FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing

different types of waveforms as its output signal. The most common
output waveforms are sine-waves, triangular waves, square waves, and
sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted from
a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.
Actually the function generators are very versatile instruments as they are
capable of producing a wide variety of waveforms and frequencies. In
fact, each of the waveform they generate are particularly suitable for a
different group of applications. The uses of sinusoidal outputs and squarewave outputs have already been described in the earlier Arts. The
triangular-wave and sawtooth wave outputs of function generators are
commonly used for those applications which need a signal that increases
(or reduces) at a specific linear rate. They are also used in driving sweep
oscillators in oscilloscopes and the X-axis of X-Y recorders.
Many function generators are also capable of generating two different
waveforms simultaneously (from different output terminals, of course).
This can be a useful feature when two generated signals are required for
particular application. For instance, by providing a square wave for
linearity measurements in an audio-system, a simultaneous sawtooth
output may be used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of an
oscilloscope, providing a visual display of the measurement result. For
another example, a triangular-wave and a sine-wave of equal frequencies
can be produced simultaneously. If the zero crossings of both the waves
are made to occur at the same time, a linearly varying waveform is
available which can be started at the point of zero phase of a sine-wave.
Another important feature of some function generators is their capability
of phase-locking to an external signal source. One function generator may
be used to phase lock a second function generator, and the two output
signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In addition,
one function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sinewave of another function generator. By adjustment of the phase and the
amplitude of the
harmonics, almost any waveform may be produced by the summation of
the fundamental frequency generated by one function generator and the
harmonic generated by the other function generator. The function
generator can also be phase locked to an accurate frequency standard,
and all its output waveforms will have the same frequency, stability, and
accuracy as the standard.

The block diagram of a function generator is given in figure. In this

instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of
current that drives the integrator. This instrument provides different types
of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as its
output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources.

Current supply source 1 supplies constant current to the integrator whose
output voltage rises linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the
current increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus
controls the frequency.

The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined

maximum level, of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts-off the
current supply from supply source 1 and switches to the supply source 2.
The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the integrator so
that its output drops linearly with time. When the output attains a
predetermined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and
switches on to the current supply source. The output of the integrator is a
triangular wave whose frequency depends on the current supplied by the
constant current supply sources. The comparator output provides a square
wave of the same frequency as output. The resistance diode network
changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and
produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.

Signal Generators

The signal generator, like an oscillator, is a source of sinusoidal signals but

the signal generator is also capable of modulating its sinusoidal output
signal with other signals. This is the main difference between the two
instruments (signal generator and oscillator). When the signal generators
are employed for producing an unmodulated sinusoidal output they are
said to be producing CW (continuous height wave) signal. When the
produced output signal is modulated, the modulating waveforms may be
either externally applied sine-waves, square waves, triangular waves,
pulses or more complex signals, as well as internally generated sinewaves. Amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) may be
used. Normally amplitude (AM) modulation is employed. Principles of
amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) are illustrated
in the figure shown below.

Signal generators are primarily employed for providing appropriate

signals for calibration, testing and troubleshooting of the amplifier circuits
used in communication, electronics such as radio and television amplifiers.
They are also employed for measurement of characteristics of antennas
and transmission lines.

Block diagram of a signal generator is shown in the figure below.

An RF oscillator is employed for generating a carrier waveform whose
frequency can be adjusted typically from about 100 kHz to 30 MHz. Carrier
wave frequency can be varied and indicated with the help of a range
selector switch and a vernier dial setting. Range is selected by employing
frequency dividers. Frequency stability of oscillator is kept very high at all
frequency ranges.Following measures are taken in order to achieve stable
frequency output.
Frequency of output voltage changes with the change in supply voltage so
regulated power supply is used.
Buffer amplifiers are used to isolate the oscillator circuit from output
circuit so that any change in the circuit connected to the output does not
affect the frequency and amplitude of the oscillator output.
Temperature also causes change in oscillator frequency, so temperature
compensating devices are used.
Q-factor of L-C circuit should be very high, say above 20,000. This can be
achieved by employing quartz crystal oscillator in place of L-C oscillator.
An audio-frequency modulating signal is generated in another very stable
oscillator, called the modulation oscillator. Provision is made in the
modulation oscillator for changing the frequency and the amplitude of the
signal being generated.
In this oscillator provision is also made to get various types of waveforms
such as the square, triangular waves or pulses. The radio-frequency and
the modulation-frequency signals are fed to a wide-band amplifier, called
the output amplifier. Percentage of modulation ( can also be adjusted and
it is indicated by the meter.
Modulation level can be adjusted upto 95% by a control device. The output
of the amplifier is then fed to an attenuator and finally the signal goes to
output of signal generator. Output meter is provided to read the final
output signal.
The accuracy to which the frequency of the RF oscillator is known is an
important specification of the signal generator performance. Most
laboratory type models are usually calibrated to be within 0.5 1.0% of
the dial setting. This accuracy is usually sufficient for most measurements.
For greater accuracy, if needed, a crystal oscillator, whose frequency is

known to be within 0.01% or better, may be used as an internal RF

calibration source.
Another key specification of signal generators is their amplitude stability.
It is very important that the amplitude of the output signal remains
constant as the RF frequency is varied.

Sweep-Frequency Generator
A sweep frequency generator is a special type of signal generator which
generates a sinusoidal output whose frequency is automatically varied or
swept between two selected frequencies. One complete cycle of the
frequency variation is called a sweep. The rate at which the frequency is
varied can be either linear or logarithmic, depending upon the design of a
particular instrument. However the amplitude of the signal output is
designed to remain constant over the entire frequency range of the
sweep.
Sweep-frequency generators are primarily employed for measurement of
responses of amplifiers, filters, and electrical components over various
frequency bands. The frequency range of a sweep-frequency generator
usually extends over three bands, 0.001 Hz 100 kHz (low frequency to
audio), 100 kHz 1,500 MHz (RF range), and 1-200 GHz (microwave
range). Performance of measurement of bandwidth over a wide frequency
range with a manually tuned oscillator is a time-consuming task. With the
use of a sweep-frequency generator, a sinusoidal signal that is
automatically swept between two chosen frequencies can be applied to
the circuit under test and its response against frequency can be displayed
on an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder.
Thus the measurement time and effort is considerably reduced. Sweep
generators may also be employed for checking and repairing ox amplifiers
used in TV and radar receivers.
The block diagram of an electronically tuned sweep frequency generator is
shown in the figure below.
Electronically tuned sweep generator
The main component of a sweep-frequency generator is a master
oscillator, usually

The main component of a sweep-frequency generator is a master

oscillator, usually an RF type, with several operating ranges which are
selected by a range switch. The frequency of the output signal of the
signal generator may be varied either mechanically or electronically.
In the mechanically varied models, the frequency of the output signal of
the master oscillator is varied (tuned) by a motor driven capacitor.
In the electronically tuned models, the frequency of the master oscillator
is kept fixed and a varying frequency signal is produced in another
oscillator, called the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The VCO contains
an element whose capacitance depends upon the voltage applied across
it. This element is employed for varying the frequency of the sinusoidal
output of the VCO. The output of the VCO is then combined with the
output of the master oscillator in a special electronic device, called the
mixer. The output of the mixer is sinusoidal, whose frequency depends on
the difference of frequencies of the output signals of the master oscillator
and VCO. For example, if the master oscillator frequency is fixed at 10.00
MHz and the variable frequency is varied between 10.01 MHz to 35 MHz,
the mixer will give sinusoidal output whose frequency is swept from 10
KHz to 25 MHz.
The sweep rates of sweep frequency generators can be adjusted to vary
from 100 to 0.01 seconds per sweep. A voltage varying linearly or
logarithmically according to sweep rate can be used for driving the X-axis
of an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder synchronously. In the electronically
tuned sweep generators, the same voltage which drives the VCO serves as
this voltage.

