperiksa derajat
kepercayaannya dengan satu atau lebih teori. Di pihak lain, Patton dalam Moleong
(1995) berpendapat lain, yaitu bahwa hal itu dapat dilaksanakan dan hal itu
dinamakan dengan penjelasan banding.
Tiga metode yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data tersebut meliputi :
1.
mempelajari dokumen organisasi (data sekunder),
dokumen tertulis dan arsip merupakan sumber data yang sering
memiliki posisi penting dalam penelitian kualitatif. Terutama bila
sasaran kajian mengarah pada latar belakang atau berbagai peristiwa
yang terjadi di masa lampau yang sangat berkaitan dengan kondisi
atau peristiwa masa kini yang sedang diteliti. Dokumen bisa memiliki
beragam bentuk dari yang tertulis sederhana sampai yang lebih
lengkap, dan bahkan bisa berupa benda-benda lainnya sebagai
peninggalan masa lampau. Demikian pula halnya arsip sering
memiliki peran sebagai sumber informasi yang sangat berharga bagi
pemahaman suatu peristiwa. Sumber data yang berupa arsip dan
dokumen biasanya merupakan sumber data pokok dalam penelitian
kesejarahan, terutama untuk mendukung proses interpretasi dari setiap
peristiwa yang diteliti. Mencatat dokumen ini oleh Yin dalam Sutopo
(1987) disebut sebagai content analysis dan dimasudkan bahwa
peneliti bukan sekedar mencatat isi penting yang tersurat dalam
dokumen atau arsip, tetapi juga tentang maknanya yang tersirat. Oleh
karena itu dalam menghadapi beragam arsip dan dokumen tertulis
sebagai sumber data, peneliti harus bisa bersikap kritis dan teliti.
Bahkan dalam penelitian historis, dokumen yang ditemukan wajib
dikaji kebenarannya, baik secara eksternal (kritik eksternal) yang
berkaitan dengan keaslian dokumen, dan juga secara internal (kritik
Selain teori fenomenologi, teori hermeneutik juga menjadi dasar yang sangat
penting dalam penelitian kualitatif. Hermeneutik mengarah pada penafsiran
ekspresi yang penuh makna dan dilakukan dengan sengaja oleh manusia. Artinya,
kita melakukan interpretasi atas interpretasi yang telah dilakukan oleh pribadi atau
kelompok manusia terhadap situasi mereka sendiri (Smith dalam Sutopo, 2002).
Hal ini sejalan dengan pola pandang fenomenologi yang melihat makna dari
pandangan subjek yang dikaji. Setiap peristiwa atau karya memiliki makna dari
interpretasi para pelaku atau pembuatnya. Karya atau peristiwa yang merupakan
interpretasi atas sesuatu tersebut selanjutnya menghadapi pembaca dan
pengamatnya, dan ditangkap dengan interpretasi pula. Hal ini sejalan dengan apa
yang disebut dengan istilah Gadamer dalam Sutopo (2002) di dalam menjelaskan
karya seni, bahwa setiap karya akan selalu diciptakan kembali oleh pengamatnya,
atau dengan kata lain, mendapatkan makna baru yang diciptakan oleh
pengamatnya tersebut. Dalam penelitian kualitatif seorang peneliti hanya dapat
menyajikan suatu interpretasi (didasarkan pada nilai-nilai, minat dan tujuan) atas
interpretasi orang lain atau subjek yang diteliti yang juga didasarkan pada nilainilai, minat dan tujuan mereka sendiri (Smith dan Heshusius dalam Sutopo, 2002).
Setiap langkah dalam penelitian kulitatif tidaklah terpisah secara tegas antara
satu dengan yang lain. Analisis data atau informasi bukan merupakan tahapan
tersendiri terpisah dari langkah atau kegiatan penelitian yang lain. Seluruh
langkah atau kegiatan penelitian kualitatif, merupakan proses yang berlangsung
simultan dan serempak, serta lengkap-melengkapi, oleh karena itu dikatakan
bahwa dalam penelitian kualitatif prosesnya sama dengan hasil yang hendak
dicapai, tidak terkecuali analisis data sebagai salah satu kegiatannya.
Analisis data dimulai sejak masuknya data atau informasi pendahuluan, pada
saat studi eksplorasi dilakukan sebagai kegiatan awal penelitian kualitatif. Data
yang dianalisis adalah data akhir yang tidak berubah lagi, baik karena sudah tidak
ada pertanyaan atau observasi yang perlu dilakukan, maupun karena sudah tidak
ada lagi sumber data yang perlu dimintai informasi. Data seperti itu dipisahkan
dan siap untuk diolah, bersamaan dengan terus dilakukannya kegiatan
pengumpulan data atau informasi lainnya.
Pengolahan atau analisis data atau informasi dilakukan untuk menemukan
makna setiap data atau informasi, hubungannya satu dengan yang lain dan
memberikan tafsirannya yang dapat diterima dengan akal sehat dalam konteks
masalahnya secara keseluruhan. Untuk itu data atau informasi yang telah
dikumpulkan dipilah-pilah kemudian dikelompok-kelompokkan sesuai dengan
rincian masalah-masalahnya masing-masing. Kemudian data atau informasi
tersebut dihubung-hubungkan dan dibanding-bandingkan satu dengan yang lain.
