History Seminar 18 April 2010 The Hoodlum Empire of Denver: An Adult Perspective on Juvenile Delinquency in Denver during the 1950s‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 1 On a typical night in 1953, a group of four young boys attacked Dickinson Branch Library and Lake Junior High School in Denver. They broke into each building and began to throw class records around, destroy books, bang on musical instruments, over tur desks, throw ink on the walls, and ransack anything valuable. Once their damage ‘was complete, they ignited each building on fire, charting offices, rooms, and papers. This was one story in Denver. Over the next few weeks, their story would appear in Denver newspapers where journalists criticized, accused, and angrily belittled these teenage punks. Denver's teenagers were fighting, setting public buildings on fire, stealing cars, sniffing glue and drinking; they were ignoring the traditional “leave it to beaver” social status quo that was typical of postwar society. This paper will analyze the adult society’s position and perception of juvenile delinquency and their reaction to this rising trend of underage crime that struck Denver during the 1950s. ‘Teenage delinquency was an enormous issue in the 1950s all across the United States. Switch blades, gangs, vandalism, thievery, sex, corrigibility, inappropriate clothing, and rock n° roll were all popular mainstreams of youth culture during this era that touched upon fears of adults across the nation, Crime was produced in all scenes and done by all types of people; the typical criminal portrayed in the media was the average white male, but even girls got involved. There was an influence of gangs, many recently relocated here from the California area, as well as a breed of Denver’s own who had been. slowly affecting the urban norm in Denver. In addition, non gang-related crime by teenagers was very prevalent, as seen in sock-hop riots, venue arson, library and public school attacks, and other juvenile crimes‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 2 Curfew was debated in Denver since adult society believed that if the kids weren’t allowed to be out passed a certain time, they wouldn’t be “up to no good.” Long into the night, Denver’s youth were fighting, cursing, stabbing, robbing, buming, or any other unacceptable acts, Society had high hopes for these young hoodlums, a common term used to describe delinquents. These hopes were mirrored through writings by court judges and psychologists who believed that juvenile delinquents could be cured of their illicit attivudes. D any others, however, saw them as the most serious threat to the Denver community and needed to be stopped. In many instances, kids were sent to correctional facilities to rid them of their evil ways. Yet, as the world saw in the coming 1960s, criminality was an impossible “disease” to cure. Tuvenile delinquency was considered the criminal behavior by persons in the middle and high school age range. According to the Denver Post, juvenile delinquency meant “kids in trouble.” However, the meaning of trouble in the 1950s had a different connotation than it would in current society; youths in trouble frightened the entire American moral and value system and threatened the balance of social norms since these kids were presumably destroying the nation from within. For the purposes of this essay, juvenile delinquency will be used as a term to describe any crime, whether itis as simple as having sex or as serious as arson, caused by a child, youth, or teenager. Newspapers of the time used “child,” “youth,” “teeners,” and “teenager,” interchangeably. Furthermore, they used terms such as “delinquents,” “hoodlums,” “punks,” “pranksters,” and others to describe youths in trouble. Although they all may have different connotations and definitions, for this essay they will be considered as one entity to portray their definitions according to how they were used in 1950s society.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 3 The types of teenagers that will be described are young, white males and when specified, young, white women. Race was not commonly seen in newspaper articles because white criminality was sought to be a larger issue and more of a menace to society. It was perceived that minority children would naturally misbehave, however, ill- mannered middle class white boys misbehaving was viewed as hontfic. ‘This paper will be broken down into subcategories by delinquent boys and then Getinquent girls. Boys committing crimes were viewed differently than girls; like the common saying goes, “Boys will be boys.” Yet, young women in trouble were breaking the gender sphere that women of the era were supposed to fall into making it much more ofa sensitive issue. Teenagers will be considered in two ways: as individuals and in groups or gangs. ‘The individual was analyzed by adults similarly to how they viewed gangs, however, the gang response was intensified. The adult view upon young women was further explored with an even more scrutinous eye. The types of adults in this paper are various and varied. There are journalists, police officers, judges and court officials, juvenile detention workers, and probation officers. These people generally dealt with juvenile delinquency as something to prevent. Furthermore, there were psychologists, who attempted to analyze the deeper issue of why Denver’s youth was misbehaving, Lastly, there are parents, who are often aiding police officers prevent, capture, and prosecute juvenile delinquents, but are also blamed by the other types of adults for raising misbehaving children. Regardless of which adult is being analyzed, all tried to place blame on someone other than themselves. Denver journalists described kids as being less vicious and less of a problem than other larger cities on the East coast.’ Most of the crimes caused by teenagers were thefts,‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 4 shoplifting, and burglaries, and gang involvement and participation was actually quite low. By the end of the 1950s, most gangs were nonexistent. In fact, by 1959, the number of children getting themselves into trouble had decreased. In 1957, 3,925 juveniles were arrested or questioned by police, but only 2,686 were sent to juvenile correction facilities. In 1958, 3,375 youths were arrested or questioned by police and only 2,537 were sent to Juvenile Hall; in 1959, 2,564 kids were arrested or questioned and only 1,944 were sent to a juvenile correction center.” This was the start of the rise of numbers of teenage crimes. Juvenile cases went up 50 percent from the normal number of trials." There was a rise in population, and it was believed that as Denver continued to expand, delinquency would only get worse. In 1956, juveniles set a new record of delinquency, committing nearly 800 more offenses than any 5 According to Denver Police previous year due to a large increase of population. Department records, 3,620 youths were handled in court, 2,726 were boys and 894 were girls. The previous year, 1955, there were 2,847 juvenile cases. Furthermore, there were 22,744 investigations by police of complaints that same year.” By the close of the 1940s, youth crime was on the rise. In February 1950, the Denver Post reported that juvenile delinquency had increased by twenty-two percent from the previous year.” According to the picce, there was a growing rate of unemployment in 1949 and this played a major part in the lives of working-class teenagers. This decline in employment was claimed to be responsible for the rise in teenage crime. In a report detailing the number of juvenile delinquent court cases in 1949, there were a total of 465 cases acted on by the court, In 1948, there were only 380.5The Hoodlum Empire of Denver $ The rise in criminal participation was due to various motives. First, there was a peak during and immediately after World War I of enrollment of students at industrial schools and boys reformatory schools, but these rates began to decline in 1949. Furthermore, adoption was decreasing. In 1949 there were 359 children adopted, compared to 131 cases in1936. The number of relinquishments by unwed mothers reached 406 in 1949 in comparison to the 141 in 1936. In 1946, there were 403 adoption cases and 437 children were surrendered by unwed mothers. Furthermore, money collected in the court registry in 1949 was $144,987 which was more than double of the total in 1936 at $68,157." Although officials admit that teenagers weren’t getting worse, the rise in juvenile delinquency was due to a large population increase, Schools were being overcrowded and a “split-session” class program was adopted in order to ensure that all students got an education, Classrooms were overcrowded so students would go for a certain amount of hours and then they would switch places with other students. This made it easier for youths to ditch classes. If they were ever caught or questioned by authorities why they weren't in class during the daytime, they could easily state that they were participating in a split-session and they didn’t have class at that particular time. It was predicted in an article in 1959 that numbers of delinquents would again reach new heights with the growth in population.” According to “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture,” in 1953, statistics indicated that, although Denver had lower juvenile crime rates than other major cities, it is still on an upward march in the Rocky Mountain region.!! Judge Gilliam approximated that clinquency was five to eight percent lower than in other cities of similar size, yet, he‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 6 predicted that by 1960, juvenile delinquency would increase by 100 percent.’ Furthermore, about 1,000 to 1,500 people moved into Denver every month." At that rate of expansion, there would be an undeniable inctease of youth crime. In the years, between 1948 and 1953, there was an 18 percent increase in youth crime (compared to the 30 percent nationwide). By the close of 1952, the total youths convicted of delinquency reached 2,570, These numbers had inereased by 20 percent with approximately 574 more offenders than the previous year.'* The 1950s society was new, progressive, and advanced. Since the close of the ‘Second World War, the United States saw a prosperous period. Denver reaped from those successes as well. Denver society, however, was considered to be a perfect breeding ground for juvenile culprits. According to the Denver Post, many psychologists and journalists accused parents of being too distant and separate from their children’s lives.'® Journalists and psychologists were quick to blame parents for being negligent, for being aleoholies, for getting divorces, for working long hours and for never being home with their kids. Denver journalist, Lawrence G. Weiss of the Denver Post, described the society as a place that gave rise to troubled families which created troubled children.!” Communities still saw poverty, poor neighborhoods, and “human wretchedness” despite society’s upward climb toward greater heights of prosperity.'® Although the article pointed out how these impoverished areas were typically the centers of high juvenile crime, the social mainstream has created even more vices to inspire teenagers to misbehave. According to Weiss, movies and television portrayed too much violence, dishonest acts of behavior in business, television, labor unions, government and elsewhere created criminal youths. Additionally, the invention of new gadgets, luxuries‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 7 and entertainment, unwillingness to spend more on education and social development rather than on social comforts, and through an innumerable amount of peer and social pressures and a new fast-paced “hot rod” lifestyle were all contributing factors of juvenile delinquency.'? Delinquent Boys: Probation officer, Mark Hough of the Denver Juvenile Court, stated that in 1952 the most common crimes committed by young boys were sequentially: burglary, incorrigibility, auto theft and joy riding, running away, truancy, and malicious mischief (including vandalism)” Bike theft was the most popular for young boys since most of them couldn't drive and the most lucrative items for them to steal were bicycles. JoyThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 8 riding, the temporary thievery of a car to ride it for fun was also common. Stolen cars ‘were usually found abandoned just a few blocks ftom where they were stolen. Most kids didn't consider it a crime since they were just enjoying the ride for a short period of time. Yel, many young boys ended up in court for this offense.”" ‘Young boys spoke out to explain why they believed that joyriding and auto theft wasn'ta serious offense, The probation officer discussed one case where a 14 year old boy, Tom, who was caught with a stolen car taking it for a joy-ride, He was described as a very well mannered and cooperative young man. Yet when asked why he stole the car, he responded, “My friend Bob drives his family car, He’s only 14, too, but his dad lets him drive down to the store and around the block. My dad got sore when I asked him to et me drive our car, so I went downtown and picked up a car on the street”? Neither ‘Tom nor his father were punished by the law, but the judge gave Tom's father a strong warning that if his son were to be caught stealing another car, they would both face consequences, This case shows a number of things. First, it shows attitudes that one child had and how he saw his offense as something less than criminal, and also, it portrayed the courts attempts to punish parents and child alike. Tom’s father was the cause to why the young boy decided to steal a car. Although Tom’s father was obeying the law by not allowing his son to drive underage, it shows a parent to child disconnect. Malicious mischief and vandalism were also huge threats to Denver’s ‘communities during the 1950s. According to Mark Hough, many officials believe that ‘vandalism would run its course and they considered it to be just another trend like the “Zoot” suit was. Police officials believe the vandal was created through a lack of interest in extracurricular activities, bored nights after school, and long summer breaks‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 9 allowing kids to roam freely without any responsibilities. This boredom and free time created a diabolical sense inside kids. Most children who were caught for vandalism were usually first-time offenders who were simply bored.”* In the article, Detective Phil ‘Thompson said, “Such destruction is purely unpremeditated and spontaneous, often following news articles, movies or TV programs about other similar crimes.” Not only ‘were youths out of school for vast expanses of time the issue, but the new rise in social media played a major role. The detective blamed the rise in mainstream media as a source for corrupting well-behaved teenagers into acting out on their spontaneity. Schools were very popular destinations for vandals. Two schools were attacked. ‘every three days in 1957.2 The public’ reaction to schools being vandalized, damaged, and burned was troublesome; “The vandalism creates a king-sized headache for the Police Department because in many cases there is no apparent reason for the offence.””? Detective Sergeant Clyde Hendricks said that, “Most of this is caused by kids who have a beef against society... They break in just to tear things up."** The apparent lack of care by Denver's teenagers and their ruthless manners terrified neighborhood communities, police officers, and business owners since kids were destroying without reason. Another act committed by teenagers was truancy. Truancy was commonly seen, among boys and girls who felt that either school was too disinteresting or that their home lives were too unbearable to remain, Running away was a way for teenagers to express their frustration with their lives in a non-violent and non-destructive way. Many of these teens, however, started off'as fine citizens, eventually started evolving into mote serious criminals. It usually began as ditching one class, then whole school days, then eventually stealing, vandalizing or other types of mischief.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 10 In one case discussed by Mark Hough, a young student, Peter, was often found in remedial classes, struggled with his courses, didn’t get along with other students or his teachers, who eventually decided to skip class due to his discouragement.” During his time hiding out from police and adults who might tum him in, he stole a loaf of bread, then a bicycle and the situation went from a small issue to a bad “habit and a pastime.” In another instance, Roger, an intelligent boy was just simply bored of school. He skipped class once, then several times a week, and before long, he began breaking windows and stealing from vacant houses. Mark Hough says, “Truancy begins as an innocent game, but often ends as a court statistic.”*! The case with Roger is most notable because he was a successful student, however, he found class boring, causing him to search for mischief to keep himself entertained. It is of particular interest because there Were no other causes to his crimes except for a lack of interest. This type of child was ‘most feared by policemen, members of neighborhoods, and juvenile court judges and officials. For Denver teens, the streets were becoming their playground, and police, judges, parents, and adults were not taking kindly to this new trend of juvenile delinquency. In August of 1950, a group of marauders carrying knives and homemade guns raided several theatres around the city.°? Theatre employees were threatened, and some even got “slugged.”** Seats were slashed by knives, ticket-takers were pushed aside as teenagers broke through the gates to watch movies, smoked cigarettes all night, and if anyone told them to leave they'd smash the seats. If they were asked to quit smoking, they responded with, “go to hell,” and continued doing what they were.™ Before theatre attendees knew it, their venues were packed with 40 teenagers. According to the article, it “may be a‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 11 return of vicious kid gang warfare to the strect.””* This type of event occurred several times in different venues by groups of hoodlums. Many of the youths faced jail time and fines.°° Ina publication by the Rocky Mountain News, kids were described to have taken over the streets at night, One theatre owner pleaded to have policemen patrol the streets, around the venue at night. The week earlier a solder was beaten by four juveniles on the street, and a few weeks before, five kids attacked another already had a broken arm and beat him severely. Virgil Campbell, manager of Isis Theatre, stated, “If the city administration doesn’t do something about it, Curtis street won't be safe for a police officer.”*” There was a clear and strong negative sentiment towards this uprising of teenage delinquency. Adults were afraid for their lives and businesses. In 1951, a group of 12 “teeners” were caught violating liquor, narcotic and moral laws, Unfortunately for this young gang, they were ratted out by two of their members who admitted that they had stolen $5000 worth of narcotics from a drug store."