M.

Zhu

Biology Research Task

Research Task Reproductive Processes in Animals and Plants

Compare and contrast external and internal fertilisation
Haploid gametes combine to form a diploid zygote.
External Fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
- Male and female gametes need to be produced and ready simultaneously
- Both gametes need to come into contact with each other
- Water needs to be present so male gametes can swim to female gamete
- Takes place externally
- Takes place inside body of
- Mostly done by aquatic animals
female animals, or female part
- Gametes released into
of sexually reproducing plants
surrounding water
- Male gamete is directly
- Millions of gametes are released
transferred to female gamete
- Number of female gametes
reduce, though male gamete still
as high

Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in

relation to the colonisation of terrestrial and aquatic
environments
External fertilisation would not be successful in terrestrial environments due to
the lack of water. Without the buoyancy of water, gametes would not be able to
travel very far, and thus remain unfertilised. Internal fertilisation enabled for the
colonisation of terrestrial environments as the watery environment needed for
the gametes to travel is provided by the females physiology. Without the need
for external water for fertilisation, internal fertilisation has allowed even the
driest terrestrial environments to be colonised
External fertilisation is successful in aquatic environments as the gametes are
able to be spread very far and wide, increasing the chances of meeting other
gametes. Furthermore, as zygotes are easily spread through the water, large
areas of water are able to be colonised. The success of external fertilisation
makes in preferable to internal fertilisation in aquatic environments.

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fl ora for

pollination, seed dispersal, and asexual reproduction with
reference to local examples
Pollination
Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperm plants. Fertilisation is
achieved though pollination when:
1. The pollen on the stigma sends a pollen tube down the style to the ovary

M.Zhu

Biology Research Task

2. The two nuclei of the pollen grain travel down the tube, where one
becomes the nucleus of the new tube cell, while the other nucleus divides
again and they both travel down the tube to the ovule
3. The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle
4. One of the nucleus fuses with the ovum to form a fertilised zygote while
the other fuses with the two other haploid nuclei on the ovule to form a
triploid cell.
Part of flower
Sepal
Petal
Corolla
Ovary
Ovule
Stigma
Style
Carpel
Anther
Stamen
Filament
Nectary

Function
Protect the unopened flower
May be brightly coloured to attract pollinators
All the petals of the flower attract pollinators
Contains ovules. Swells to produce fruit after fertilisation.
In seed plants, the female reproductive part that produces the
gamete
The top of the female part of the flower which collects pollen
grains
Narrow elongated part of the pistil between the ovary and
stigma. Grows the pollen tube
Contains the stigma, style and ovary
Produce male sex cells (pollen grains)
The male part of the flower
Supports anther to make it accessible to pollinators
Produces nectar which attracts pollinators

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Biology Research Task

Self-pollination involves pollen and stigma from the same plant. Self-pollination
can sometimes be prevented in some plants such as the casuarina by having
their male and female flowers on separate plants.
In cross pollination, the pollen of one plant is transferred to a stigma on another
plant of the same species via a pollinator.
Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal is advantageous in that it allows for a decrease in competition
with the same species for resources like space, light and nutrients. Furthermore,
species are more likely to survive dangers such as disease fire and
environmental change if they are located in a widespread area.
Seed dispersal can be achieved though
-

Wind Light seeds are easily carried in the wind, and may be helped by
extensions which catch the wind and act like parachutes. Eg. Conestick,
hovea, feather spear grass.
Animals Seed may be located within fruits, which attract other organisms
which ingest the seeds. As the organism travels, the seeds are passes out
in its faeces. Other seeds may also have hooks and spikes which catch
onto the coat of a passing animal. Eg. Lilly Pilly, Sheeps Burr
Self-propelling some seed pods burst when ripe, projecting the seeds
away from the parent plant. Others may simply roll away. Eg. Waratah,
Macadamia

Asexual reproduction
-

Binary Fission Occurs when two new individuals are produced each time
a unicellular organism undergoes mitosis
Spore formation Fungi and some ferns produce thousands of single celled
spores. Under suitable conditions, these spores will germinate to produce
a new organism.
Budding The parent undergoes mitosis to eventually form an outgrowth
which is a smaller replica of itself. The replica grows as a new organism,
but is attached to the parent. Eg. coral.
Vegetative propagation New individuals are produced from nodes on
stems and roots. Used by flowering plants and grasses.
Regeneration Involves the regrowth of body parts that have been lost or
removed. Becomes a form of asexual reproduction when the broken body
part grows to form a new organism.