Dengan mempergunakan proses berpikir rasional, analitik, sintetik, kritik, dan
logis, dicari persamaan dan perbedaannya. Di samping itu dapat juga dicari
hubungannya dalam bentuk sebab-akibat, atau ketergantungan yang satu dengan
yang lain meskipun bukan dalam bentuk sebab-akibat. Analisis data mungkin pula
dilakukan dengan cara mendiskripsikan unsur-unsur yang merupakan bagian dari
sesuatu, atau sebaliknya mengkombinasikan dan mengintegrasikanberbagai unsur
yang terpisah-pisah, sehingga menjadi sesuatu sebagai satu kesatuan utuh.
1.
induksi komplit,
Interpretasi dengan cara berpikir ini dilakukan dengan menyatakan sesuatu
merupakan kondisi objek penelitian, apabila semua unsurnya ternyata
memiliki kondisi seperti itu.
2.
3.
b.
c.
D. Ringkasan
Hasil review terhadap aspek metodologi penelitian, menyimpulkan bahwa :
Penggunaan metode triangulasi sudah benar untuk jenis penelitian ini, tetapi untuk
teknik pengumpulan data yang berupa wawancara semi terstruktur belum
memenuhi tujuan penelitian. Untuk dapat memenuhi tujuan penelitian, teknik
wawancara yang seharusnya dilakukan adalah wawancara tidak terstruktur.
Teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan oleh peneliti sudah sesuai
dengan karakteristik penelitian kualitatif dan sudah memenuhi tujuan penelitian,
yaitu sampel yang diambil bersifat selektif atau didasarkan pada pertimbangan
tertentu. Peneliti memilih sumber data yang dianggap mengetahui informasi dan
masalahnya secara mendalam dan dapat dipercaya untuk menjadi sumber data.
Pendekatan yang dilakukan dalam menjelaskan data-data yang diperoleh
selama penelitian adalah pendekatan interpretive atau interpretasi, pendekatan ini
sesuai dengan perspektif fenomenologis yang menempati kedudukan sentral
dalam metodologi penelitian kualitatif. Interpretasi yang dilakukan adalah dengan
cara berpikir sintetik atau induktif, dimana analisis bertolak dari data atau
informasi yang bersifat khusus untuk sampai pada rumusan yang bersifat umum.
Penelitian kualitatif menekankan pada analisis induktif, dimana data yang
dikumpulkan bukan untuk mendukung atau menolak hipotesis yang telah disusun
sebelum penelitian dimulai, tetapi kesimpulan disusun berdasar data-data yang
telah dikumpulkan dan dikelompok-kelompokkan selama penelitian.
BAB IV
REVIEW HASIL PENELITIAN
Review mengenai hasil penelitian akan dibagi menjadi tiga bagian, yaitu :
validitas hasil penelitian setelah dilakukan review terhadap aspek teoritis maupun
aspek metodologi, perbandingan hasil penelitian dengan penelitian sejenis, serta
penerapan hasil penelitian di Indonesia.
Validitas Hasil Penelitian
Validitas penelitian menunjukkan apakah instrumen, teknik, serta proses
yang digunakan selama penelitian telah mengukur konsep yang dimaksud oleh
peneliti.
Validitas hasil penelitian kualitatif dipengaruhi oleh validitas data. Data
yang telah berhasil digali, dikumpulkan, dan dicatat dalam kegiatan penelitian,
harus diusahakan kemantapan dan kebenarannya. Oleh karena itu setiap
peneliti harus bisa memilih dan menentukan cara-cara yang tepat untuk
mengembangkan validitas data yang diperolehnya. Cara pengumpulan data
dengan beragam teknisnya harus benar-benar sesuai dan tepat untuk menggali
teknik penumpulan data yang berbeda, data sejenis bisa teruji kemantapan dan
kebenarannya.
Sharma
(2000)
menggunakan
tringgulasi
metode,
yaitu
dengan
lengkap, tidak hanya sepihak, sehingga bisa dianalisis dan ditarik simpulan
yang lebih utuh dan menyeluruh. Karena setiap pandangan teori selalu
memiliki kekhususan cara pandang, maka dengan menggunakan beberapa
perspektif teori akan menghasilkan simpulan yang multidimensi. Dalam hal
ini peneliti bisa membahas dari teori-teori dari disiplin yang berbeda, atau bisa
juga dengan teori yang berbeda tetapi masih dalam satu disiplin. Banyak
peristiwa yang terjadi dalam masyarakat memiliki latar belakang yang sangat
rumit dan dilandasi oleh beberapa faktor yang saling berkaitan. Dalam
melakukan jenis trianggulasi ini peneliti wajib mamahami teori-teori yang
digunakan dan keterkaitannya dengan permasalahan yang diteliti sehingga
mampu menghasilkan simpulan yang lebih mantap dan benar-benar memiliki
makna yang kaya perspektifnya. Meski demikian, dalam hal ini peneliti bisa
menggunakan satu teori lebih mendalam daripada teori yang lain sebagai
fokus utama dari kajiannya. Untuk analsis studi kasus ini, peneliti
menggunakan tiga perspektif teori, yaitu: general system, teori institusional,
dan teori kontinjensi. Dalam keterkaitannya dengan masalah yang sedang
diteliti di HA, ketiga perspektif teori ini belum secara lengkap menjelaskan
permasalahan yang sedang diteliti. Penggunaaan perspektif teori yang kurang
lengkap ini akan berpengaruh pada analisis dan terakhir akan berpengaruh
pada simpulan atau hasil penelitian yang validitasnya rendah.