The frequency of various points along the frequency-response curve can

be interpolated from the values of the end frequencies if it is known how
does the frequency vary (i.e., linearly or logarithmically). For more
accuracy markers* can be employed.
Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

The beat frequency oscillator used to be the most common type of

oscillator to give variable frequency output in the audio-frequency (AF)
range. It gives a very large frequency range with a single dial rotation
and, therefore, it is mostly used when it is desired to cover a very large
frequency range with a single dial rotation.The block diagram of a beatfrequency oscillator (BFO) is shown in the figure below.

It consists of two RF oscillatorsone gives fixed frequency and the other

one variable frequency and slightly different from that produced by the
former. The outputs of both these oscillators are applied simultaneously to
a heterodyning or mixer device. At the output of the mixer we get the sum
and difference terms of frequencies f1 and f2. It is so arranged that the
difference terms of frequencies f1 and f2 lies in the audio-frequency
range. All the RF components, leaving only the audio-frequency difference
component, are removed in the RF filter. Audio-frequency output is then
amplified in the AF amplifier.
The practical value of a beat frequency oscillator arises from the fact that
a small or moderate percentage variation in the frequency of one of the
individual oscillators (such as can be had by the rotation of the shaft
controlling a variable tuning capacitor) varies the beat or difference
output continuously from a few Hz to throughout the entire audiofrequency range. At the same time, the amplitude of the difference
frequency output is largely constant as frequency is varied.
Frequency stability of the individual oscillators is important, because a
slight change in their relative frequency would cause a relatively large
change in the difference frequency. To minimize the drift of the difference

frequency with time, the individual oscillators should have high inherent
stability with respect to variations in temperature and to supply voltage
variations.
The two RF oscillators must be completely isolated from each other. If
coupling of any sort exists between them, they will synchronize when the
difference is small. Hence, low values of difference frequencies are
impossible to be obtained, and in addition cause interaction between the
oscillators that result in a highly distorted waveshape. To reduce
distortion in the output, one of the voltages applied to the mixer
(preferably the one derived from the fixed frequency oscillator) should be
considerably smaller than the voltage derived from the other oscillator,
and preferably free from harmonics.
Beat frequency oscillators are usually affected with spurious beat notes,
called the whistles. These effects are usually caused by cross-modulation
in the AF amplifier between high order RF harmonics produced by the
mixer. These spurious whistles often appear when the output frequency is
high. Whistles can be eliminated by operating the mixer so as to minimize
the generation of RF harmonics, and by using a filter and shielding to
prevent the harmonics that are generated in a mixer from reaching the
amplifier circuit.
Beat frequency audio-oscillator because of its complicated circuit has
become obsolete now and Wien bridge oscillator has taken its place, which
has already been described.

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope (abbreviated sometimes as scope or O-scope) is a type of
electronic test instrument that allows signal voltages to be viewed,
usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or of some other
voltage (horizontal axis). Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on its
vertical axis, any other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be
displayed as well. In most instances, oscilloscopes show events that
repeat with either no change, or change slowly. The oscilloscope is one of
the most versatile and widely-used electronic instruments.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used when it is desired to observe the exact
wave shape of an electrical signal. In addition to the amplitude of the
signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion and measure frequency, time
between two events (such as pulse width or pulse rise time), and relative
timing of two related signals. Some modern digital oscilloscopes can
analyze and display the spectrum of a repetitive event. Special-purpose

oscilloscopes, called spectrum analyzers, have sensitive inputs and can

display spectra well into the GHz range. A few oscilloscopes that accept
plug-ins can display spectra in the audio range.
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering,
telecommunications, and industry. General-purpose instruments are used
for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work. Specialpurpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing an
automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat
as an electrocardiogram.

Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display

element and linear amplifiers for signal processing, but modern
oscilloscopes can have LCD or LED screens, fast analog-to-digital
converters and digital signal processors. Although not as commonplace,
some oscilloscopes used storage CRTs to display single events for a limited
time. Oscilloscope peripheral modules for general purpose laptop or
desktop personal computers use the computer's display, and can convert
them into useful and flexible test instruments. Description
Display and general external appearance
A typical oscilloscope has a display screen, numerous input connectors,
and control knobs and buttons on the front panel. Portable instruments
are small enough to carry to a work site and may even be battery
operated. Laboratory grade oscilloscopes, especially old instruments using
vacuum tubes, are bench-top devices. Special purpose oscilloscopes may
be permanently mounted in a rack. To aid measurement, a grid called the
graticule is superimposed on the face of the screen. Each square in the
graticule is known as a (major) division.
Size and portability
Large bench-top oscilloscopes were sometimes mounted on carts to allow
sharing one expensive instrument among several work areas. Miniaturized
oscilloscopes were of great value for field service equipment repair.
Nowadays even a very capable laboratory instrument can be lifted by a
single person, and hand-held digital oscilloscopes are made by several
manufacturers.
Inputs
The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is
usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or UHF type. Binding posts or
banana plugs may be used for lower frequencies. If the signal source has

its own coaxial connector, then a simple coaxial cable is used; otherwise, a
specialised cable called a "scope probe", supplied with the oscilloscope, is
used. In general, for routine use, an open wire test lead for connecting to
the point being observed is not satisfactory, and a probe is generally
necessary. General-purpose oscilloscopes have a standardised input
resistance of 1 megohm in parallel with a capacitance of around 20
picofarads. This allows the use of standard oscilloscope probes. Scopes for
use with very high frequencies may have 50-ohm inputs, which must be
either connected directly to a 50-ohm signal source or used with Z0 or
active probes.
Less-frequently-used inputs include one (or two) for triggering the sweep,
horizontal deflection for X-Y mode displays, and trace
brightening/darkening, sometimes called "Z-axis" inputs.
Probes
Open wire test leads are likely to pick up interference, and their
capacitance at the probing end is likely to disturb the circuit/device being
examined. They are appropriate only for low frequencies and lowimpedance devices. Nearly always, probes made for 'scope use are the
ordinary means of connecting to the device being examined. The probe
cable is a special coaxial type (with a resistive center conductor to damp
out ringing), with quite-effective shielding. Its capacitance is greater than
that of an open wire, and in some cases, such a probe is satisfactory.
However, a typical 'scope probe contains a 9-megohm series resistor
shunted by a low-value capacitor; combined with the input resistance and
capacitance of a standard 'scope input, the probe and the 'scope input
form a fairly-accurate 10:1 attenuator that (up to a certain bandwidth) is
frequency-independent. This degrades the 'scope's sensitivity by a factor
of 10, but the capacitance at the probe tip as only a few pF (picofarads),
which is not enough to disturb many typical circuits. (Nevertheless, the
reactance of even that few pF is significantly low at high frequencies
within the probe and 'scope's bandwidth.) In the great majority of cases,
the loss of sensitivity in order to gain less disturbance to the circuit being
observed is very worth while.
Attenuator probes do not necessarily match the input of a given 'scope,
and their capacitance needs to be adjusted if they are connected to a
different 'scope. As well, they should be checked periodically even when
not moved. They are checked and if necessary adjusted by looking at a
square wave with a quite-flat top and bottom. When properly adjusted,
the horizontal trace of the square wave does not tilt either upward or
downward. Because the probe, combined with the 'scope input, forms a