* The rest of the group was rounded up and police forces eventually found out that these kids, seven boys and five girls, were the source of twelve other burglaries. One mother described one of the girls as being the most popular girls in school. Another stated that most of the kids came from good homes. Each of these kids, however, was a recent drop out from their respective local high schools.” Yet, it was worrisome because these recent drop ‘outs were good students, showing how public education was a boring element in the lives of youths that they were acting in illegal ways for entertainment. In many newspaper articles, journalists were quick to blame these kids as being, the worst thing Denver had seen. In 1953, the crime created by juveniles had reached‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 12 new heights which considerably threatened and worried society. This fear was evident through writing in newspapers. Headlines read, “Teen-age Stabbing Menace Grows,” “Crime Raids Jail 12 Teeners,” “Seven Youths Held after Wild Gunfire,” and “Tender Age Toughs: Young Culprits Laugh at Law, Play ‘Big Shots” all express the anger, negativism and growing fear that was directed towards the corrupt youth. This rise in crime remained worrisome in the minds of adults and average citizens of Denver because their own youths were hanming their society. “The press sought to find reasons why teenagers were acting in such unlawful ways. In attempts to analyze and answer questions as to why there existed arise in juvenile delinquency, Lawrence Weiss, journalist for the Denver Post, concluded that there were three major groups that teenage delinquents fall into. The first subset was those who got into trouble on accident or through peer pressure.” These children were not criminals, but rather were just products of their friends” pressures or just misbehaved through boredom. Weiss describes them as being young and reckless and that “Some of them metely suffer from an excess of the Huckleberry Finn spirit that seems to lie in the heart of every boy.”*" “The second category of children is those that are ones with psychological and emotional issues, the most dangerous of all delinquents. These are the children who were the sadists and ruthless murderers that hurt and destroy just because they wanted to, These “character disorders” were rooted from, according to Weiss, years of childhood without parental guidance to teach them wrong from right and who lacked developing stable conscience. Usually orphaned or abandoned, these children were raised by institutions.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 13 ‘The third subset is the children who committed crimes to express their inner frustrations and unhappiness. The article described these teenagers as “troubled children,” or children who came from rough home and family lives, Most of these kids were truants and were typically bored with school and found their home situations intolerable. One boy said: ‘When I go to school I always go straight home in the aftemoon....But I can’t stay home. After an hour or so, I feel I have to leave and I Lake off for the rest of the night. I’m not interested in television. 1 don’t like sports. I go out and meet some other fellows and we mess around for a while. Sometimes we go to a girl’s house. Sometimes we get some beer. Sometimes we steal some cars and ride around all night. There’s nothing else to do, and the car at least gives us some kicks.” This was frightening because he had no motivation for behaving the way he did. ‘Weiss searched for explanation why this type of juvenile would act this way. He concluded that delinquent acts were usually caused by troubled children, or those who came from difficult home lives. Lastly, troubled families were products of a troubled society, This last element is important because it shows a separation of the attitudes that adults had of themselves. Journalists, policemen, court administrators, and psychologists placed blame upon parents for Denver’s misbehaved teenagers and for created unsatisfactory home living situations, The article described these children as the most important because all they really needed was some guidance, attention, and care, Weiss said that if one were to trace the stories of all these types of juvenile delinquents, their evil usually lies with issues from the home, whether it’s separated parents, drunkard fathers, or adulterer wives, these lifestyles tested the immorality and stability of children, In Denver, gangs posed a threat to society. In the bold heading of an article published in the Denver Post, teenage delinquents were instilling fear in Denverites andThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 14 youth crime was becoming a large concem. The heading read: “The day of organized juvenile and teenage gangs has largely disappeared in Denver....But juvenile delinquency still is on an upward trend’* Captain Leonard Nevin, the Denver Chief of Police and head of the Juvenile Bureau, declared that most juvenile organizations had been broken up, however some still remained. He stated “but are small and don’t cling to any special name, meeting places or roster of members,” showing that Denver's efforts in curbing youngsters appetites for destruction have been successful. * Many of the gangs that existed took a presence in early post-war years. They consisted of the “Heads,” the “Baby Heads,” “Dukes,” “Sisters,” the “Hoods,” the “Big Brothers,” and the “Blondies. One group in particular, the “East Colfax Saints,” wore “crew cut hair with long duck sides, expensive shirts with a crucifix hung outside, drape pants and suede shoes." Many exclusive gang members received boastful tattoos representing their membership. A cross between the thumb and forefinger was one seenThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 15 representing a Denver teenage gang." This new style presented new attitudes that seemed threatening to the traditional clothes worn by the average citizen. Such clothing, was provocative, offensive, and generally not tolerated. For the teens, it represented their membership and their connection to the other kids in their group, For outsiders, it was intimidating and unacceptable. In one event, the police efforts to suppress gang activity were successful. Fourteen members of a rival gang were captured on their way to meet the Demons at ‘Sunken Gardens. The journalist wrote, “The seriousness with which they took their rumble was apparent in their preparations. The gang caught on the way was armed with zip guns, chains, iron clubs, baseball bats, and wooden clubs.”"* All fourteen teens were taken to jail where they spent the weekend, In the report, the kids were decent children; they spent their aftemoons playing on a basketball team, showing that they were athletic and could work together in 2 positive way. In recent weeks, however, they slipped into gang activity to counterattack their rivals. ‘The groups began fighting, threatening each other, and then they eventually planned out a clash that was intercepted by police. This instance in particular shows the worrisome reappearance of gangs in Denver. The subheading reads, “Denver police claimed Saturday to have headed off the first full scale gang battle tried in Denver since 1945.” Rivalries among gangs were one of the biggest threats to the community; it occurred more often than not that Denver’s gangs’ worst offenses were fights against themselves. In 1950, Judge Gilliam ended up personally enrolling himself in one of Denver's leading gangs, the Heads. He used them as a display to other gangs that doing ‘g00d was a productive and acceptable thing to do. During a four week reform, Judge‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 16 Gilliam used willing members of the Heads to “go straight,” and show other gang members that going straight would benefit them in the long run. Gilliam told them that as long as they agreed to stay on his side of the law, he would help them all he could. Rival ‘gangs were sore as the Heads received all the public attention since Judge Gilliam’s “enrollment” into the Heads was widely published in local newspapers. This hurt Gilliam’s reform efforts because as soon as members of the Heads were released from Juvenile Hall, other gangs wouid taunt them and cali them names like, “Sissy” and “Junior Policemen.” Gilliam feared that by joining the gang, he would be fueling more gang rivalry tension, However, he told leaders of the Heads that “the only thing for them to do is soft-pedal for a while."*' Gilliam stated: Tadvised them not to hold meetings, where they could get excited over the names some of them have been called, and maybe decide to go out in a body and teach the other gang a lesson. [ asked them to talk quietly to leaders of the other gangs, and explain what they were trying to do ~ tell them how we were helping them get jobs, advising them when they needed it, working right long with them ~ all just as long as they were on our side of the law.” In March 1953, the Auraria Community Center hosted a dance for fun. Gang, tensions, however, caused the festivities to erupt into a short-lived riot. It was a West Side dance, but an East Side gang was found waiting outside. The people who were hosting the event caught kids sipping out of a gallon jug of wine, and they immediately shut down the event. However, once dance attendees got out onto the streets, rival gangs began taunting each other and eventuelly fists and weapons began flying. Knives, hammers, home-made guns, and other weapons were used in this forty-person brawl. One child got stabbed in the stomach. Even young women were active in the skirmish; they were described as being “as enthusiastic in the battle as their boyfriends." The police arrived quickly and all participants were taken to the Juvenile Hall. Many‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 17 teenagers were forced to share beds or sleep in a gymnasium since there was little room and there were so many youths. This was one instance of gang fighting, but was probably one of the last until the end of the decade when gangs began to take presence once again. By the close of the 1950s, gangs reemerged in Denver and gained popularity in newspapers for muggings and purse snatching. These gangs, however, usually consisted of about eight members and were unnamed entities. These small gangs would regularly pick out a vulnerable and solitary vietim, park a car a few blocks from where they were, and then the victim was stalked until the perfect moment arose. Teenage gang members would push these hopeless victims into a dark alley, behind a building, or some hidden place in a park. Once hidden ftom the public eye, they would either grab the purse from their victim’s hands, or pull out “bottles, clubs, pipes, or any other handy weapon,” to assault them with. Afterwards, they would run back to their car and make a getaway.