Dalam mambahas validitas penelitian ini Yin dalam Sutopo (2002) selain
menyatakan adanya pokok-pokok pengumpulan data yang harus diingat
peneliti, selain bentuk trianggulasi yang ia sarankan dengan menggunakan
sumber data ganda. Untuk lebih meningkatkan validitas bagi tercapainya mutu
penelitian ada dua cara lain yang disarankan yaitu penyusunan data base
dan penyusunan catatan mata rantai bukti penelitian. salah satu dari cara ini
telah digunakan oleh Sharma (2000) yaitu penyusunan data base yang
merupakan bukti data yang telah dikumpulkan dalam segala bentuknya seperti
tape recorder dan back up catatan guna memudahkan review serta usaha
penelusuran kembali proses penelitian bilamana diperlukan.
Dalam kaitannya dengan validitas dan reliabilitas penelitian, keberadaan
peneliti yang cukup lama di lokasi studinya ini juga merupakan salah satu
bentuk jaminan bahwa apa yang disajikannya jelas lebih bisa dipercaya
daripada sajian yang didasarkan pada kehadiran peneliti dalam waktu pendek
di lokasi penelitiannya. Sharma (2000) melakukan penelitian selama
satusetengah tahun yaitu dari tahun 1999 sampai dengan tahun 2000, sehingga
dari segi waktu, penelitian ini memenuhi validitas serta reliabilitas penelitian.
Perbandingan hasil penelitian dengan penelitian yang sejenis
Varma dan Chand (2001) melakukan studi kasus terhadap organisasi
sektor publik lain di Fiji, yaitu Reserve Bank Of Fiji (RBF). Studi kasus yang
dilakukan di RBF (bank central di Fiji) merupakan studi tentang proses dan
konsekuensi restrukturusasi organisasi . Organisasi ini dipilih peneliti dengan
alasan : (1) RBF mempunyai peran yang signifikan sebagai bank sentral milik
pemerintah (2) RBF melakukan beberapa perubahan pada sistem pengendalian
manajemennya, yaitu pada hierarki manajemen, sistem penilaian kinerja,
rating systems serta penerapan TQM. Penelitian Varma dan Chand (2001) ini
bertujuan untuk : (1) mengetahui faktor-faktor institusional apa yang
berpengaruh terhadap perubahan MACS di RBF, (2) apakah perubahan yang
dilakukan membawa efisiensi dan efektifitas, kekuatan dibalik terjadinya
prioritas, dan proses. Sistem tersebut harus bersifat lebih dinamis terhadap
tuntutan dalam menghadapi perubahan lingkungan kompetitif yang cepat.
Ringkasan
Berdasarkan review atas aspek teoritis serta metodologi yang digunakan
pada studi kasus mengenai perubahan MACS di organisasi sektor publik HA,
maka dapat dikatakan bahwa validitas penelitian tersebut rendah, karena
metode pengumpulan data serta aspek teoritis yang digunakan belum
memenuhi tujuan penelitian.
Penelitian Sharma (2000) mempunyai hasil penelitian sama dengan
penelitian sejenis yang dilakukan pada organisasi sektor publik lain, meskipun
aspek teoritis maupun aspek metodologinya berbeda. Kesamaan hasil ini
disebabkan persamaan faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap masalah yang
diteliti serta akibat yang ditimbulkan setelah terjadinya perubahan MACS.
Hasil penelitian ini juga mempunyai implikasi terhadap sektor publik di
Indonesia, terutama untuk sistem pengendalian dan akuntansi manajemennya.
Sektor publik di Indonesia seharusnya melakukan respon strategis terhadap
pengaruh faktor eksternal yang menyebabkan perubahan organisasi, misalnya
penerapan pengukuran kinerja dalam organisasi.
Untuk melakukan perubahan dalam organisasi (dalam hal ini organisasi
sektor publik) di Indonesia hal utama yang harus diperhatikan adalah aspek
sumber daya manusia. Berdasarkan penemuan Sharma (2000) menunjukkan
pada awal perubahan timbul resistensi dari para karyawan, hasil penelitian
mengindikasikan bahwa tidak semua sistem dan proses yang baru berjalan
sempurna seperti yang direncanakan.
BAB V
KESIMPULAN
1.
b.
2.
Jones, Gareth R, 2001, Organizational Theory : Text and Cases 3ed New Jersey
: Prentice Hall International, Inc.