frequency-compensated attenuator, this procedure is often called

"compensating" a probe. Any decent 'scope has an output jack that
provides a known-amplitude square wave with excellent shape for
checking and adjusting probes.
Probes with 10:1 attenuation are by far the most common; for large
signals (and slightly-less capacitive loading), 100:1 probes are not rare.
There are also probes that contain switches to select 10:1 or direct (1:1)
ratios, but one must be aware that the 1:1 setting has significant
capacitance (tens of pF) at the probe tip, because the whole cable's
capacitance is now directly connected.
Good 'scopes allow for probe attenuation, easily showing effective
sensitivity at the probe tip. Some of the best ones have indicator lamps
behind translucent windows in the panel to prompt the user to read
effective sensitivity. The probe connectors (modified BNC's) have an extra
contact to define the probe's attenuation. (A certain value of resistor,
connected to ground, "encodes" the attenuation.)
There are special high-voltage probes which also form compensated
attenuators with the 'scope input; the probe body is physically large, and
one made by Tektronix requires partly filling a canister surrounding the
series resistor with volatile liquid fluorocarbon to displace air. At the
'scope end is a box with several waveform-trimming adjustments. For
safety, a barrier disc keeps one's fingers distant from the point being
examined. Maximum voltage is in the low tens of kV. (Observing a highvoltage ramp can create a staircase waveform with steps at different
points every repetition, until the probe tip is in contact. Until then, a tiny
arc charges the probe tip, and its capacitance holds the voltage (open
circuit). As the voltage continues to climb, another tiny arc charges the tip
further.)
There are also current probes, with cores that surround the conductor
carrying current to be examined. One type has a hole for the conductor,
and requires that the wire be passed through the hole; it's for semipermanent or permanent mounting. However, other types, for testing,
have a two-part cores that permit them to be placed around a wire. Inside
the probe, a coil wound around the core provides a current into an
appropriate load, and the voltage across that load is proportional to
current. However, this type of probe can sense AC, only.
A more-sophisticated probe (originally made by Tektronix) includes a
magnetic flux sensor (Hall-effect) in the magnetic circuit. The probe
connects to an amplifier, which feeds (low frequency) current into the coil
to cancel the sensed field; the magnitude of that current provides the low-

frequency part of the current waveform, right down to DC. The coil still
picks up high frequencies. There is a combining network akin to a
loudspeaker crossover network.
The trace
In its simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly draws a horizontal line
called the trace across the middle of the screen from left to right. One of
the controls, the timebase control, sets the speed at which the line is
drawn, and is calibrated in seconds or decimal fractions of a second per
division. If the input voltage departs from zero, the trace is deflected
either upwards (normally for positive polarity) or downwards (negative).
Another control, the vertical control, sets the scale of the vertical
deflection, and is calibrated in volts per division. The resulting trace is a
plot of voltage against time, with the more distant past on the left and the
more recent past on the right.
Front panel controls
Focus control
This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain the sharpest, most-detailed trace.
In practice, focus needs to be adjusted slightly when observing quitedifferent signals, which means that it needs to be an external control.
Flat-panel displays do not need a focus control; their sharpness is always
optimum.
Intensity control
This adjusts trace brightness. Slow traces on CRT 'scopes need less, and
fast ones, especially if they don't repeat very often, require more. On flat
panels, however, trace brightness is essentially independent of sweep
speed, because the internal signal processing effectively synthesizes the
display from the digitized data.
Beam finder
Modern 'scopes have direct-coupled deflection amplifiers, which means
the trace could be deflected off-screen. They also might have their CRT
beam blanked without the operator knowing it. In such cases, the screen
is blank. To help in restoring the display quickly and without
experimentation, the beam finder circuit overrides any blanking and
ensures that the beam will not be deflected off-screen; it limits the
deflection. With a display, it's usually very easy to restore a normal
display. (While active, beam-finder circuits might temporarily distort the
trace severely, however this is acceptable.)

Graticule
the graticule is a grid of squares that serve as reference marks for
measuring the displayed trace. These markings, whether located directly
on the screen or on a removable plastic filter, usually consist of a 1 cm
grid with closer tick marks (often at 2 mm) on the centre vertical and
horizontal axis. One expects to see ten major divisions across the screen;
the number of vertical major divisions varies. Comparing the grid
markings with the waveform permits one to measure both voltage
(vertical axis) and time (horizontal axis). Frequency can also be
determined by measuring the waveform period and calculating its
reciprocal.
On old and lower-cost CRT 'scopes the graticule is a sheet of plastic, often
with light-diffusing markings and concealed lamps at the edge of the
graticule. The lamps had a brightness control. Higher-cost instruments
have the graticule marked on the inside face of the CRT, to eliminate
parallax errors; better ones also had adjustable edge illumination with
diffusing markings. (Diffusing markings appear bright.) Digital 'scopes,
however, generate the graticule markings on the display in the same way
as the trace.
External graticules also protect the glass face of the CRT from accidental
impact. Some CRT 'scopes with internal graticules have an unmarked
tinted sheet plastic light filter to enhance trace contrast; this also serves
to protect the faceplate of the CRT.
Accuracy and resolution of measurements using a graticule is relatively
limited; better 'scopes sometimes have movable bright markers on the
trace that permit internal circuits to make more refined measurements.
Both calibrated vertical sensitivity and calibrated horizontal time are set
in 1 - 2 - 5 - 10 steps. This leads, however, to some awkward
interpretations of minor divisions. At 2, each of the five minor divisions is
0.4, so one has to think 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6, which is rather awkward.
One Tektronix plug-in used a 1 - 2.5 - 5 - 10 sequence, which simplified
estimating. The "2.5" didn't look as "neat", but was very welcome.
Timebase Controls
These select the horizontal speed of the CRT's spot as it creates the trace;
this process is commonly referred to as the sweep. In all but the leastcostly modern 'scopes, the sweep speed is selectable and calibrated in
units of time per major graticule division. Quite a wide range of sweep
speeds is generally provided, from seconds to as fast as picoseconds (in
the fastest 'scopes) per division. Usually, a continuously-variable control

(often a knob in front of the calibrated selector knob) offers uncalibrated

speeds, typically slower than calibrated. This control provides a range
somewhat greater than that of consecutive calibrated steps, making any
speed available between the extremes.
Holdoff control
Found on some better analog 'scopes, this varies the time (holdoff) during
which the sweep circuit ignores triggers. It provides a stable display of
some repetitive events in which some triggers would create confusing
displays. It is usually set to minimum, because a longer time decreases
the number of sweeps per second, resulting in a dimmer trace.
Vertical sensitivity, coupling, and polarity controls
To accommodate a wide range of input amplitudes, a switch selects
calibrated sensitivity of the vertical deflection. Another control, often in
front of the calibrated-selector knob, offers a continuously-variable
sensitivity over a limited range from calibrated to less-sensitive settings.
Often, but not always, the observed signal is offset by a steady
component, and only the changes are of interest. A switch (AC position)
connects a capacitor in series with the input that passes only the changes
(provided that they are not too slow -- "slow" would mean visible).
However, when the signal has a fixed offset of interest, or changes quite
slowly, the input is connected directly (DC switch position). Any decent
'scope displays DC. For convenience, to see where zero volts input
currently shows on the screen, many 'scopes have a third switch position
(GND) that disconnects the input and grounds it. Often, in this case, the
user centers the trace with the Vertical Position control.
Better 'scopes have a polarity selector. Normally, a positive input moves
the trace upward, but this permits inverting -- positive deflects the trace
downward.
Horizontal sensitivity control
This control is found only on more elaborate 'scopes; it offers adjustable
sensitivity for external horizontal inputs.
Vertical position control
Moves the whole displayed trace up and down. Often used to set the noinput trace exactly on the center line of the graticule, but permits
offsetting vertically by a limited amount. With direct coupling, can
compensate for a limited DC component of an input.