™* Citizens were wamed by police to stay away from dimly lit places and to remain where there was regular traffic of people and lots of open lighting to avoid being a wary, valnerable target. The four boys who set fire to Dickinson Branch Library and Lake Junior High School on the night of May 7, 1953 became a popular topic amongst adults in Denver. It was publicized repeatedly because the acts by these teenagers represented more than just atypical criminal act. These teens targeted public property, and special property at that: library and a middle school. The typical stints of vandalism and aggression observed across Denver at this time were relatively minor. Yet, in this case, it was a major issue since it targeted places of learning. However, that wasn’t the worst part; the worst had‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 18 yet to come until a week after the incident when the four culprits had been captured by police. The four teenage boys who had set the two buildings on fire had admitted they had done it only to have a good time. The boys were quoted for saying they were just, “looking for a thrill”*® Denver feared teenagers acting out just for the excitement; since there was no motivation behind the misdeed, journalists and parents expressed their worties through criticism. The title of one article, “3 ‘Teeners on Thrill Orgy Admit School, Library Fire,” uses powerful words to express the outrage and horror that portrays the behaviors of these young men. The use of the words, “Thrill Orgy,” was chosen to compare their acts to a sexual encounter and to show that the sole purpose of the attacks were for excitement. ‘The article combined two fears: sex and delinquency for no reason. The subtext uses bold words like “punks” to portray how their actions were understood and not tolerated by adult society. The boys stated that, “We just kept daring each other to burglarize the school ~ and finally we decided to do it“® Unlike other cases, most of the children caught enacting criminal delinquency had usually come from good homes or had no previous criminal record. Each of these boys, however, wasn’t completely innocent. One boy was arrested for burglary the summer before, another had shoplifted three years prior, and the third was jailed for stealing a bicycle four years prior." A fourth boy was caught a few days later.** Throughout Denver, there were other murmurs of a group of three young teens terrorizing elderly women and breaking into homes and private shops ‘These four were never charged or proven of having done those other delinquencies. The District Attorney Bert Keating, however, furiously stated that, “I'll fight any plea for probation,” meaning he was at his last bit of toleration for this gang of kids.” He showedThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 19 his rage and concern for the rising juvenile crime issue that plagued Denver by stating that he would show no more mercy for thrill-seeking delinquents. A few short days after the two arson and looting attacks, the Denver Post estimated that it would cost $20,000 to repair the losses inflicted by the vandals.” The heaviest damage imposed was upon the school where the fire destroyed valuable records, office equipment and charred the main office. ‘These estimates, however, were proven incorrect and were much higher than actual damage costs. This number may have been an accurate hypothesis, but it proves that the estimates were probably published higher than expected to show to the teenage criminals thet their acts have cost the state thousands of dollars, They hoped to express to these children that their conduct was offensive and that they would feel guilty and remorseful for their misbehavior. In 1958, Bob Ohman, writer for the Rocky Mountain News, reported that taxpayers have been given a bill worth $114,907 to pay for the damages inflicted upon schools since 1953.%! In 1953, the year of the Lake Junior High School and Dickinson Library arsons, the amount of money needed to recover from the damage at the school alone reached $11,000." ‘The same school was again attacked in 1958, resulting in another $3,000 that taxpayers would pay to repair smashed musical instruments, damaged typewriters and furniture, destroyed records, and wasted food that was thrown around the cafeteria. ‘Targeting the four youngsters who vandalized the school and library, an angry article entitled, “Vandals, Read and Heed!” published on May 8, 1953, contains an accurate view of the opinion of one journalist in Denver.“ Furthermore, it demonstrates the frustration and anxiety over childhood culprits. Although this was one journalist’s‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 20 strong opinion, it reflected the adult majority’s thoughts about the acts teenagers were doing around the city. ‘The journalist began addressing the teenagers and then goes on to bitterly criticize their rude behavior. They began stating, “AN OPEN letter to Denver's teenage hoodlums: You have again spread your own particular brand of poison with Vicious, senseless attacks against your own community."* ‘There is a clear anger and hatred towards teenagers who were presumably destroying Denver. Obviously there was strong sentiment against these children because they lacked pride in their community and ‘were running rampant on the streets. The author continued to express his anger by clarifying that, “{TJhe poison you've spewed out has spread through the city — to harden into a hatred against you and your kind." There was further regret that these kids were damaging the place that they live in. ‘There was an absence of respect and acceptance for their own community and the place that they reside, Their community was turning against them and was growing less understanding of them, which created such a strong dislike and intolerable attitude by their community, ‘This mirrors the idea of losing the tight-knit community that 1950s society had created. Conformity, respect, and a considerable emphasis on the family and core values were all representative themes imposed upon communities nationwide. Kids vandalizing their own neighborhoods showed a lack of this morality, in that everyone should participate kindly and unify. However, it was even more petrifying seeing one’s own ‘members hurting their own social structure. ‘The journalist continued to pick on the teenage “punks” and how they would all pay and suffer as the Juvenile Bureau would “thrash out [their] fate. ”*T acknowledging ‘how the delinquents ended up burning several hundreds of books at the library the‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 21 previous night, the journalist stated, “And there are several hundred books ~ maybe if you read one once it would help you — that are nothing but ashes today.”** Clearly his ruthless finger-pointing and accusations are most likely built off of previous events creating a negative disdain towards the delinquents. ‘The writer finished off his powerful rant by scaring the young criminals, “You know people are funny. They don’t do anything for a Jong time — until they get really worked up. And, just a tip, the people of Denver are plenty worked up.” Surprisingly, a group of teenagers sent in written responses to this critical article. The word choice, the passion, the anger, and the voice that the teenage author used was much more intelligent, much less harsh, and much more polite. Without using immature ranting, they effectively used an adult passive voice to portray the teenage situation. The adult journalist had stooped almost as low as the teenagers who set the fires in his word choice. The teenage response, however, was much more educated, calm, and responded to the situation with 2 clear head and respect for the elders to whom they were addressing, Even the adult joumalist noted the way that the children wrote. He states, “Personally, we cannot believe that any kid who writes as well as these do possibly could have been involved in the hideous crimes of recent days.”” ‘The assumption that these kids couldn’t have possibly committed heinous attacks against their community shows how delinquents were looked upon. The joumalist implied that delinquents were ignorant and uneducated, however, these teenagers show that it doesn’t take a fool to misbehave. The high school students begin off addressing the journalists of the newspaper as “Sirs,” using polite vocabulary, but also responded without using demeaning inclusive language like the journalist used. One writes, “Whet’s wrong with kids today? [W]e‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 22 guess there aren’t many who can tell you, but we can. The reason we can, is that we are hoodlums, punks, kids.””