Khalik, A. Rashad Abdel dan Bipin B. Ajinkya, Empirical Research in
Accounting a Methodological Viewpoint, American Accounting Association,
Accounting Education Series, Volume No 4.
Moleong, J.L., 1995, Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, Bandung : PT. Remaja
Rosdakarya.
Moll, Jodie dan Zahirul Hoque, 2000, Rationality, New Public Management and
Changes in Management Control System : a Study of Managing Change in an
Australian Local Government Setting. School of Accounting and Finance,
Griffith University, PMB 50 Goald Coast Mail Centre, Queensland 9726,
Australia
Muhajir, Noeng, 2000, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, Yogyakarta : Rake
Sarasin.
Nawawi, Hadari dan Mimi Martini, 1996, Penelitian Terapan, Yogyakarta :
Gadjah Mada University Press.
Sharma,Umesh, 2000, Management Accounting and Control System Changes in
a Public Sector Context : a Case Study, Working Papers, Department of
Accounting and Financial Management University of The South Pacific,
Suva,Fiji.
Sjabadhyni, Bertina, B.K. Indarwahyanti Graito, dan Rufus Patty Wutun, 2001,
Pengembangan Kualitas SDM dari Perspektif PIO Depok: Bagian Psikologi
Industri dan Organisasi Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Indonesia.
Sutopo, H.B., 2002, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif , Dasar Teori dan
Terapannya Dalam Penelitian, Surakarta : Sebelas Maret University Press.
Setyawan, Anton A, 2003, Change Management dalam Organisasi Pemda Kasus
Sebuah BUMD Kabupaten Sukoharjo, Usahawan Nomor 09 Tahun xxxii,
September 2003.
Tika, Moh.Pabundu, 1997, Metode Penelitian Geografi, Jakarta : PT Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
Tangkilisan, Hessel Nogi S, 2003, Manajemen Modern Untuk Sektor Publik,
Yogyakarta : Balairung & Co.
Robbins, Stephen P, 2002, Prinsip-Prinsip Perilaku Organisasi Edisi Kelima,
Jakarta : Penerbit Erlangga.
Varma, Veer Singh dan Chand Parmod, 2001, The Process and The
Consequences of Organizational Restructure The Case For a Central Bank,
Department of Accounting and Financial Management University of South
Pacific Laucala Campus, Suva, Fiji Island.
Vecchio, Robert P, 2000, Organizational Behavior, Core Concepts, USA : The
Dryden Press a Division of Harcourt College Publishers.
Varma_V@usp.ac.fj
Chand_P@usp.ac.fj
Ph: (679) 212824
Corresponding Author.
Introduction
It is a widely held notion that changes in the public sector management are geared
towards promoting efficiency, effectiveness, cost saving and streamlining
managerialism (Broadbent and Guthrie, 1992; Covaleski et al., 1993). In
particular, research has focused on the role of MACS to enable organizations to
respond to environment of intense competition, rapid technological change and
uncertainty about future. As an organizations MACS is expected to provide
timely, accurate, reliable and relevant information on performance, with such
changes, a firms internal accounting and control mechanisms also has to undergo
changes (see Hoque and Alam, 1999).
Studies have indicated that organizations are structured by phenomena in their
environments and tend to become isomorphic with them (Meyer and Rowan,
1977; Whitley, 1999). As a result it has been claimed that institutional
isomorphism increases the success and survival of organizations. Factors such as
commitment to TQM, performance contract and organizational restructuring by a
regulatory authority like the state by separation of the departments and the broader
roles all serve to enhance the commercial status of an enterprise.
This study provides an analysis of the nature and effectiveness of MACS within a
developing country public sector organizational context. The major aim of this
study is to show how the wider institutional factors have impacted on the changes
in MACS at the Reserve Bank of Fiji (RBF). It identifies the reasons for the
implementation of the TQM, the management performance based contract
systems and the need for changing the appraisal, reward and rating system. It also
identifies the efficiency and effectiveness concept related to change, the forces
behind these changes, the reaction of employees to these changes, and the impact
of the state on the organization restructures. This research discusses the diversity
of influences that shape accounting and control systems in organizations. The
Lewins (1947) three-stage model of organizational change will be the lens through
which the restructuring process will be examined. By investigating MACS
changes in a public sector, this study adds to the limited knowledge of MACS in
developing economies, which has been a neglected area of accounting research
(see Hoque & Hopper, 1997; Nandan, 1997a; Archary, 1998; Sharma, 2000).
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section two provides the
motivation for the study and the research design is then discussed. Section three
examines strategic change, process restructuring and management control system
redesign at the RBF and section four identifies the impediments to MACS change.
Finally, the case study findings are interpreted against the extant literature;
utilizing the Lewins (1947) model.