Horizontal position control

Moves the display sidewise. Usually sets the left end of the trace at the
left edge of the graticule, but can displace the whole trace when desired.
Also moves X-Y mode traces sidewise in some 'scopes, and can
compensate for a limited DC component as for vertical position.
Dual-trace controls
Each input channel usually has its own set of sensitivity, coupling, and
position controls, although some four-trace 'scopes have only mimimal
controls for their third and fourth channels.
Dual-trace 'scopes have a mode switch to select either channel alone, both
channels, or (in some 'scopes) an X-Y display, which uses the second
channel for X deflection. When both channels are displayed, the type of
channel switching can be selected on some 'scopes; on others, the type
depends upon timebase setting. If manually selectable, channel switching
can be free-running (asynchronous), or between consecutive sweeps.
Some Philips dual-trace analog 'scopes had a fast analog multiplier, and
provided a display of the product of the input channels.
Multiple-trace 'scopes have a switch for each channel to enable or disable
display of that trace's signal.
Delayed-sweep controls
These include controls for the delayed-sweep timebase, which is
calibrated, and often also variable. The slowest speed is several steps
faster than the slowest main sweep speed, although the fastest is
generally the same. A calibrated multiturn delay time control offers wide
range, high resolution delay settings; it spans the full duration of the main
sweep, and its reading corresponds to graticule divisions (but with much
finer precision). Its accuracy is also superior to that of the display.
A switch selects display modes: Main sweep only, with a brightened region
showing when the delayed sweep is advancing, delayed sweep only, or (on
some 'scopes) a combination mode.
Good CRT 'scopes include a delayed-sweep intensity control, to allow for
the dimmer trace of a much-faster delayed sweep that nevertheless occurs
only once per main sweep. Such 'scopes also are likely to have a trace
separation control for multiplexed display of both the main and delayed
sweeps together.
Sweep trigger controls

A switch selects the Trigger Source. It can be an external input, one of the
vertical channels of a dual or multiple-trace 'scope, or the AC line (mains)
frequency. Another switch enables or disables Auto trigger mode, or
selects single sweep, if provided in the 'scope. Either a spring-return
switch position or a pushbutton arms single sweeps.
A Level control varies the voltage on the waveform which generates a
trigger, and the Slope switch selects positive-going or negative-going
polarity at the selected trigger level.
Basic types of sweeps
Triggered sweeps
Type 465 Tektronix oscilloscope. This was a very popular analog
oscilloscope, portable, and is an excellent representative example.
To display events with unchanging or slowly (visibly) changing waveforms,
but occurring at times that may or may not be evenly spaced, modern
oscilloscopes have triggered sweeps. Compared to simpler 'scopes with
sweep oscillators that are always running, triggered-sweep 'scopes are
markedly more versatile.

A triggered sweep starts at a selected point on the signal, providing a

stable display. In this way, triggering allows the display of periodic signals
such as sine waves and square waves, as well as nonperiodic signals such
as single pulses, or pulses that don't recur at a fixed rate.
With triggered sweeps, the scope will blank the beam and start to reset
the sweep circuit each time the beam reaches the extreme right side of
the screen. For a period of time, called holdoff, (extendable by a frontpanel control on some better 'scopes), the sweep circuit resets completely
and ignores triggers. Once holdoff expires, the next trigger starts a
sweep. The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching some
user-specified threshold voltage (trigger level) in the specified direction
(going positive or going negative -- trigger polarity).
In some cases, variable holdoff time can be really useful to make the
sweep ignore interfering triggers that occur before the events one wants
to observe. In the case of repetitive, but quite-complex waveforms,
variable holdoff can create a stable display that can't otherwise practically
be obtained.
Automatic sweep mode

Triggered sweeps can offer a blank screen if there are no triggers. To

avoid this, these sweeps include a timing circuit (millisecond range) that
generates free-running triggers to provide a trace. Once triggers arrive,
this timer stops providing pseudo-triggers. For observing low repetition
rates, this mode can be de-selected.
Recurrent sweeps
If the input signal is periodic, the sweep repetition rate can be adjusted to
display a few cycles of the waveform. Early (tube) 'scopes and lowest-cost
'scopes have sweep oscillators that run continuously, and are
uncalibrated. Such oscilloscopes are very simple, comparatively
inexpensive, and were useful in radio servicing and some TV servicing.
Measuring voltage or time is possible, but only with extra equipment, and
is quite inconvenient. They are primarily qualitative instruments.
They have a few (widely spaced) frequency ranges, and relatively widerange continuous frequency control within a given range. In use, the
sweep frequency is set to slightly lower than some submultiple of the
input frequency, to display typically at least two cycles of the input signal
(so all details are visible). A very simple control feeds an adjustable
amount of the vertical signal (or possibly, a related external signal) to the
sweep oscillator. The signal triggers beam blanking and a sweep retrace
sooner than it would occur free-running, and the display becomes stable.
Single sweeps
Some 'scopes offer these -- the sweep circuit is manually armed (typically
by a pushbutton or equivalent) "Armed" means it's ready to respond to a
trigger. Once the sweep is complete, it resets, and will not sweep until rearmed. This mode, combined with a 'scope camera, captures single-shot
events.
Types of trigger include:
external trigger, a pulse from an external source connected to a dedicated
input on the scope.
edge trigger, an edge-detector that generates a pulse when the input
signal crosses a specified threshold voltage in a specified direction. These
are the most-common types of triggers; the level control sets the
threshold voltage, and the slope control selects the direction (negative or
positive-going). (The first sentence of the description also applies to the
inputs to some digital logic circuits; those inputs have fixed threshold and
polarity response.)

video trigger, a circuit that extracts synchronizing pulses from video

formats such as PAL and NTSC and triggers the timebase on every line, a
specified line, every field, or every frame. This circuit is typically found in
a waveform monitor device, although some better 'scopes include this
function.
delayed trigger, which waits a specified time after an edge trigger before
starting the sweep. As described under delayed sweeps, a trigger delay
circuit (typically the main sweep) extends this delay to a known and
adjustable interval. In this way, the operator can examine a particular
pulse in a long train of pulses.
Some recent designs of 'scopes include more sophisticated triggering
schemes; these are described toward the end of this article.
Delayed sweeps
These are found on more-sophisticated 'scopes, which contain a second
set of timebase circuits for a delayed sweep. A delayed sweep provides a
very-detailed look at some small selected portion of the main timebase.
The main timebase serves as a controllable delay, after which the delayed
timebase starts. This can start when the delay expires, or can be triggered
(only) after the delay expires. Ordinarily, the delayed timebase is set for a
faster sweep, sometimes much faster, such as 1000:1. At extreme ratios,
jitter in the delays on consecutive main sweeps degrades the display, but
delayed-sweep triggers can overcome that.
The display shows the vertical signal in one of several modes -- the main
timebase, or the delayed timebase only, or a combination. When the
delayed sweep is active, the main sweep trace brightens while the delayed
sweep is advancing. In one combination mode, provided only on some
'scopes, the trace changes from the main sweep to the delayed sweep
once the delayed sweep starts, although less of the delayed fast sweep is
visible for longer delays. Another combination mode multiplexes
(alternates) the main and delayed sweeps so that both appear at once; a
trace separation control displaces them.
Dual and multiple-trace oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes with two vertical inputs, referred to as dual-trace 'scopes,
are extremely useful and commonplace. Using a single-beam CRT, they
time-multiplex the inputs, usually switching between them fast enough to
display two traces apparently at once. Less common are 'scopes with more
traces; four inputs are common among these, but a few (Kikusui, for one)
offered a display of the sweep trigger signal if desired. Some multi-trace
'scopes use the external trigger input as an optional vertical input, and