! This teenager was wise in addressing the terms used to describe teenagers because he was able to utilize the journalist's word choice as ammunition against him, The teen continued, “What we think is wrong with kids, all that makes them act ‘crazy’ is they’re just young. ‘The trouble is — grownups seem to consider being young a crime....If youth was a disease, medicine could cure it. »? The teenagers demonstrate their resent for the journalist's accusations and presumptions that all teenagers were misbehaved. They addressed the situation by proving to them that being ‘young wasn't as bad as the journalist believed them to be. The youth stated: When you're young, just being alive is so wonderful and so awful, both at the same time, that sometimes you feel you can’t stand it. Suddenly you've got a lot of new emotions you don’t understand, all churning around in your head and your heart like steam looking for an escape valve. You've got to let off the steam somehow, of burst....right there you have it: rouble. We aren't men and women yet, just kids. So our emotions get loose through hot rods and shows and staying, ‘out late and running around the streets. We're young, and youth loves speed.” Here one can see how a group of teenagers felt in response to this restrictive, ‘adult-run world that they feel so pent up in. In these students’ conclusions, they discussed possible ways to correct teenage angst in Denver. They come up with a proposal of ideas for how to eliminate teens from running uncontrolled on the streets and causing a ruckus.” This shows a very articulate and adult-like view, and yet, it has come from @ teenager. The author of the original journal didn’t come up with any solution, but instead just blamed them and pointed a hateful finger. However, the students were able to come up with their own solutions brightly. One youth suggested the creation of centers, halls, ‘more bowling alleys, or pool halls. He also recommended teen-only programs or clubs that would occur a few nights a week that “Being a student at any one of the public highThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 23 schools automatically making you a member.””’ He continued justifying their feelings in a way that was unambiguous and understandable by stating, “There still are, and always will be, the hot rods and the problems of speed and recklessness that go with hot rods, and vandalism, But if we make a try we could probably make a program, like have a timing strip or something of that sort.””° On May 8, 1953, the day following the enraged article about teenage hoodlums running rampant in Denver, Leo Zuckerman, another Rocky Mouniain News writer published an update on the teenage crime situation. It was evident through this article that the previous touched the hearts and minds of parents, policemen, and other teenagers in Denver. Although the original article appeared to be over the top and ridiculously crude, the latest publication was proof that it was an accurate mirror of some adults” opinions. The author of this new article discussed how the “outraged people of Denver....[S]napped from their lethargy by the latest two acts of violence by teenagers[,]...the citizenry moved like the vigilantes of old.””” The adults of Denver rallied together to create what seemed like a battle plan to evade and put an end to “juvenile hoodlumism.””* The article stated, “A News open letter to the teenage ‘hoodlums was termed by the callers as a battle call ~‘and we're behind you. Let’s show these punks we're not asleep!”””” The writer discussed how the police held an “emergency meeting” where they “mapped [a] battle strategy.” The police force and average citizens of Denver believed the teenage crime issue to be almost like whan warfare. In this urgent assembly, Safety Manager Ed Geer, Police Chief Herbert Forsyth, Deputy Chief Grant Girard, and Captain Leonard Nevin, the Juvenile Bureau head addressed how the curfew law would, “be enforced to the hilt.” The curfew was put intoThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 24 operation on Fridays and Saturdays at exactly 11:30pm and on all other nights at 10:30pm and that, “all persons under the age of 16 will be off the streets — or else." In this revision of police implementation to push the curfew law, Leonard Nevin from the Juvenile Bureau stated, “there will be no mollycoddling of the youngsters [and] no turning them over to their parents for scoldings.” “[T]hey will face court charges.” Parents of teenagers caught out after the curfew, or caught doing worse would suffer repercussions as well. In police efforts to gain community support for curfew enaviment, citizens were urged to call police units if they spotted teenagers who were up to no good or were out past the curfew. In addressing it as the “worst problem” in Denver, Juvenile Judge Phillip Gilliam, who would go on to create youth criminality prevention programs and who would head the campaign against criminal teenagers with full force, stated, “By a long shot. It is a worse threat to our community...and our nation...than Communism.” The teenage threat compared to communism addressed the amount of fear and worry that both issues possessed. In 1953, Mark Hough stated, “It is a serious problem — yes ~ but it is not out of control." Adults were probably overreacting to the situation, but teenage crimes had escalated to a point where well-behaved teenagers were being suppressed for the acts by a small minority of kids. One woman said, “I'll keep an eye out on the kids in my neighborhood. If the rest of the people do the same we can have everyone of those punks behind bars in a short time.”** The community was now joining together with police officers to end teenage maliciousness. The woman showed how the threat of child criminals has caused her to become paranoid and upset, having chosen to call them “punks,” and her willingness and diligence to ensure that they all get put into jail.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 25 Upset teenagers called in to the newspaper in response to the growing negative attitude towards other kids their age. They responded to adult cries for punishment and assistance with teenage delinquency as willing to help stop other teens from further corrupting society. They said, “We're getting it in the neck because of the acts of hoodlums...,just like your letter said, We can’t even go to midnight shows any more...people think that all teenagers are hoodlums. You can count on ws for any kind of help you need. ..{ W]hy should we all suffer because of a very few?”"* Not only were adults upset by juvenile delinquency, but other children were feeling oppressed and accused for the mischief caused by others. On the following day, the Rocky Mountain News published another article touching the sensitive issue about the fires set to Lake Junior High School and the Dickinson Branch Library. This publication ignited a chain reaction of vehemence in the Denver community. Teenage delinquency was certainly on the minds of Denver citizens, however, after the arson set upon two public educational facilities, the community became furious, irritated and resentful. Despite the public’s heed to bring teenagers to detention for their dishonest behavior, crime still continued. The new “no mollycoddling” effort, meaning police would not allow any pampering or overprotecting of misbehaving teenagers or teens caught out past curfew, still had little effect on youths. Two nights after the fires, other teenagers seemed to be ‘unmoved by the protests of journalists and other members of society. According to the Rocky Mountain News, “oodlums, apparently still uncowed by the wave of anger directed against them, continued their senseless spree, causing several hundred dollars worth of damage.”*” Windows at the Christ Methodist Church were smashed by rocks,‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 26 windows were destroyed at several bars and markets around Denver, and at 1357 Clarkson St,, an apartment building under construction had its windows broken. A can of paint was stolen and was splashed over several cars in the area."* Other “punks” described to have been drunk, threatened a man to get out his car, the reckless youths broke the car’s windows, and beat the trunk door with a hammer before they took off. ‘The policing efforts during this time were raised considerably, the public was aware of the predicament, and with a closer eye on teens, the rates of criminal activity would naturally go up. Because of an escalation in youth monitoring and a stricter enforcement of the curfew, high rates of teenagers entering Juvenile Hall created an overflow of local jails and prisons. In 1956, the curfew was depicted as a successful clement to curbing juvenile delinquency.” Charles Roach wrote, “Denver authorities have clipped the wings of adolescent night owls by tightening enforcement of the existing curfew law.”"! Many people believed that they could end juvenile delinquency. There were hopes that children could either be stopped or corrected of their hideous behavior. Juvenile Judge Gilliam, one who saw hope in young boys, remarked that the curfew crackdown has been “a tremendous success.” Others quoted in the article said that the curfew enforcement has been vital in eliminating juvenile delinquency and incidents of vandalism and burglary have severely decreased. ‘The parental response was very excited about the strengthening of police efforts in enacting the curfew. Juvenile Lt. Phil Gartland, who was in charge of the Juvenile Bureau's night detail, stated, “Most parents are very happy to have our curfew....When we inform them they are Tiable to a ‘maximum fine of $300 and 90 days in jail, we are assured the youngster will be home after curfew.” There is encouragement for parents to aid police in juvenile delinquency.The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 27 ‘If parents were threatened with the consequences of what their children due, they were more likely to participate in police efforts in support of the curfew. In response to the events over the past few days in Denver, Juvenile Judge Philip B. Gilliam announced that parents of juvenile offenders would be subject to fines and jail :me or placed on probation alongside their children. From the beginning of 1953 to June of the same year, the amount of money lost because of damage reached $200,000." Judge Gilliam’s new proposal would force parents to keep their children at home at night, ensure that they attend school, and see that they perform the “strictest supervision” of their child. If parents were found guilty of a “general course of neglect,” they would suffer jail sentences or fines as consequences.”