2.0
He issued a memorandum to all faculty and staff confirming his announcement. This memo
initiated the plan to restructure by assigning responsibility in the area of MACS.
is, there is some acceptance of the dominant perspective of the organization which
gives it coherence despite voices of dissent (Laughlin, 1995; Gurd, 2001).2
This is a case based research whereby the researcher interacts with the
phenomena, which is investigated. Researchers utilizing a case study approach
could either employ a scientific or a naturalistic method or a combination of the
two research methods to collect the data. In this case a naturalistic research
method (Tomkins and Groves, 1983) was utilized. Accordingly, semi-structured
interviews and informal discussions with the RBF representatives were held.
Interview schedules were prepared and forwarded to the interviewees and were
used as the basis for the interviews. Once the interviews were completed and
responses recorded, the completed transcripts were presented to the interviewees
for confirmation and verification. The responses from the unstructured interviews
were then analyzed. The empirical evidence on the RBFs reasons behind the
restructuring process is presented below.
3.0
3.10
Laughlins (1995) framework has been heavily criticized, but it is still widely used to present the
organizational structure of any organization. This is to what it has been utilized in this study, to
present the change in the organizational structure of the RBF.
Insert figure 1
3.20
Process Restructuring
Process restructuring at RBF was critical to eliminate inefficient, non valueadding processes, to remove impediments to high quality production, and to
provide an environment where problems could be solved quickly and effectively.
3.21
Action Plan
The Action Plan was for a three-year period from 1998 to 2000. The Action Plan
was not just about the restructuring process. Restructuring was the first step in
improving the change management. The 1998 plan provided for the development
of planning and budgeting process, the introduction of new management
techniques such as projects, integration of better TQM program with other
management process and the development of an organization culture based on
excellence.
The plan also focused on how change was to be achieved. It provided appropriate
management and staff involvement at all stages, and for consultation with the
union on employment related matters. The approach to change emphasized
communication at all stages which is a vital part of future organizational culture.
3.22
results and key outputs, teamwork and staff empowerment and developing job
descriptions that clarify roles and accountabilities which are based on outcomes
achieved, not tasks. As a result of the change, the organization structure of the
Bank became more flatten and flexible. The reporting lines were clarified with
more staff empowerment.3
Restructuring means new structures, responsibilities and work processes. The
Public Relations Officer explained in detail the actual process of the
organizational restructure. According to him, the new structure involved several
stages. These were creation of new departments and appointment of their
managers, design of positions and assignment of remuneration and applications
were invited for new positions. The best people for new jobs were chosen.
Having discussed the organizational restructure, the next section looks at the
actual process in the new structure and how it operated.
3.23
RBF is committed to improving the new jobs and in continuing ones. Good job
performance was expected from all the staff. Job performance was realistically
measured and managed more thoroughly and more consistently. Remuneration
and rewards were more closely related to job performance. Good performers
would be rewarded and poor performers would be required to improve.
Specialized skills and knowledge are required for many jobs in Central banking.
Even where jobs are less specialized, previous experience in Central Bank work
added an advantage. Therefore in most cases the then current staff filled new jobs.
Nevertheless at the end of the restructuring process, some existing staff became
surplus. This occurred when individuals current position disappeared and he/she
failed to obtain a position in the new structure. This is in line with the Banks
commitment to improved management and obligation to its stakeholders.
The Public Relations Officer asserted that:
There were some redundancies as a result of the restructure. The staffs were
not happy with the change. There was a general feeling of job insecurity
especially during the restructure process. (RBF Human Resources Briefings,
2001).
Organizational change always creates some uncertainty and confusion, for the
organization as a whole and for the people within it. It is natural for every
individual affected by change to be concerned about its personal impacts on them.
3
For the great majority of the staff, restructuring was suppose to bring in new
opportunities and more satisfying jobs. Secondly, the new structure would provide
a more stable platform for the collective work and for the careers of individual
staff. The new structure was designed to meet current and foreseeable future
needs. Of course all organization structures must evolve over time as the world
changes, but the new structure was not expected to change greatly for at least five
years or more.
Lastly, restructuring was only one step in the Change Programme. Organizations
that restructure without changing their management systems usually achieve little.
Having analyzed the actual process of change, the next section focuses on changes
in MACS.
3.30
4.10
Impediments to change
B.
The management control system in the context of this study is defined as the
formal, information-based routines and procedures used by managers to maintain
or alter patterns in organizational activities (Simons, 1987). This includes
information relating to organizational structure, budgeting systems, performance
measurement, rewards and capital approval.
Organizational culture
Culture plays an important role in shaping the knowledge sharing efforts of an
organization (Chung, 2001). Top-level management has to set the right tone and
visibly display their commitment to transfer knowledge via communication
channels. Those organizations that encourage internal communication by way of
sharing both, success and failure stories, the implementation of knowledge
transfer initiatives will be much easier as compared to those organizations where
personal information is always fiercely guarded (Greco, 1999; Chung, 2001)
MACS of the Bank have been designed within the parameters of its organizational
culture. An important aspect of organizational culture is power relationships, that
is, the relative power of individuals in managerial positions. The power and
responsibilities of the Board of Directors of the Bank has been vested in section 9
the RBF Act, 1985.
The Reserve Bank of Fijis Board of Directors comprise of the Governor, the
Permanent Secretary for Finance and five other members. The current
performance culture at the Bank is more empowerment and is strongly quality
focused.