Present information about fl owers of native species of

angiosperms to identify features that may be adaptations for wind
and insect/bird/mammal pollination

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Biology Research Task

Adaptations for:
-

Wind lack of characteristics which attract other organisms such as lack of

odour and nectar. Pollen dusters at the ends of stems catch pollen in the
wind.
Insect Insects prefer flowers with pale colours. Petals may have nectary
guides. Flowers tend to be quite small. Nectar provided, but lacks odour.
Bird Flowers with bright pink and red colours attract birds. Lack of petals,
with larger flowers located at the end of branches for easier access.
Mammal Large flowers which lack petals for easy access to nectar. Musty
yellow colour doesnt attract other pollinators. Strong odour attracts
mammals with good sense of smell.

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure

fertilisation and survival of the embryo and of the young after
birth
Mating behaviour is influenced by many factors including temperature,
availability of food, water levels and phases of the moon.
To ensure fertilisation, Australian fauna such as the bower bird, brolgas and
whales engage in courtship rituals to attract a mate so that their gametes can be
fertilised by a sexually mature individual. In aquatic environments, some fauna
such as sharks, whales and dolphins, the male gametes are deposited directly
into the female to ensure fertilisation.
Animal
Diamond
python

Kangaroo

Fertilisation and survival of

embryo
Internal fertilisation
Can live on land
Eggs have shells and develop
outside of body
Lays 30 eggs
Internal fertilisation
Partial development
Very short gestation period in
4

Survival of young
Produces many eggs
Coils around eggs and shivers
to create heat through friction
and keep eggs warm
Mother protects the eggs
After birth, underdeveloped
young crawls into mothers
pouch to continue

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Biology Research Task

the uterus ensures successful
development of embryo

Gastric
brooding frog

After external fertilisation,

mother swallows and incubates
eggs in her stomach
Digestive juices and acid are
not released in the stomach
and stomach movements stop

development.
Mother is able to change the
type of milk she produces to
suit the needs of each joey
The larvae develop safely in
the stomach of the mother
Developed froglets leave the
stomach through the mouth.

Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has

increased the chances of continuity of the species in the
Australian environment
These reproductive adaptations have evolved as a result of natural selection, so
that the current adaptations are most suited for the environment in which the
organism lives. Since these adaptations are well suited for the organism, this
ensures that they able to reproduce successfully, and thus increase the chance
of continuity of the species in the Australian environment.

Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is

advantageous with reference to specifi c Australian examples
Asexual reproduction refers to reproduction without the interaction of two sexes,
through mitosis. The offspring is genetically identical to the parent and other
offspring. Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of a male and female gamete,
which results in offspring which are genetically different.
Asexual reproduction is advantageous when the environmental conditions for an
organism are stable and favourable, because all the offspring would have all the
advantageous characteristics suited for the environment.
For example the moss Sphagnum cristatum has managed to colonise whole
valleys in the Australian Alps though asexual reproduction. As the sphagnum
stem grows and branches, the weight squashes the lower stem down which dies
at the base. Eventually the stem dies back to the branching point and the
original plant becomes two plants. Furthermore, small fragments that have been
broken off may also settle and grow. This allows for the survival of the species
and thus alpine bogs during periods when spores may not survive.

Defi nitions
Term
Angiosperm
Pollination

Definition
A flowering, fruit bearing plant or tree known for having
ovules/seeds develop within an enclosed ovary
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the mature stigma of
a plant
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Fertilisation
Seed dispersal
Gestation
Ovulation
Copulation

Biology Research Task

The process of fertilising an egg through the fusion of a male
and female gamete to form a zygote
The movement or transport of seeds away from the parent
plant
The process or period of developing inside the womb between
conception and birth
The discharge/release of ova or ovules from the ovary
Sexual intercourse. Sexual contact of a male with a receptive
female