some have third and fourth channels with only minimal controls. In all
cases, the inputs, when independently displayed, are time-multiplexed,
but dual-trace 'scopes often can add their inputs to display a real-time
analog sum. (Inverting one channel provides a difference, provided that
neither channel is overloaded. This difference mode can provide a
moderate-performance differential input.)
Switching channels can be asynchronous, that is, free-running, with trace
blanking while switching, or after each horizontal sweep is complete.
Asynchronous switching is usually designated "Chopped", while sweepsynchronized is designated "Alt[ernate]". A given channel is alternately
connected and disconnected, leading to the term "chopped". Multi-trace
'scopes also switch channels either in Chopped or Alt modes.
In general, Chopped mode is better for slower sweeps. It's possible for the
internal chopping rate to be a multiple of the sweep repetition rate,
creating blanks in the traces, but in practice this is rarely a problem; the
gaps in one trace are overwritten by traces of the following sweep. A few
'scopes had a modulated chopping rate to avoid this occasional problem.
Alternate mode, however, is better for faster sweeps.
True dual-beam CRT 'scopes did exist, but were not common. One type
(Cossor, U.K.) had a beam-splitter plate in its CRT, and single-ended
deflection following the splitter. (More details are near the end of this
article; see "CRT Invention". Others had two complete electron guns,
requiring tight control of axial (rotational) mechanical alignment in
manufacturing the CRT. Beam-splitter types had horizontal deflection
common to both vertical channels, but dual-gun 'scopes could have
separate time bases, or use one time base for both channels. Multiple-gun
CRTs (up to ten guns!) were made in past decades. With ten guns, the
envelope (bulb) was cylindrical throughout its length.
The vertical amplifier
In an analog 'scope, the vertical amplifier acquires the signal[s] to be
displayed. In better 'scopes, it delays them by a fraction of a microsecond,
and provides a signal large enough to deflect the CRT's beam. That
deflection is at least somewhat beyond the edges of the graticule, and
more typically some distance off-screen. The amplifier has to have low
distortion to display its input accurately (it must be linear), and it has to
recover quickly from overloads. As well, its time-domain response has to
represent transients accurately -- minimal overshoot, rounding, and tilt of
a flat pulse top.
A vertical input goes to a frequency-compensated step attenuator to
reduce large signals to prevent overload. The attenuator feeds a low-level

stage (or a few), which in turn feed gain stages (and a delay-line driver if
there is a delay). Following are more gain stages, up to the final output
stage which develops a large signal swing (tens of volts, sometimes over
100 volts) for CRT electrostatic deflection.

In dual and multiple-trace 'scopes, an internal electronic switch selects the

relatively low-level output of one channel's amplifiers and sends it to the
following stages of the vertical amplifier, which is only a single channel, so
to speak, from that point on.
In free-running ("chopped") mode, the oscillator (which may be simply a
different operating mode of the switch driver) blanks the beam before
switching, and unblanks it only after the switching transients have
settled.
Part way through the amplifier is a feed to the sweep trigger circuits, for
internal triggering from the signal. This feed would be from an individual
channel's amplifier in a dual or multi-trace 'scope, the channel depending
upon the setting of the trigger source selector.
This feed precedes the delay (if there is one), which allows the sweep
circuit to unblank the CRT and start the forward sweep, so the CRT can
show the triggering event. High-quality analog delays add a modest cost
to a 'scope, and are omitted in 'scopes that are cost-sensitive.
The delay, itself, comes from a special cable with a pair of conductors
wound around a flexible magnetically-soft core. The coiling provides
distributed inductance, while a conductive layer close to the wires
provides distributed capacitance. The combination is a wideband
transmission line with considerable delay per unit length. Both ends of the
delay cable require matched impedances to avoid reflections.
X-Y mode
Most modern oscilloscopes have several inputs for voltages, and thus can
be used to plot one varying voltage versus another. This is especially
useful for graphing I-V curves (current versus voltage characteristics) for
components such as diodes, as well as Lissajous patterns. Lissajous
figures are an example of how an oscilloscope can be used to track phase
differences between multiple input signals. This is very frequently used in
broadcast engineering to plot the left and right stereophonic channels, to
ensure that the stereo generator is calibrated properly. Historically, stable
Lissajous figures were used to show that two sine waves had a relatively
simple frequency relationship, a numerically-small ratio. They also

indicated phase difference between two sine waves of the same

frequency.
Complete loss of signal in an X-Y display means that the CRT's beam
strikes a small spot, which risks burning the phosphor. Older phosphors
burned more easily. Some dedicated X-Y displays reduce beam current
greatly, or blank the display entirely, if there are no inputs present.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a measure of the range of frequencies that can be displayed;
it refers primarily to the vertical amplifier, although the horizontal
deflection amplifier has to be fast enough to handle the fastest sweeps.
The bandwidth of the 'scope is limited by the vertical amplifiers and the
CRT (in analog instruments) or by the sampling rate of the analog to
digital converter in digital instruments. The bandwidth is defined as the
frequency at which the sensitivity is 0.707 of the sensitivity at lower
frequency (a drop of 3 dB). The rise time of the fastest pulse that can be
resolved by the scope is related to its bandwidth approximately:
Bandwidth in Hz x rise time in seconds = 0.35 [2]
For example, a 'scope intended to resolve pulses with a rise time of 1
nanosecond would have a bandwidth of 350 MHz.
For a digital oscilloscope, a rule of thumb is that the continuous sampling
rate should be ten times the highest frequency desired to resolve; for
example a 20 megasample/second rate would be applicable for measuring
signals up to about 2 megahertz.
Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)
The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray
tube, a vertical amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and a power
supply. These are now called 'analog' scopes to distinguish them from the
'digital' scopes that became common in the 1990s and 2000s.
Before the introduction of the CRO in its current form, the cathode ray
tube had already been in use as a measuring device. The cathode ray tube
is an evacuated glass envelope, similar to that in a black-and-white
television set, with its flat face covered in a fluorescent material (the
phosphor). The screen is typically less than 20 cm in diameter, much
smaller than the one in a television set. Older CROs had round screens or
faceplates, while newer CRTs in better CROs have rectangular faceplates.
In the neck of the tube is an electron gun, which is a small heated metal
cylinder with a flat end coated with electron-emitting oxides. Close to it is

a much-larger-diameter cylinder carrying a disc at its cathode end with a

round hole in it; it's called a "grid" (G1), by historic analogy with amplifier
vacuum-tube grids. A small negative grid potential (referred to the
cathode) is used to block electrons from passing through the hole when
the electron beam needs to be turned off, as during sweep retrace or
when no trigger events occur.
However, when G1 becomes less negative with respect to the cathode,
another cylindrical electrode designated G2, which is hundreds of volts
positive referred to the cathode, attracts electrons through the hole. Their
trajectories converge as they pass through the hole, creating quite-small
diameter "pinch" called the crossover. Following electrodes ("grids"),
electrostatic lenses, focus this crossover onto the screen; the spot is an
image of the crossover.
Typically, the CRT runs at roughly -2 kV or so, and various methods are
used to correspondingly offset the G1 voltage. Proceeding along the
electron gun, the beam passes through the imaging lenses and first
anode, emerging with an energy in electron-volts equal to that of the
cathode. The beam passes through one set of deflection plates , then the
other, where it is deflected as required to the phosphor screen.
The average voltage of the deflection plates is relatively close to ground,
because they have to be directly connected to the vertical output stage.
By itself, once the beam leaves the deflection region, it can produce a
usefully-bright trace. However, for higher bandwidth CROs where the trace
may move more rapidly across the phosphor screen, a positive postdeflection acceleration ("PDA") voltage of over 10,000 volts is often used,
increasing the energy (speed) of the electrons that strike the phosphor.
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted by the phosphor into
visible light at the point of impact.
When switched on, a CRT normally displays a single bright dot in the
center of the screen, but the dot can be moved about electrostatically or
magnetically. The CRT in an oscilloscope always uses electrostatic
deflection. Ordinary electrostatic deflection plates can typically move the
beam roughly only 15 degrees or so off-axis, which means that 'scope CRTs
have long, narrow funnels, and for their screen size, are usually quite
long. It's the CRT length that makes CROs "deep", from front to back.
Modern flat-panel oscilloscopes have no need for such rather-extreme
dimensions; their shapes tend to be more like one kind of rectangular
lunchbox.
Between the electron gun and the screen are two opposed pairs of metal
plates called the deflection plates. The vertical amplifier generates a