Performance appraisal system
Under the Banks former structure and culture, performance standards were too
inconsistent and too low. Continuing inadequate performance was tolerated and a
welfare mentality was prevalent among many staff; if I dont perform, its up to
the Bank to remedy this for me. To establish a platform for a performance culture
operating within a new structure, the immediate priority should be to establish and
enforce a consistent standard of adequate performance in relation to each job.
Emphasizing the bottom line for each job and applying a zero tolerance policy
to inadequate performance can achieve this (Governor's Statement, 1998).
A performance appraisal often bundles up a number of different processes,
including performance measurement assessment of actual versus planned
outcomes; performance management discussion of outcomes and what should
happen next; performance rating a summary assessment of outcomes and key
issues; career and professional development individual or unit directions for
action and reward allocation tangible recognition of good performance (RBF
Performance Appraisal, Review and Recommendation, 1998). Typically staff
focuses on reward allocation. The other processes then tend to be ignored, underemphasized or distorted. Separating the processes is desirable and partially
feasible by developing measurement processes that are objective and accepted,
requiring ongoing and frequent performance management, using the results of this
ongoing management to develop and support a rating, taking development issues
forward to unit and department planning processes and making reward allocation
a separate process.
Performance measurement and management
Performance measurement should be as objective as possible. Even where some
subjectivity is inevitable, objective criteria can be applied (for example, the
quality of the research paper can be discussed using criteria such as completeness,
logical analysis and comprehensibility). If perceived objectivity is maximized,
people are more likely to accept the subjectivity that inevitably remains.
Performance management works best when it is focused on specific outcomes
close to the time when they are produced. Managers are expected to provide
ongoing, informal feedback as work outputs are produced, hold regular and
structured exception-based discussions with individual staff to identify, discuss
Process mapping is the foundation upon which staffs are empowered to design, improve and
manage their work.
After the restructure process, all staff in the executive positions was engaged on a
performance basis contract. They were put on a three-year contractual system and
the renewal of the contract was based on the achievement of the set targets and
objectives for each position. Managers increase in pay and bonuses were tightly
linked to the achievements of their targets. This result is consistent with the
arguments put forward by Wilsted and Taylor (1978) who suggested that the
performance appraisal is a management function for purposes of salary
administration and recognizing future promotional prospects.
However, whilst the performance contract was being imposed, not everyone was
happy. Some managers resigned, some took up the redundancy package because
of the manner in which it was implemented. It was inadequately discussed with
the managers and was basically a top-down approach. Some left because of job
uncertainty after three years. This is consistent with the arguments put forward by
Ferris (1977) who suggested that as the level of environmental uncertainty
increased, the level of motivation decreased. This created fear in the Bank. With
the imposition of the performance contract, there have been improvements in
work performance. The contract on performance system was part of the change
process of the Bank.
Process mapping
Process mapping is not the end product but should be used as a means to achieve
the desired results efficiently. A paper by TQM Core Group5 provides a
comprehensive coverage on the role of process mapping in TQM. Departmental
KPIs stated in work plans need to be closely monitored and corrective action
(process review) taken where needed. The performance management system
allows for a review of performance on a six-monthly basis. This review should
come out with weaknesses in the delivery of outputs and therefore raise concerns
for improvement in work processes on a formal basis (RBF Memorandum, 1998).
The process maps identified as high risk maps will need to be completed and
reviewed as per the targets outlined. The departments have to ensure that attention
is paid in completing these maps and the processes are documented as procedures
statements. Tied with the achievement of departmental/unit or individual KPIs
(RBF Staff Development Policy Guidelines, 1999).
By applying TQM principles to work practices, it can ensure a quality output,
better turnaround time and measure for value added and relevance of processes in
the KRAs of the Bank. Essentially there is a strong linkage between the TQM
principles and the values covered under initiatives in the Bank. The two are to be
seen as complimentary to each other in the new phase of TQM.
Performance rating
5
This Group was set as a TQM team to look into the TQM principles implemented by the Bank.
The rating system can be used to summarize and record performance, provide
input to remuneration processes and trigger monitoring and oversight of any
inadequate performance. Ratings relate actual performance to the demand of the
job. In order for TQM to be effective, performance evaluation is essential.
Internationally, firms have adopted performance evaluation to promote TQM
exercise (see Ittner et al., 1997). This ensures that workers have commitment
towards their work vis--vis meeting performance targets.
For successful implementation of TQM, performance measurement is essential
and should include both financial and non-financial indicators. The basis for
performance measurement is in terms of aligning actual performance with
budgeted performance. The achievement of budget targets would provide a source
of motivation for organizational members (Berry et al., 1995).
Performance evaluation
Performance evaluation is an important aspect of management control as it
enhances the TQM approach in an organization. Performance evaluation is the
process of reflecting upon the effectiveness of activities in accomplishing
organizational goals and upon the efficiency with which resources are used in
performing activities (Stallman, 1982). In the new business environment,
companies need to take a more flexible approach to performance measurement
within the firm (Fowler, 1996; Ittner et al., 1997)
The balanced scorecard as depicted by Kaplan and Norton (1992 and 1993) makes
effective measurement an integral part of the management process. The balanced
scorecard enables translating of a companys strategic objectives into sets of
performance measures (Lynch and Cross, 1992; Nanni Jr et al., 1992).