* Instead placing the blame directly on the delinquents, the parents were held responsible. Gilliam attacked other adults for avoiding their responsibilities as parents, Gilliam said, “It is a parent’s obligation to take care of his youngster....Delinquency isn’t juvenile.*” By stating that delinquency wasn’t just a childhood crime, but rather it was rooted with the parents. This meant several things, First, teenagers may have misbehaved because they had uncaring parents or difficult home lives. Also, it was a parent’s responsibility to raise and keep an eye on their children. The parent is seen as an authority figure in the home; if children were allowed to run freely, their youthful spirit would cause them to commit crimes, Yet, if parents participated in the lives of their children, delinquency would have been avoidable. By 1956, Judge Gilliam had created a new program for criminal teens called the Friday Nighters.”® This was a club whosc members consisted of kids on probation from the juvenile court of the City and County of Denver. Not all boys, however, were allowed to attend; probation officers recommended them for a number of reasons,‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 28 whether they were noted for “remarkable improvement in school, for diligence in improving personal appearance or for some thoughtful or unselfish act.””” ‘This program ‘was used as a piece of propaganda directed to ease the minds of the adults in Denver, but also to send a message to Denver’s corrupt youth, The members of the Friday Nighters were given the opportunity to have fun, create friendships, and gain inspiration from the suceesses of each individual. Every member was forced to pledge to be a good citizen, to find an interest in wholesome sports, to follow rules of good sportsmanship, and to encourage the group and the club for the good of everyone involved. According to Judge Gilliam, “In a gang the orientation may be toward crime and a member is ‘chicken’ if he doesn’t break the law. In the Friday Nighters it’s ‘chicken’ if you do. It’s “chicken in reverse.””” Each boy appointed to the Friday Nighters received a personal award with his name on it in bold letters, an official gold seal complete with red balloons, and the signature of Judge Gilliam to give the youths a sense of pride for their commendable behavior. On one occasion, Judge Gilliam invited thirty boys to accompany him as guests to Lookout Mountain for an aftemoon of fun, soda pops, hotdogs, and mountainous atmosphere. Most of the boys that were eager to accompany were members of the Heads, ofa popular gang in Denver. According to Gilliam, many of the kids wanting to come along had grown up right in Denver but had never been to the mountains which were just a few miles away. Gilliam also said that many of them asked to bring a friend or alittle brother. Gilliam planned for about 60 children to come along, but when over 100 kids showed up, all expecting to participate, Gilliam ordered more trucks to bring more food and drinks. “While we were waiting,” said Gilliam, “one of the officers overheard a‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 29 couple of boys near the bike rack, “You got a lock for your bike?’ asked one. ‘Don't need ‘one,’ the other said. ‘Anybody that might swipe it is going on this picnic." ‘Tudge Gilliam assessed this event as a success overall as kids were singing goodhearted songs on the way home, Gilliam would later state, “[W]Jhile the shortest way to a man’s heart is through his stomach, the quickest route to a boy's heart is companionship.”"? The last thing Gilliam wanted was to send kids to institutions. Furthermore, he was invested in giving the Friday Nighters things they were interested in, whether it was going to the movies, sporting events, or bowling." According to the press, the boys responded well to all of the events held. In efforts to prevent more juvenile delinquency, in 1957, United States Attomey Donald E. Kelley studied Denver juvenile court cases and created a new plan for dealing with young criminals. Prior to 1957, children who were caught by police were immediately labeled as criminals. They had their photographs taken, fingerprints inked ‘and their misdeeds were recorded permanently. fier studying the backgrounds of most of the juvenile delinquents, however, Kelley discovered that often times, they were first time offenders. Kelley believed that prosecutors shouldn’t let one mistake affect the rest of these childs’ lives. Instead of having the kids do jail time, he made them sit in on court trials of other youngsters who had committed similar crimes and who, like them, would have normally received jail time. After observing several trials, the delinquents would be forced to write an essay on what they had leamed and examined. Afterwards, “there had been no fingerprints, no records, no photographs. Only a fresh start.” ‘According to the report, not one of these children had been in trouble again after a year and a half of the plan’s creation."* This was very important because it was proof to the‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 30 juvenile correction facilitators that their methods were working. Since the children hadn’t reappeared in police records or court documents, judges and probation officers could only believe that they were successful Delinquent Girl ‘Young women in trouble were a much more controversial issue compared to that of boys. Although young girls weren’t commonly mentioned in newspapers since journalists primarily focus on the young, white, male population, the typical types of “trouble” that young women would get into was shoplifting from malls and shops, and running away. A common term used by girls during this period was “dropped.” This term referred to someone who was beat up or attacked. In many cases, the girls were more ruthless, relentless, and vicious than boys. Frances McDonald, a Denver probation officer stated, “When boys get to fighting they quit when somebody gets the worst of it Not the girls, though. They fight like animals. They're fearless.”""* In court cases seen in the Juvenile Court in 1957, one of every four was a girl! Theses cases ranged from auto theft to intoxication to carrying concealed weapons to fighting. In 1956, the Juvenile Court saw 408 individual cases, which was its record number of girls. In 1957, however, there were only 386 young women brought in.'”’ Although this was only a fourth of total juvenile crimes, the boys reached 1,759 separate cases. The most “dangerous” age described in these reports was 14 since105 different girls of the 386 contested were 14-years-old.!8 In a report conducted in February 1958, the most cases seen amongst young ‘women in the year previous were for (in order) chronic truancy, sex offenses, drinking, curfew violations, burglary, larceny, joyriding, malicious mischief, auto theft, fighting,‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 31 and carrying concealed weapons.’ However, according to Mark Hough, sex and cortigibility were the most serious because these things led to more serious issues. tio According to Mary Rose, the chief probation officer at the juvenile court, stated, “Once a irl goes beyond the control of her parents, teachers and probation officer, she is a serious liability to the community and to herself.”"”" This was particularly frightening because young and independent women were experimenting with new freedoms that women in the past were never privileged to experience. Women were to remain in their own gender sphere. They were subject to be obedient to their husbands and further suppressed by social standards. However, a young girl hurting not only those in her life, but herself petrified adult minds in Denver with their recklessness and carefree attitudes. Lastly, criminal girls were acting almost boyish, which further challenged 1950s social parameters. Sex offense was considered as “one of the most feared crimes in America.” Sex offenses by teenagers were most commonly the act of sexual interaction. The article quotes that, “Many of the sex offenses of children are no more than an experiment and a result of their unfed curiosity.”"!? The rate of sexual offenses was much higher amongst girls than boys because of two reasons. First, the female's parents were considered liable for her actions, more so than a boy’s parents would be when considering a sex case Sexual desires were typical of boys but were unacceptable for young girls. Second, most girls were caught having sex with boys older than them. Usually, the boys young women were having sex with were out of the age range of being considered “juvenile” so they were tried in adult courts.'"*The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 32 “The most common observation amongst teenage girls was that those who acted in sexual ways were usually ignored in their schools and had little companionship and care from their parents. When they finally receive attention (usually from interested older boys), they feel almost immediately flattered and important, thus resulting in the expression of their sexual feelings." Many girls were sent to institutions to rid them of their sexual desires.!"° In December of 1950, the Denver Post published a special articie covering girl gangs in Denver. The article analyzed the lives led by “ungirlish” young women who were caught having sex, fighting, and cursing. The journalist, Charles Little, stated, “They flaunt authority and fight among themselves for the sake of ‘excitement.”""" Girls, like young boys, that act out aggressively were continuously frowned upon by journalists for acting upon their wishes to find a thrill. It may be acceptable for a young boy to get out his Huck Finn spirit, but for a git] to behave similarly was a reflection of bad parenting, boredom, and unsatisfactory home lives. Emily, who was described as an attractive young girl has quite the talent: “she can punch like a pugilist.”""