potential difference across one pair of plates, giving rise to a vertical

electric field through which the electron beam passes. When the plate
potentials are the same, the beam is not deflected.
When the top plate is positive with respect to the bottom plate, the beam
is deflected upwards; when the field is reversed, the beam is deflected
downwards. The horizontal amplifier does a similar job with the other pair
of deflection plates, causing the beam to move left or right. This deflection
system is called electrostatic deflection, and is different from the
electromagnetic deflection system used in television tubes. In comparison
to magnetic deflection, electrostatic deflection can more readily follow
random and fast changes in potential, but is limited to small deflection
angles.
Common representations of deflection plates are misleading. For one, the
plates for one deflection axis are closer to the screen than the plates for
the other. Plates that are closer together provide better sensitivity, but
they also need to be extend far enough along the CRT's axis to obtain
adequate sensitivity. (The longer the time a given electron spends in the
field, the farther it's deflected.) However, closely-spaced long plates would
cause the beam to contact them before full amplitude deflection occurs, so
the compromise shape has them relatively close together toward the
cathode, and flared apart in a shallow vee toward the screen. They are not
flat in any but quite-old CRTs!
The timebase is an electronic circuit that generates a ramp voltage. This is
a voltage that changes continuously and linearly with time. When it
reaches a predefined value the ramp is reset and settles to its starting
value. When a trigger event is recognized, provided the reset process
(holdoff) is complete, the ramp starts again. The timebase voltage usually
drives the horizontal amplifier. Its effect is to sweep the screen end of the
electron beam at a constant speed from left to right across the screen,
then blank the beam and return its deflection voltages to the left, so to
speak, in time to begin the next sweep. Typical sweep circuits can take
significant time to reset; in some CROs, fast sweeps required more time to
retrace than to sweep.
Meanwhile, the vertical amplifier is driven by an external voltage (the
vertical input) that is taken from the circuit or experiment that is being
measured. The amplifier has a very high input impedance, typically one
megohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal source.
Attenuator probes reduce the current drawn even more. The amplifier
drives the vertical deflection plates with a voltage that is proportional to
the vertical input. Because the electrons have already been accelerated by
typically 2kV (roughly), this amplifier also has to deliver almost a hundred

volts, and this with a very wide bandwidth. The gain of the vertical
amplifier can be adjusted to suit the amplitude of the input voltage. A
positive input voltage bends the electron beam upwards, and a negative
voltage bends it downwards, so that the vertical deflection at any part of
the trace shows the value of the input at that time.
The response of any oscilloscope is much faster than that of mechanical
measuring devices such as the multimeter, where the inertia of the pointer
(and perhaps damping) slows down its response to the input.
Observing high speed signals, especially non-repetitive signals, with a
conventional CRO is difficult, due to non-stable or changing triggering
threshold which makes it hard to "freeze" the waveform on the screen.
This often requires the room to be darkened or a special viewing hood to
be placed over the face of the display tube. To aid in viewing such signals,
special oscilloscopes have borrowed from night vision technology,
employing a microchannel plate electron multiplier behind the tube face to
amplify faint beam currents.
Tektronix Model C-5A Oscilloscope Camera with Polaroid instant film pack
back.
Although a CRO allows one to view a signal, in its basic form it has no
means of recording that signal on paper for the purpose of
documentation. Therefore, special oscilloscope cameras were developed
to photograph the screen directly. Early cameras used roll or plate film,
while in the 1970s Polaroid instant cameras became popular. A P11 CRT
phosphor (visually blue) was especially effective in exposing film. Cameras
(sometimes using single sweeps) were used to capture faint traces.
The power supply is an important component of the scope. It provides low
voltages to power the cathode heater in the tube (isolated for high
voltage!), and the vertical and horizontal amplifiers as well as the trigger
and sweep circuits. Higher voltages are needed to drive the electrostatic
deflection plates, which means that the output stage of the vertical
deflection amplifier has to develop large signal swings. These voltages
must be very stable, and amplifier gain must be correspondingly stable.
Any significant variations will cause errors in the size of the trace, making
the 'scope inaccurate.
Later analog oscilloscopes added digital processing to the standard
design. The same basic architecture - cathode ray tube, vertical and
horizontal amplifiers - was retained, but the electron beam was controlled
by digital circuitry that could display graphics and text mixed with the
analog waveforms. Display time for those was interleaved -- multiplexed -with waveform display in basically much the same way that a

dual/multitrace 'scope displays its channels. The extra features that this
system provides include:
on-screen display of amplifier and timebase settings;
voltage cursors - adjustable horizontal lines with voltage display;
time cursors - adjustable vertical lines with time display;
on-screen menus for trigger settings and other functions.
Dual-beam oscilloscope
A dual-beam oscilloscope was a type of oscilloscope once used to compare
one signal with another. There were two beams produced in a special type
of CRT.
Unlike an ordinary "dual-trace" oscilloscope (which time-shared a single
electron beam, thus losing about 50% of each signal), a dual-beam
oscilloscope simultaneously produced two separate electron beams,
capturing the entirety of both signals. One type (Cossor, UK) had a beamsplitter plate in its CRT, and single-ended vertical deflection following the
splitter. (There is more about this type of 'scope near the end of the this
article.)
Other dual-beam 'scopes had two complete electron guns, requiring tight
control of axial (rotational) mechanical alignment in manufacturing the
CRT. In the latter type, two independent pairs of vertical plates deflect the
beams. Vertical plates for channel A had no effect on channel B's beam.
Similarly for channel B, separate vertical plates existed which deflected
the B beam only.
On some dual-beam scopes the time base, horizontal plates and horizontal
amplifier were common to both beams (the beam-splitter CRT worked this
way). On more elaborate scopes like the Tektronix 556 there were two
independent time bases and two sets of horizontal plates and horizontal
amplifiers. Thus one could look at a very fast signal on one beam and a
slow signal on another beam.
Most multichannel 'scopes do not have multiple electron beams. Instead,
they display only one trace at a time, but switch the later stages of the
vertical amplifier between one channel and the other either on alternate
sweeps (ALT mode) or many times per sweep (CHOP mode). Very few true
dual-beam oscilloscopes were built.
With the advent of digital signal capture, true dual-beam oscilloscopes
became obsolete, as it was then possible to display two truly simultaneous

signals from memory using either the ALT or CHOP display technique, or
even possibly a raster display mode.
Analog storage oscilloscope
Trace storage is an extra feature available on some analog scopes; they
used direct-view storage CRTs. Storage allows the trace pattern that
normally decays in a fraction of a second to remain on the screen for
several minutes or longer. An electrical circuit can then be deliberately
activated to store and erase the trace on the screen.
The storage is accomplished using the principle of secondary emission.
When the ordinary writing electron beam passes a point on the phosphor
surface, not only does it momentarily cause the phosphor to illuminate,
but the kinetic energy of the electron beam knocks other electrons loose
from the phosphor surface. This can leave a net positive charge. Storage
oscilloscopes then provide one or more secondary electron guns (called
the "flood guns") that provide a steady flood of low-energy electrons
traveling towards the phosphor screen. Flood guns cover the entire
screen, ideally uniformly. The electrons from the flood guns are more
strongly drawn to the areas of the phosphor screen where the writing gun
has left a net positive charge; in this way, the electrons from the flood
guns re-illuminate the phosphor in these positively-charged areas of the
phosphor screen.
If the energy of the flood gun electrons is properly balanced, each
impinging flood gun electron knocks out one secondary electron from the
phosphor screen, thus preserving the net positive charge in the
illuminated areas of the phosphor screen. In this way, the image originally
written by the writing gun can be maintained for a long time -- many
seconds to a few minutes. Eventually, small imbalances in the secondary
emission ratio cause the entire screen to "fade positive" (light up) or
cause the originally-written trace to "fade negative" (extinguish). It is
these imbalances that limit the ultimate storage time possible.
Storage oscilloscopes (and large-screen storage CRT displays) of this type,
with storage at the phosphor, were made by Tektronix. Other companies,
notably Hughes, earlier made storage 'scopes with a more-elaborate and
costly internal storage structure.
Some oscilloscopes used a strictly binary (on/off) form of storage known
as "bistable storage". Others permitted a constant series of short,
incomplete erasure cycles which created the impression of a phosphor
with "variable persistence". Certain oscilloscopes also allowed the partial
or complete shutdown of the flood guns, allowing the preservation (albeit
invisibly) of the latent stored image for later viewing. (Fading positive or