The scorecard gives four different perspectives from which to choose measures.
These four perspectives of the balanced scorecard are the financial, customer,
internal business, innovating & learning perspective. From the financial
perspective, RBF had indicators such as return on capital, cash flow, and project
profitability and from customers perspective, indicators were competitive price
and value for money. The internal Business perspectives indicators were the
tender effectiveness and quality service. The innovative and learning perspectives
indicators were continuous improvement.
The balanced scorecard intention of performance is to build organizations
operations and MACS around financial measures and targets, which have
significant implications on the companys progress in achieving long-term
strategic objectives. The scorecard enables managers to introduce four new
management processes, which contribute to linking long-term strategic objectives
with short-term actions. The first one is translating vision which helps managers
to develop a consensus around the organizations vision and strategy. The second
The main reasons for the restructure of the Bank were, firstly, to limit the
operating budget by developing new planning and budgeting processes.
Management decided to opt for zero-based budgeting6 with function and cost
6
Zero-based budgeting is done on the basis of taking existing costs as the starting point of a
budget and adjusting these costs for changed circumstances and future planned activities.
center reporting. This would prompt management to monitor budget very closely.
The second reason for change was to align organization structure prior on core
business activities in order to maximize effectiveness. The non-core activities
were out sourced. More emphasis was placed on customers. In addition, the
restructure was also aimed at increasing accountability by devolving authority.
More authority was given to line management. The senior managers were
supposed to focus on strategy and policy.
The governor that time, expressed the reasons for change as follows:
Why should we change, some may ask? The answer is simple. We do not exist for
ourselves. We make an accounting profit, but our profit comes from a statutory
monopoly. In reality our stakeholders fund us. Increasingly, taxpayers want value
from their tax dollars. They expect that the entire public sector carries out its
functions in a cost effective way.
He also emphasized that:
Change is a stressful time for everyone involved. I am conscious that in small
organisations like ours the impact of change will affect every one of us as
individuals. Change will bring many opportunities as well as some immediate
problems. I ask each of you to make a personal effort to take a positive approach
to change and to help the RBF become a center of excellence: a place where every
individual, whatever their job feels proud to belong and proud of their personal
contribution (Board Paper: 1998, p.1).
There is also increasing demand for greater productivity and achievementespecially in the pubic sector. This is actually true for most organizations as they
find themselves more and more in the mainstream of a global economy. Over the
last ten years at the bank there was a significant increase in staff and resources.
Two important questions that can be asked are that
Does the rapid growth in resources properly reflect the objectives of the bank?
Does the increase in size match the increase in responsibilities and outputs?
outsourcing costs needs to be evaluated in terms of its costs and benefits (RBF
Performance Appraisal-Review and Recommendation, 2001).
To be an effective central banker there has to be cross-cultural learning and job
rotation. The management had problems to accommodate this issue. According to
deputy governor, theoretically, this sounds as if it will not work, but practically, it
can be done. Middle managers that do not get the jobs they apply for were
required to apply for a lower job. If a person honestly thinks that one or two jobs
justifiably fits his/her skills but is still not appointed to those jobs, he/she may not
apply for another position because according to him/her, he/she may be over
qualified for the lower job and his/her full potential will not be exploited. If he/she
was to be given a lower job, it may mean not fitting the round peg in the round
hole which is against the principle of this restructure (RBF Staff Development
Policy Guidelines, 1999).
Furthermore, organization structure was flattened and reporting lines were
clarified. It became more flexible reflecting departmental needs with role-based
structure more effective than rank based. Teamwork was extended across the bank
providing more flexible career paths and clarifying roles and accountabilities. Job
descriptions were based on outcomes achieved not tasks. The focus of resources
and operations on core functions shifted the balance from tail to teeth. Staffing
was improved with better match of staff skills and role requirements. Use of
technology was advanced and equipment was allocated according to needs. More
informality in management and communication methods (fewer memos) and style
(more open) was very effective resulting in communicating both ways-up and
down (RBF Action Plan for Change, 1999).
Decisions were made more faster (stop procrastinating, just do it) and simple
planning processes resulted more effective implementation. Greater ownership of
work and accountability was developed for its quality and increase in delegation
and empowerment-reduced bureaucracy. Right appointments were made and poor
performers were removed which improved human resource management. Work
results were best measured with effective performance management system and
rewards were made for results achieved and not inputs (RBF Performance
Appraisal-Review and Recommendations, 1999).
The above issues are in line with the objectives of re-structuring which includes a
flatter structure, a stronger focus on results achieved, clearer accountabilities and
more staff empowerment.
RBF can be rated with each practice now (low, medium or high) and where you
want to be (low, medium or high) (RBF Human Resource Briefings, 2001).