* Growing up with brothers, she learned to fight, and by the time she reached her teenage years, she, “had developed into a veteran street brawler, the terror of her section of east Denver.”"”” This type of behavior was a growing concem as more and more girls were appearing in court trials and records. Girls in gangs wore clothes that were not typical of women of their time. Nor were their clothing choices appropriate for casual wear. They commonly wore jeans and loafers but those were clothes not to be worn in public for casual meetings. Also, young women frequently carried “snapblade” knives for protection.""” According to the article,The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 33 these, “young amazons were seizing more masculine prerogatives than just levis and white shirts.”"?! One gang called the “Sisters,” whose name derives from an all-boy gang in Denver called the “Brothers,” was a ruthless group of twenty girls who were relentless fighters. In one case they beat a girl using their “[fJists, fingernails, knees and finally a knife. The knife left permanent scars.”!7 ‘When any teenage girl was caught committing heinous crimes, authorities immediately assumed they were a part of the Sisters. One 14-year-old girl, who used. offensive language, ran away from home, and “fixed” a 37-year-old police officer for trying to date her. On the streets she was known as “Miss KGPX,” which were the old call letters of a local radio station. Once she was caught as an accused delinquent, she continued to use abrasive language and “raised a rumpus” at the Juvenile Hall.'”* Officer Howell, the officer who caught her for trying to run away, was threatened by her. “I fixed Mosier,” referring to the officer she got suspended for trying to date her. “And I’m going to fix you too.”"™ Officer Howell was asked if she was a member of the Sisters because of her intolerable behavior. He said he wasn’t sure if she belonged to any gang, but he stated, “She acted as hard as any Sister.”"° It was very popular for young girls to be found in gangs, whether they were strictly all-female gangs or co-ed groups. In boy-and-girl gangs, girls were required to carry weapons with them, whereas the boys travel weaponless. Each girl was paired up to another boy; however, these couplings were not permanent and could often change. Girls that delve in these bands usually do so for sexual and attention-seeking reasons. Gang, ‘members were thought to thrive off of danger and as long as the danger that they encounter contradicted social and moral nonmns, they would continue to do it. According‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 34 to the Denver Post, “girl members engage in sexual promiscuity and sometimes deviation, but only as ‘a demonstration that they are not affaid.’”"° Psychiatrists described these behaviors as a pleasure and pain reaction. Girls feel suppressed with their lives, beaten down by their parents, or neglected by father figures, making them feel the need to seek pleasure through illegal means. However, the small inklings of pleasure that they did find through their adrenaline rushes and their bonding in gangs, it was usually doing more harm than good and only created more pain in their lives. According to Juvenile Hall officials, “It is destructive...” for girls to be in such violent company.” ‘The adults during this era were very keen on explaining the reasons for social disrespect and unlawfulness. According to psychiatrist Dr. James Galvin, girls act out in Jaw-breaking social defiance because of a lack of a fatherly presence in the home. bad Most of the girls caught by police for criminal behavior were examined closely and psychiatrists discovered that most of them lived with single mothers who were poverty stricken and beaten physically and emotionally by unfaithful husbands, creating bitter mothers who have @ difficult time child rearing, When Dr. Galvin interviewed a few females who were convicted and sent to receive psychotherapy, he noted, “[T]hese girls could tell me almost nothing about their fathers, even secondhand, In fact, they avoided any mention of their fathers." According to “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem,” the reasons were similar. Gangster girls were usually victims of aberrant parents, meager family lives and poor living, conditions. Most girl gangsters started as truants and runaways and then got involved in gang activity since they were usually lonely and seeking some sort of companionship and understanding. The gang provided all of this. One girl ran away from her mother for‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 35 weeks and lived in bus depots, under vieduets, and in parks. She would still frequently phone home to let her mother know of her whereabouts, In a telephone conversation, she said “I'm having a swell time. ..We beat the hell out of a couple of girls last night. Tell the cops they’re dumb flatfoots."""*" In git] gangs, many felt pressured to join against their wishes, and if a girl wants out, they usually forget it because of fear that they would reap retaliation from the group. “There was as much, if not more, intimidation in girl gangs as in boy gangs. Once captured by police for fighting and asked to give up their membership in one of the gangs, one git! said, “If you want me to get out you better send me to Morrison (state school for girls) because I'll be killed if I pull out.”"""! Girl gangs were solid and secretive, with rituals, signals and signs only understood by members. Moreover, common to boy gangs, girls wear similar clothes and brand tattoos to signify membership. One gang dyed a strip of blonde into their hair using peroxide bleach to show their loyalty. ‘The press would touch on git] gang appearances to express the uncommonness of dyed hair. It also pointed out to newspaper readers who was in a gang. and who wasn’t. Furthermore, tattoos were already taboo in 1950s society, even for boys. For young girls to brand gang tattoos, it was socially appalling. Girls in gang broke social and gender role barriers conducting themselves in male affairs, male clothes, and male trends.The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 36 Here group of gitls huddle around, conecived to be ereating mischief at night on Denver's streets." ‘The public response to criminal girls was through means of tough court threats ‘and then lots of kindness and altematives. It was thought that young women needed personal confidence and new outlets to create friends and express their true talents and interests, rather than use their aggression in illegal gang-related ways. In one court statement, a Juvenile Hall court official stated, “We give them hell. We tell them to play ball or go to jail.”!™* This was a portrayal of the typical ideology and sentiment towards teamwork and friendship that judges tried to encourage. Playing ball meant girls were obedient and working together. If they decided not to fall into line, they were punished harshly. The fact that judges wanted girls to be involved in things like sports was just another one of society's fixes for unruly children. According to psychiatrist, Robert Byers, “Friendship, not threats of punishment, has been found to be the key to reclaimingThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 37 girls. They have been handled roughly all their lives; they bounce rough treatment right back." One social worker said that in response to using a softer approach to get incorrigible girls to participate creatively and mannerly in society, the process was “[J]ust like fishing, We don’t always have luck but it’s fun trying, And there are pleasant surprises.” Conclusion: “The following decade would see not only a new series of juvenile detinquents, but a complete counter-cultural revolution. The 1960s would challenge the social norms and expectations that were prevalent in the 1950s postwar era as delinquency became more of a cultural movement then a nuisance. Juvenile delinquency during the 1950s was a burdensome and worrisome menace that caused adults nationwide to tremble in panic at the rise of an uncontrollable force of teenage hoodlums. The case in Denver was similar, yet, it was unique in that juvenile delinquency really struck home to the hearts and minds of Denverites. Teenage rebellion through ‘means of vandalism, joy-riding, underage drinking, sexual intercourse and a number of other outlets were all part of the juvenile crime picture. ‘The peril of juvenile delinquents destroying public property, breaking windows of local shops, stealing bicycles, and instigating riots at innocent dances were all contested by an uproarious adult community. Denver responded with curfew laws, court reevaluations, and hopeful psychological analyzing, The adult perspective on juvenile delinquency in Denver during the 1950s was one that was critical, but still completely familiar showing that the teenage transgression that plagued Denver was nothing more than a reaction to the growing social scene. There existed a need to be heard desired by depressed and unhappy youngsters as a cause of‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 38 mentality habitually unfriendly and detrimental home life and an “everyone wi portrayed through juvenile delinquent correction programs, weak criminal sentencing, and a never ending apathetic hope that teens can be fixed of their sinister ways.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 39 Works Cited Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959, 2 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959. 3 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” he Denver Past, November 22, 1959. 4 «parents of Vandals Fave Jail, Fines In New Crackdown.” The Denver Post, une 5, 1953. 5 Roach, Charles. “New Denver Delinquency Record Attributed to Rise in Population.” ‘Rocky Mountain News, January 22, 1957. 6 Roach, Charles. “New Denver Delinquency Record Attributed to Rise in Population.” Rocky Mountain News, January 22, 1957. 