fading negative only occurs when the flood guns are "on"; with the flood
guns off, only leakage of the charges on the phosphor screen degrades the
stored image.
Analogue Sampling Oscilloscope
The principle of sampling was developed during the 1930s in Bell
Laboratories by Nyquist, after whom the sampling theorem is named. The
first sampling oscilloscope was, however, developed in the late 1950s at
the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell in England by G.B.B.
Chaplin, A.R. Owens and A.J. Cole. ["A Sensitive Transistor Oscillograph
With DC to 300 Mc/s Response", Proc I.E.E. (London) Vol.106, Part B.
Suppl., No. 16, 1959].
The first sampling oscilloscope was an analog instrument, originally
developed as a front-end unit for a conventional oscilloscope. The need for
this instrument grew out of the requirement of nuclear scientists at
Harwell to capture the waveform of very fast repetitive pulses. The
current state-of-the-art oscilloscopes -- with bandwidths of typically 20
MHz -- were not able to do this and the 300 MHz effective bandwidth of
their analog sampling oscilloscope represented a considerable advance.
A short series of these 'front-ends' was made at Harwell and found much
use and Chaplin et al. patented the invention. Commercial exploitation of
this patent was ultimately done by the Hewlett-Packard Company (later
Agilent Technologies).
Sampling oscilloscopes achieve their large bandwidths by not taking the
entire signal at a time. Instead, only a sample of the signal is taken. The
samples are then assembled to create the waveform. This method can
only work for repetitive signals, not transient events. The idea of sampling
can be thought of as a stroboscopic technique. When using a strobe light,
only pieces of the motion are seen, but when enough of these images are
taken, the overall motion can be captured [4]
Digital oscilloscopes
While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages, digital
devices employ binary numbers which correspond to samples of the
voltage. In the case of digital oscilloscopes, an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) is used to change the measured voltages into digital information.
Waveforms are taken as a series of samples. The samples are stored,
accumulating until enough are taken in order to describe the waveform,
which are then reassembled for display. Digital technology allows the
information to be displayed with brightness, clarity, and stability. There
are, however, limitations as with the performance of any oscilloscope. The

highest frequency at which the oscilloscope can operate is determined by

the analog bandwidth of the front-end components of the instrument and
the sampling rate.
Digital oscilloscopes can be classified into three primary categories:
digital storage oscilloscopes, digital phosphor oscilloscopes, and digital
sampling oscilloscopes.[5][6]
Digital storage oscilloscope
A digital storage oscilloscope manufactured by Agilent Technologies
The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred
type for most industrial applications, although simple analog CROs are still
used by hobbyists. It replaces the unreliable storage method used in
analog storage scopes with digital memory, which can store data as long
as required without degradation. It also allows complex processing of the
signal by high-speed digital signal processing circuits.
The vertical input, instead of driving the vertical amplifier, is digitised by
an analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the
memory of a microprocessor. The data set is processed and then sent to
the display, which in early DSOs was a cathode ray tube, but is now more
likely to be an LCD flat panel. DSOs with color LCD displays are common.
The data set can be sent over a LAN or a WAN for processing or archiving.
The screen image can be directly recorded on paper by means of an
attached printer or plotter, without the need for an oscilloscope camera.
The scope's own signal analysis software can extract many useful timedomain features (e.g. rise time, pulse width, amplitude), frequency
spectra, histograms and statistics, persistence maps, and a large number
of parameters meaningful to engineers in specialized fields such as
telecommunications, disk drive analysis and power electronics.
Digital oscilloscopes are limited principally by the performance of the
analog input circuitry and the sampling frequency. In general, the
sampling frequency should be at least the Nyquist rate, double the
frequency of the highest-frequency component of the observed signal,
otherwise aliasing may occur.
Digital storage also makes possible another unique type of oscilloscope,
the equivalent-time sample scope. Instead of taking consecutive samples
after the trigger event, only one sample is taken. However, the
oscilloscope is able to vary its timebase to precisely time its sample, thus
building up the picture of the signal over the subsequent repeats of the
signal. This requires that either a clock or repeating pattern be provided.
This type of scope is frequently used for very high speed communication

because it allows for a very high "sample rate" and low amplitude noise
compared to traditional real-time scopes.
To sum this up: Advantages over the analog oscilloscope:
Brighter and bigger display with color to distinguish multiple traces
Equivalent time sampling and Average across consecutive samples or
scans lead to higher resolution down to V
Peak detection
Pre-trigger (events before the trigger occurs can be displayed)
Easy pan and zoom across multiple stored traces allows beginners to work
without a trigger
This needs a fast reaction of the display (some scopes have 1 ms delay)
The knobs have to be large and turn smoothly
Also slow traces like the temperature variation across a day can be
recorded
The memory of the oscilloscope can be arranged not only as a onedimensional list but also as a two-dimensional array to simulate a
phosphor screen. The digital technique allows a quantitative analysis (E.g.
Eye diagram)
Allows for automation, though most models lock the access to their
software
A disadvantage of digital oscilloscopes is the limited refresh rate of the
screen. On an analog oscilloscope, the user can get an intuitive sense of
the trigger rate simply by looking at the steadiness of the CRT trace. For a
digital oscilloscope, the screen looks exactly the same for any signal rate
which exceeds the screen's refresh rate. Additionally, it is sometimes hard
to spot "glitches" or other rare phenomena on the black-and-white screens
of standard digital oscilloscopes; the slight persistence of CRT phosphors
on analog scopes makes glitches visible even if many subsequent triggers
overwrite them. Both of these difficulties have been overcome recently by
"digital phosphor oscilloscopes," which store data at a very high refresh
rate and display it with variable intensity, to simulate the trace
persistence of a CRT scope.
A related type of analog sampling 'scope for displaying very fast,
repetitive waveforms sampled very quickly (fractional nanoseconds) and
held the samples long enough to be displayed by a narrow-band vertical

amplifier and a modest-performance CRT. A comparatively slow sweep on

the CRT corresponded with progressive tiny advancing sample times, so
that many samples created a waveform of the fast signal.
Later designs sampled at random times within the time span represented
by one sweep; the samples were displayed at horizontal positions
corresponding to the delay from sweep start.
Triggering used tunnel diodes and frequency dividers.
Digital sampling oscilloscopes
Digital sampling oscilloscopes operate on the same principle as analog
sampling oscilloscopes and like their analog partners, are of great use
when analyzing high frequency signals. That is, signals whose frequencies
are higher than the oscilloscope's sampling rate. These scopes can
measure signals an order of magnitude larger than any other scope. For
measuring repetitive signals, this type can have bandwidth and highspeed timing up to ten times higher than any other scope.
In order to achieve these abilities, the architecture of the digital sampling
oscilloscope is different from other scopes. In this case, the sample is
taken from the input signal before it is amplified or attenuated. Since the
sampling bridge converts the signal to a lower frequency, a low-bandwidth
amplifier is used. This configuration allows for the maximum bandwidth to
be attained. The high bandwidth, however, induces limitations on the
dynamic range of the oscilloscope. No amplifier or attenuator is present
before the sampling bridge, thus the signal can not be scaled and the
sampling bridge must be able to handle the full signal. The maximum
input voltage for digital sampling scopes is only about 3 V, while other
types can handle 500 V or more.[5][6]
Digital phosphor oscilloscopes
Digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPOs) are the most recently developed
type of digital scope. These were introduced by Tektronix in June 1998[7].
DPOs continue to grow in popularity due to their unequaled abilities.
DPOs employ a unique processing architecture in order to overcome the
limitations of DSOs and digital sampling oscilloscopes. This unique
architecture is a parallel processing setup rather than the serial
processing setups of the other two types of digital scopes. This allows the
ability to capture transient events while maintaining a large bandwidth.
Also, unlike other digital scopes, the use of parallel processing allows the
display to resemble that of analog scopes, permitting intensity
information to be seen in real time.