Managing people during change is stressful. Sometimes change is imposed upon
us, sometimes we make changes ourselves, regardless, change can make us feel
uneasy, distressed, threatened and challenged. Restructuring is a beginning, not an
end. Improvements to the management systems will continue for several years.
identify and plan training needs for individuals and the organization. Performance
appraisals identify potential for the future, assist with career planning and provide
input into remuneration. As analyzed during the organizational performance
workshop the current organizational culture at the Bank is more focused, more
efficient, accountable and competitive. Thus the Bank is seen as the institution
with cultural rules giving collective meaning and value to particular entities and
activities, integrating them into the larger schemes.
Two types of institutional arguments regarding the rise of training programs at the
Bank are: the first focuses on institutional agencies such as the government that
create legal requirements and professional ideologies that make training seem
necessary and rational. The second form of institutional argument stresses a
process explanation. Institutional processes operate to diffuse beliefs in the
desirability of training so that, increasingly overtime, the value of training in
modern organizations is taken for granted.
6.0
By investigating MACS changes at the Bank, this research adds to the limited
knowledge of management control changes in Fiji, which is somewhat a neglected
area of accounting research. In particular, it illustrates that the changes in MACS
are understood better in the context of the influences of the structures of the wider
social order within the historical, social, political and economic dimensions of the
economy.
Accounting for the increased amount and for the existing diversity of
organizational structures is an ongoing activity to which institutional theorists are
making contributions. At an organizational level, it is now widely accepted that
successful organizations develop and maintain a customer focus and reduce
response time to customer requests. TQM exercise facilitates this. This research
reinforces the findings of other researchers (e.g. Hoque and Hopper, 1994;
Broadbent and Guthrie, 1992) claiming that the wider social, political,
institutional and economic contexts govern the ways MACS operates in the
organization.
For future research, management accounting should not be limited to the technical
aspects only, but it should be studied as a social construct (Burchell et al., 1980;
Neimark and Tinker, 1986; Broadbent and Guthrie, 1992;; Broadbent, 1999). It is
also essential that similar study be undertaken in other public sector organisations
in order to draw generalizations on MACS changes. Some similar studies,
however, have been done in Fijis context such as those of Nandan (1997) on the
Fiji Development Bank, Achary (1998) on Fiji Pine Limited and Sharma (2000)
on Housing Authority of Fiji.
Figure 1:
tt.
uu.
vv.
ww.
Interpretive Scheme
yy.
zz.
Design Archetypes
Coupled structures such as Bank departments, offices and procedures. For e.g. Domestic Markets Unit in
the Financial Markets Department implements monetary policy through daily RBF tenders.
ccc.
Less focus on organizational culture (specific values, beliefs and norms that influence human interactions.
Low Power relationships.
ggg.
No Staff values such as honesty, integrity, trust, openness, flexibility, prudence, quality and transparency.
hhh.
iii.
jjj.
mmm.
Quantity based.
No teamwork approach.
nnn.
ooo.
ppp.
Low levels of budgetary process such as less staff training and staff attending seminars and conferences.
sss.
ttt.
uuu.
More formal in management and communication methods such as use of large number of memos.
Closed style.
Communication in one way (only up).
Less use of emails and network.
Staff to discuss with the seniors and then seniors discuss with the unit managers who liaises
with department chief manager and with deputy governor and the governor.
xxx.
yyy.
Tough decisions are put on hold to be discussed in the Board of Governors meeting.
zzz.
aaaa.
bbbb.
cccc. Sub-Systems
dddd.
eeee.
ffff.
gggg.
hhhh.
iiii.
Fewer committees.
Less team work approach.
No Employee empowerment.
Low levels of skilled and specialized staff since the focus was more on experienced staff.
Large amounts of assets.
Regulated market.
jjjj.
kkkk.
llll.
mmmm. Figure 2:
nnnn.
Interpretive Scheme
oooo.
pppp.
uuuu.
vvvv.
wwww.
xxxx.
Design Archetypes
yyyy.
Organizational structure
zzzz.
Decoupled structures such as Bank departments, offices and procedures. For e.g.
Domestic Markets Unit in the Financial Markets Department implements monetary policy through
daily RBF tenders.
aaaaa.
Organizational culture (specific values, beliefs and norms that influence human
interactions.
ddddd.
Power relationships.
eeeee.
Staff values such as honesty, integrity, trust, openness, flexibility, prudence, quality
and transparency.
fffff.
Decentralize training approval.
ggggg.
Introduction of TQM.
lllll.
Changes in reward policies.
mmmmm.
Open style.
wwwww.
Staff to discuss with unit managers and with department chief manager and in
certain circumstances with deputy governor and the governor.
aaaaaa.
Sub-Systems
Fewer committees.
Employee empowerment.
Support department such as currency and corporate services to provide additional support to other
departments.
De-regulated market.
bbbbbb.
Figure 3
Name of staff member:
Definition
Performance
Criteria
Outstanding
Substantially
exceeds 80 100 %
requirements
2
Superior
Exceeds requirements
60 79 %
Adequate
Meets requirements
50 59 %
Inadequate
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