7 «fuvenile Delinquency Takes 22 Pet Cent Jump In Denver.” The Denver Post, February 25, 1950. juvenile Delinquency Takes 22 Per Cent Jump In Denver.” The Denver Post, February 25, 1950, ° «juvenile Delinquency Takes 22 Per Cent Jump In Denver.” The Denver Post, February 25, 1950. 1 Roach, Charles. “New Denver Delinquency Record Attributed to Rise in Population.” ‘Rocky Mountain News, January 22, 1957. Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. » Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. '8 Hough, Mark. “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953 4 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 15 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 16 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959. 1 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959. 8 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959. 19 Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959. 2 Hough, Mark. “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 21 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953 2 Hough, Mark, “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 3 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. > Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 25 Hough, Mark. “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 26 Ohman, Bob. “School Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958. 27 Ohman, Bob. “Schoo! Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958,The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 40 28 Ohman, Bob. “School Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958. ® Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, Novernber 1, 1953. 2° Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953 * Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. °2 Trainor, Lee. “Teenage Vandals invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August L, * sino, Lee “Teenage Vandals Invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August 1, bc) inn, Lee “Teenage Vandals Invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August 1 6 nee a “Teenage Vandals Invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August 1 * ii a “Teenage Vandals Invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August 1, ” reir ts “Teenage Vandals Invade Theaters.” Rocky Mountain News, August 1, 1951 38 Trainor, Lee and Miller, Bill. “Crime Raids Jail 12 Teeners.” Rocky Mountain News, December 14, 1951 3° Trainor, Lee and Miller, Bill. “Crime Raids Jail 12 Teeners.” Rocky Mountain News, December 14, 1951. ” Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, ‘November 22, 1959. 41 Woiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959, © Weiss, Lawrence G. “Why Denver Kids Get in Trouble.” The Denver Post, November 22, 1959, # “Organized Denver Gangs Few, But Juvenile Crime Increasing.” Rocky Mountain News, February 22, 1953. 4 “Organized Denver Gangs Few, But Juvenile Crime Increasing.” Rocky Mountain ‘News, February 22, 1953. * Hough, Mark. “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 46 Hough, Mark, “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. © Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 48 «police Put Clamps On Tecnage Battle.” Rocky Mountain News, 1957. 48 «police Put Clamps On Teenage Battle.” Rocky Mountain News, 1957. 5 Gaskie, Jack. “Judge Gilliam Lays Down Law To Teenage Gang He Joined.” Rocky Mountain News, March 30, 1950. 51 Gaskie, Jack. “Judge Gilliam Lays Down Law To Teenage Gang He Joined.” Rocky ‘Mountain News, March 30, 1950. 5 Gaskie, Jack. “Judge Gilliam Lays Down Law To Teenage Gang He Joined.” Rocky “Mountain News, March 30, 1950. 5} Bardsley, Bill. “40 Teeners Stage Melee After Drinking at Dance.” Rocky Mountain News, March 29, 1953.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 41 Conley, Spence. “Police Move to Smash Youthful Gangs.” Rocky Mountain News. December 9, 1959. 55 Stolberg, David. “3 Tecners on Thrill Orgy Admit School, Library Fire.” Rocky Mountain News, May 12, 1953. * Stolberg, David. “3 Teeners on Thrill Orgy Admit School, Library Fire.” Rocky Mountain News, May 12, 1953. 5 Stolberg, David. “3 Teeners on Thrill Orgy Admit School, Library Fire.” Rocky Mountain News, May 12, 1953. ‘8 Teeners Vanish From Streets as Damage Abates.” Rocky Mountain News, May 14, 1953. ® Stolberg, David. “3 Teeners on Thrill Orgy Admit School, Library Fire.” Rocky Mountain News, May 12, 1953. © Hudkins, Lonnie. “Vandals Cause $20,000 Loss.” The Denver Post, May 7, 1953. *! Ohman, Bob. “School Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958. ® Ohman, Bob. “School Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958. © Ohman, Bob. “School Vandalism Costs Rising Again.” Rocky Mountain News, May 25, 1958. “ «Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 6 “Wandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. % “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 87 “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. © “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. «Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ® “Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. “Vandals, Read and Heed!" Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. «Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953 75 “Vandals, Read and Heed!" Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 76 «Vandals, Read and Heed!” Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 7” Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 7® Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ” Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ®° Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 8! Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ® Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ® Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953 85 Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. ® Zuckerman, Leo. Rocky Mountain News, May 8, 1953. 87 “senseless Vandalism Continues Despite Crackdown on Juveniles, News, May 10, 1953. Rocky MountainThe Hoodlum Empire of Denver 42 %§ “Senseless Vandalism Continues Despite Crackdown on Juveniles.” Rocky Mountain News, May 10, 1953. § “Senseless Vandalism Continues Despite Crackdown on Juveniles.” Rocky Mountain ‘News, May 10, 1953. ® Roach, Charles. “Curfew Enforcement Produces Results.” Rocky Mountain News, September 30, 1956. °! Roach, Charles. “Curfew Enforcement Produces Results.” Rocky Mountain News, September 30, 1956. ® Roach, Charles. “Curfew Enforcement Produces Results.” Rocky Mountain News, September 30, 1956. * Roach, Charles. “Curfow Enforcement Produces Results.” Rocky Mountain News, September 30, 1956. “Parents of Vandals Face Jail, Fines In New Crackdown.” The Denver Post, June 5, 1953. °5 “Parents of Vandals Face Jail, Fines In New Crackdown.” The Denver Post, June 5, 1953. °° “Parents of Vandals Face Jail, Fines In New Crackdown.” The Denver Post, June 5, 1953. 57 «Parents of Vandals Face Jail, Fines In New Crackdown.” The Denver Post, June 5, 1953. % Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang.” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. * Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang.” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. ‘0 Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang.” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. 101 Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang,” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. 1 Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang.” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. 1 Strubel, D. B. “Judge Gilliam’s Happy Gang.” Empire Magazine, The Denver Post, December 3, 1956. "4 Jones, Bill. “Young First Offenders Get Second Chance tu Go Straight.” Rocky Mountain News, March 24, 1957. ™S Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950 106 1 of 4 Delinquents In °57 Was a Girl.” The Denver Post, February 3, 1958. 107 61 of 4 Delinquents In 57 Was a Girl.” The Denver Post, February 3, 1958. 108 <1 of 4 Delinquents In ’57 Was a Girl.” The Denver Post, February 3, 1958. 19 61 of 4 Delinquents In °57 Was a Girl.” The Denver Past, February 3, 1958. 4° Hough, Mark. “Denver’s Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 1" Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. ' Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 13 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. 14 Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. "'S Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953.‘The Hoodlum Empire of Denver 43 "® Hough, Mark. “Denver's Juvenile Crime Picture.” Roundup, November 1, 1953. " Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. ""* Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civie Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. "'? Tittle, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. * Little, Charles, “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. "Little, Charles, “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. * Little, Charles. “Gitl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. ' Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. 15 Little, Charles, “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. 6 Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. 7 Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. '5 Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. °° Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. ™ Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. 3! Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. > Little, Charles, “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. '® Little, Charles. “Girl Gangs: A Civic Problem.” The Denver Post, December 10, 1950. '* Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, _ October 21, 1955. 5 Byers, Robert, “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955. ° Byers, Robert. “Psychiatrists Report On Denver Teen Gangs.” The Denver Post, October 21, 1955.