The first stage of the parallel-processing unit is a vertical amplifier, like

that of digital storage oscilloscopes. The second stage, continues to mimic
that of a DSO in that the signal is sent to an ADC. After the ADC however,
the processing architecture varies greatly from that of a DSO. A DSO
captures waveforms in a serial manner, which gives a sizable holdoff time
in which the scope can not record any activity. In this case, the speed of
the microprocessor limits the rate at which waveforms can be captured. A
DPO operates differently in that the digitized waveform is rasterized into a
digital phosphor database. Then about every 1/30th of a second, an image
of the signal is sent to the display. By directly rasterizing the data and
copying it to display memory from the digital phosphor database, the rate
determining step is no longer the speed of the microprocessor.
Though the name may lead one to believe that the DPO relies on a
chemical phosphor as does the analog oscilloscope, the phosphor is purely
electronic. A continually updated database is composed of many cells
which correspond to single pixels within the display. This way, each time
the cell is touched by the waveform intensity information is allowed to
build up. Also, the DPO can display this information in terms of contrasting
colors, unlike its analog counterpart.
The DPO allows the same information to be gained as an analog scope
with the advantage of having the data in a digital form. These scopes are
finding many applications in which they are now preferred.[5][6]
Mixed signal oscilloscopes
A mixed signal oscilloscope (or MSO) has two kinds of inputs, a small
number (typically two or four) of analog channels, and a larger number
(typically sixteen) of digital channels. These measurements are acquired
with a single time base, they are viewed on a single display, and any
combination of these signals can be used to trigger the oscilloscope.
An MSO combines all the measurement capabilities and the use model of a
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) with some of the measurement
capabilities of a logic analyzer. MSOs typically lack the advanced digital
measurement capabilities and the large number of digital acquisition
channels of full-fledged logic analyzers, but they are also much less
complex to use. Typical mixed-signal measurement uses include the
characterization and debugging of hybrid analog/digital circuits like:
embedded systems, Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), Digital-to-analog
converters (DACs), and control systems.
Hand held oscilloscopes

Hand held oscilloscope are useful for many test and field service
applications. Today, a hand held oscilloscope is usually a digital sampling
oscilloscope, using a liquid crystal display. Typically, a hand held
oscilloscope has two analog input channels, but four input channel
versions are also available. Some instruments combine the functions of a
digital multimeter with the oscilloscope. Usually lightweight with good
accuracy.

Cathode ray tube

the cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a
source of electrons) and a fluorescent screen, with internal or external
means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to create images
in the form of light emitted from the fluorescent screen. The image may
represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television,
computer monitor), radar targets and others.
The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, heavy,
and relatively fragile. Display technologies without these disadvantages,
such as flat plasma displays, liquid crystal displays, DLP, OLED displays
have replaced CRTs in many applications and are becoming increasingly
common as costs decline.
Oscilloscope CRTs
In oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the
magnetic deflection commonly used with television and other large CRTs.
The beam is deflected horizontally by applying an electric field between a
pair of plates to its left and right, and vertically by applying an electric
field to plates above and below.[4][5][6]
Phosphor persistence
Various phosphors are available depending upon the needs of the
measurement or display application. The brightness, color, and
persistence of the illumination depends upon the type of phosphor used
on the CRT screen. Phosphors are available with persistences ranging from
less than one microsecond to several seconds.[7] For visual observation of
brief transient events, a long persistence phosphor may be desirable. For
events which are fast and repetitive, or high frequency, a shortpersistence phosphor is generally preferable.[8]
Microchannel plate
When displaying fast one-shot events the electron beam must deflect very
quickly, with few electrons impinging on the screen; leading to a faint or

invisible display. Oscilloscope CRTs designed for very fast signals can give
a brighter display by passing the electron beam through a micro-channel
plate just before it reaches the screen. Through the phenomenon of
secondary emission this plate multiplies the number of electrons reaching
the phosphor screen, giving a significant improvement in writing rate
(brightness), and improved sensitivity and spot size as well.[9][10]
Graticules
Most oscilloscopes have a graticule as part of the visual display, to
facilitate measurements. The graticule may be permanently marked inside
the face of the CRT, or it may be a transparent external plate. External
graticules are typically made of glass or acrylic plastic. An internal
graticule provides an advantage in that it eliminates parallax error. Unlike
an external graticule, an internal graticule can not be changed to
accommodate different types of measurements.[11] Oscilloscopes
commonly provide a means for the graticule to be side-illuminated, which
improves its visibility when used in a darkened room or when shaded by a
camera hood.[12]
Color CRTs
Spectra of constituent blue, green and red phosphors in a common CRT
Color tubes use three different phosphors which emit red, green, and blue
light respectively. They are packed together in stripes (as in aperture
grille designs) or clusters called "triads" (as in shadow mask CRTs).[13]
Color CRTs have three electron guns, one for each primary color, arranged
either in a straight line or in a triangular configuration (the guns are
usually constructed as a single unit). A grille or mask absorbs the
electrons that would otherwise hit the wrong phosphor.[14] A shadow
mask tube uses a metal plate with tiny holes, placed so that the electron
beam only illuminates the correct phosphors on the face of the tube.[13]
Another type of color CRT uses an aperture grille to achieve the same
result.[14]
A common misconception is that the three electron beams are different
'colours'. They are not; the only difference between the beams is the
signals that they carry. If the 'red' beam were to fall onto the 'green'
phosphor, then green light would be produced.
Convergence in color CRTs
The three beams in color CRTs would not strike the screen at the same
point without convergence calibration. Instead, the set would need to be

manually adjusted to converge the three color beams together to maintain

color accuracy.[15]
Degaussing
Most CRT television sets and computer monitors have a built-in
degaussing (demagnetizing) coil, which upon power-up creates a brief,
alternating magnetic field which decays in strength over the course of a
few seconds. This degaussing field is strong enough to remove most cases
of shadow mask magnetization.[16]
Vector monitors
Vector monitors were used in early computer aided design systems and in
some late-1970s to mid-1980s arcade games such as Asteroids.[17] They
draw graphics point-to-point, rather than scanning a raster.
CRT resolution
Dot pitch defines the maximum resolution of the display, assuming deltagun CRTs. In these, as the scanned resolution approaches the dot pitch
resolution, moir appears, as the detail being displayed is finer than what
the shadow mask can render.[18] Aperture grille monitors do not suffer
from vertical moir, however, because their phosphor stripes have no
vertical detail. In smaller CRTs, these strips maintain position by
themselves, but larger aperture grille CRTs require one or two crosswise
(horizontal) support strips.[19]
Gamma
CRTs have a pronounced triode characteristic, which results in significant
gamma (a nonlinear relationship in an electron gun between applied video
voltage and light intensity).